CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 AIRCRAFT WING

The aircraft wings are the primary lift producing device for an aircraft. The aircraft wings
are designed aerodynamically to generate lift force which is required in order for an aircraft to
fly. Besides generating the necessary lift force, the aircraft wings are used to carry the fuel
required for the mission by the aircraft, can have mounted engines or can carry extra fuel tanks
or other armaments.

The basic goal of the wing is to generate lift and minimize drag as far as possible. When
the airflow passes the wing at any suitable angle of attack, a pressure differential is created. A
region of lower pressure is created over the top surface of the wing while, a region of higher
pressure is created below the surface of the wing. This difference in pressure creates a
differential force which acts upward which is called lift.

In modern commercial, fighter and jet aircrafts, the aircraft wings are not only designed
to provide the necessary lift during the different phases of flight, but also have a variety of other
roles and functions. In commercial jet aircrafts, the aircrafts wings are used as the primary
storage system for the jet fuel required for the flight. The jet fuel is normally carried in a
structure placed inside the outer surface of the wing called a wing box. The fuel carried inside
the wing box directly delivers fuel to the jet engines.

Modern commercial airplanes like the Boeing 747 and the Airbus A380 amongst many
other aircrafts also have podded engines which are placed on the wing. During the flight, the
aircraft wing has to deal with aerodynamic, gust, wind and turbulence loads. Also, the aircraft
wings have to deal with aero-elastic and structural loads as well. Therefore, the aircraft wings
must be designed structurally and aerodynamically well for providing good overall performance
in all phases of flight.

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1.1.1 Aircraft Wing Configuration

Wings are airfoils that, when moved rapidly through the air, create lift. They are built in
many shapes and sizes. Wing design can vary to provide certain desirable flight characteristics.
Control at various operating speeds, the amount of lift generated, balance, and stability all
change as the shape of the wing is altered.

Both the leading edge and the trailing edge of the wing may be straight or curved, or one
edge may be straight and the other curved. One or both edges may be tapered so that the wing is
narrower at the tip than at the root where it joins the fuselage. The wing tip may be square,
rounded, or even pointed. Figure 1-1 shows a number of typical wing leading and trailing edge
shapes.

Figure 1-1: Various wing design shapes yield different performance

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 The wings of an aircraft can be attached to the fuselage at the top, mid-fuselage, or at the
bottom. They may extend perpendicular to the horizontal plain of the fuselage or can angle up or
down slightly. This angle is known as the wing dihedral. The dihedral angle affects the lateral
stability of the aircraft. Figure 1-2 shows some common wing attach points and dihedral angle.

Figure 1-2: Wing attach points and wing dihedrals

1.1.2 Wing Structure

The wings of an aircraft are designed to lift it into the air. Their particular design for any
given aircraft depends on a number of factors, such as size, weight, use of the aircraft, desired
speed in flight and at landing, and desired rate of climb. The wings of aircraft are designated left
and right, corresponding to the left and right sides of the operator when seated in the cockpit.
[Figure 1-3]

3
 Figure 1-3: Left and right on an aircraft are oriented to the perspective of a pilot sitting in the cockpit

The internal structures of most wings are made up of spars and stringers running span
wise and ribs and formers or bulkheads running chord wise. The spars are the principle structural
members of a wing. They support all distributed loads, as well as concentrated weights such as
the fuselage, landing gear, and engines. It also transfers the stresses to the wing ribs. The ribs, in
turn, transfer the loads to the wing spars. [Figure 1-4]

Figure 1-4: Wing structure nomenclature

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In general, wing construction is based on one of three fundamental designs:

1. Mono spar
2. Multi spar
3. Box beam

Modification of these basic designs may be adopted by various manufacturers.

The mono spar wing incorporates only one main span wise or longitudinal member in its
construction. Ribs or bulkheads supply the necessary contour or shape to the airfoil. Although
the strict mono spar wing is not common, this type of design modified by the addition of false
spars or light shear webs along the trailing edge for support of control surfaces is sometimes
used.
The multi spar wing incorporates more than one main longitudinal member in its
construction. To give the wing contour, ribs or bulkheads are often included.

The box beam type of wing construction uses two main longitudinal members with
connecting bulkheads to furnish additional strength and to give contour to the wing. [Figure 1-5]

Figure 1-5: Box beam construction

5
 A corrugated sheet may be placed between the bulkheads and the smooth outer skin so
that the wing can better carry tension and compression loads. In some cases, heavy longitudinal
stiffeners are substituted for the corrugated sheets. A combination of corrugated sheets on the
upper surface of the wing and stiffeners on the lower surface is sometimes used. Air transport
category aircraft often utilize box beam wing construction.

1.2 WING SPARS

Wing spars are long members which run from the root to the tip of the wing. Typically a
wing has two spars, a front spar and a rear spar. Multi-spar designs are used on larger wings
and on military aircraft. Spars primarily carry the aerodynamic loads developed by the wing.

Figure 1-6: Wing Spars Construction

The wing spars are the main load carrying structural member of the aircraft wing. The
wing spars are used to carry the loads that occur during the flight (flight loads) as well as carry
the weight of the aircraft wing while on the ground (ground loads).

The wing spars run throughout the span of the wing from the root to the tip and can be
placed perpendicularly or at an angle. Commercial aircrafts sometimes have less number of wing
spars than fighter aircrafts, this is due to the fact that, the fighter aircrafts have to deal with much
higher flight loads. The structural and forming members of the aircraft wing known as wing
ribs are also attached to the wing spars. The wing ribs are aerodynamically shaped and thus
provide the aircraft wing with a characteristic airfoil shape. The number of wing spars in a wing
varies with values between one and more. Other load carrying structural members like the
stressed skin construction also helps in carrying the flight loads.

6
 When the aircraft is on the ground, the weight of the gravity pulls the wings downward.
This gravitational load is also carried by the wing spars running through the wing span. If the
majority of the load and forces is carried by a single spar in the aircraft wing, it is called as the
main spar. Main spars are common in smaller lightweight aircrafts, where, the wing spar runs
from the wing root to the wing tip.

A single aircraft wing (or a monoplane wing) basically acts like a cantilever beam. The
wing spars are then used to carry the loads and forces acting on the monoplane wing structure.
Wing box which is another important structural member that is placed inside the aircraft wing is
attached to the wing spars and is used to provide the requisite stiffness and rigidity to the
structure enabling it to carry different loads and forces in flight or in ground.

Aluminum is the most common material from which to construct wings, but they can be
wood covered with fabric, and occasionally a magnesium alloy has been used. Moreover,
modern aircraft are tending toward lighter and stronger materials throughout the airframe and in
wing construction. Wings made entirely of carbon fiber or other composite materials exist, as
well as wings made of a combination of materials for maximum strength to weight performance.

Spars may be made of metal, wood, or composite materials depending on the design
criteria of a specific aircraft. Wooden spars are usually made from spruce. They can be generally
classified into four different types by their cross sectional configuration.

Figure 1-7: Typical wooden wing spar cross-sections

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 As shown in Figure 1-7, they may be (A) solid, (B) box shaped, (C) partly hollow, or (D)
in the form of an I-beam. Lamination of solid wood spars is often used to increase strength.
Laminated wood can also be found in box shaped spars. The spar in Figure 1-7 (E) has had
material removed to reduce weight but retains the strength of a rectangular spar. As can be seen,
most wing spars are basically rectangular in shape with the long dimension of the cross-section
oriented up and down in the wing.

Currently, most manufactured aircraft have wing spars made of solid extruded aluminum
or aluminum extrusions riveted together to form the spar. The increased use of composites and
the combining of materials should make airmen vigilant for wings spars made from a variety of
materials. Figure 1-8 shows examples of metal wing spar cross-sections.

Figure 1-8: Examples of metal wing spar shapes

In an Ibeam spar, the top and bottom of the Ibeam are called the caps and the vertical
section is called the web. The entire spar can be extruded from one piece of metal but often it is
built up from multiple extrusions or formed angles. The web forms the principal depth portion of
the spar and the cap strips (extrusions, formed angles, or milled sections) are attached to it.
Together, these members carry the loads caused by wing bending, with the caps providing a
foundation for attaching the skin. Although the spar shapes in Figure 1-8 are typical, actual wing
spar configurations assume many forms. For example, the web of a spar may be a plate or a truss
as shown in Figure 1-9.

8
 Figure 1-9: A truss wing spar

It could be built up from light weight materials with vertical stiffeners employed for
strength. [Figure 1-10]

Figure 1-10: A plate web wing spar with vertical stiffeners

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 It could also have no stiffeners but might contain flanged holes for reducing weight but
maintaining strength. Some metal and composite wing spars retain the I-beam concept but use a
sine wave web. [Figure 1-11]

Figure 1-11: A sine wave wing spar can be made from aluminum or composite materials

Additionally, fail-safe spar web design exists. Fail-safe means that should one member of
a complex structure fail, some other part of the structure assumes the load of the failed member
and permits continued operation. A spar with failsafe construction is shown in Figure 1-12.

Figure 1-12: A fail-safe spar with a riveted spar web

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 This spar is made in two sections. The top section consists of a cap riveted to the upper
web plate. The lower section is a single extrusion consisting of the lower cap and web plate.
These two sections are spliced together to form the spar. If either section of this type of spar
breaks, the other section can still carry the load. This is the fail-safe feature.

As a rule, a wing has two spars. One spar is usually located near the front of the wing,
and the other about two-thirds of the distance toward the wings trailing edge. Regardless of
type, the spar is the most important part of the wing. When other structural members of the wing
are placed under load, most of the resulting stress is passed on to the wing spar.

False spars are commonly used in wing design. They are longitudinal members like spars
but do not extend the entire span wise length of the wing. Often, they are used as hinge attach
points for control surfaces, such as an aileron spar.

11
 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 CONCEPT OF SPARS

The wing spars are concerned; the wing spar position will be defined by point values on
curve along the root and tip of the tip of the wing. The point values on curve will range between
0 and 1. 0 means that the spar position will start at the leading edge while, 1 means that the spar
position will start at the trailing edge.

There are two approaches for the construction of wing spars inside the wing model. One
is that the spars run continuously throughout the wing across all the wing panels while the other
is that the wing spars are placed along each wing panel separately and then they are joined
together to each other. In either approach, it is important that it is not possible for two spars to
intersect each other in any way. Furthermore, it is important that, all new spar positions along the
root and the tip of the wing should be modified based on the position of the old spars. The wing
spars will have a thickness associated with them, however, this thickness should not protrude
inside the thickness of the wing panel skin.

2.2 DESIGN APPROACH

The initial design was done using conventional design using strength of materials
approach. Selection of the beam cross section is an important activity that was carried out using
various cross sections and improving upon the same using iterations. Various iterations of the
design were conducted with varying geometries and cross sections, before arriving at the
optimized design of the beam with minimal weight, satisfying the given load conditions.

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2.3 A400M & A350 WING SPARS

In three short years, GKN Aerospace has taken its wing spar manufacturing strategies to
new heights by dramatically reducing part weight, process complexity and production cycle
duration.

The GKN Aerospace (U.K.) factory in the Western Approach of the U.K. is dedicated to
wing spar manufacturing. It produces the front and rear spars for the Airbus A400M military
cargo transport and the rear spar for the Airbus A350. HPC covered A400M spar manufacturing
in 2006, when it was produced at GKNs site on the Isle of Wight, U.K. Since then, A400M spar
production has been transferred to the new dedicated spar facility in Western Approach to take
advantage of synergies with the A350 spar operation and benefit from close proximity to the
Airbus wing design center in U.K.

2.3.1 The A400M and A350 spars: Different by design

Wing spars can be thought of as simple tapered C-shaped channels that make up the front
and rear of the wing box. But this is an oversimplification, because it ignores the hidden
complexities of the wing design. First, there is the shape of the wing, dictated by aerodynamic,
structural and ground-clearance requirements. Close examination of the A350 spars reveals that
the inner spar has a very significant curvature. This is because the A350 inner wing is formed
into a curved gull-wing shape. By contrast, the A400Ms wing is virtually straight, making the
spar a simpler shape to manufacture.

The structural issues add further complexity to the spar layup, due to the very high load
inputs that occur at various points along the length of the spar. Attachments points for the
engines, main landing gear (on the A350 only, because the A400M has a fuselage-mounted main
undercarriage), flaps and other control surfaces require localized increases in laminate thickness
at the attachment points. In other attachment areas, sacrificial woven carbon is added under
attachment points or, if the attached component is aluminum, a layer of woven glass is added.

13
 The length of the A350 spar is considerably longer, at 34m/111.5 ft, than the A400M
spar, which measures only 19m/62.3 ft long. Further, the A400M spar is made in two sections,
but the A350 spar is made in three.

The manufacturing strategies for each spar also differ, for several reasons:

There were five years between the launch of the two programs; during that period the
automation of prepare layup by automated fiber placement (AFP) made major progress.

The customer changed the material specification from a conventional toughened epoxy to
the latest-generation interlayer toughened epoxy.

The shape of the A350 spar is much more complex.

A more optimized design was desired in the A350 spar; weight savings in commercial
applications is now a greater priority in a time period in which fuel savings have grown in
importance.

The A350s C-section spars three segments average 11.5m/37.7 ft in length, with a
thickness of 25 mm/0.08 ft at the root end, which tapers to just 5 mm/0.020 inch at the wing tip
of the outermost segment. Their size and weight is difficult to convey in words and dimensions.
To put it in perspective, the average person could lift one end of the outer spar.

2.4 COMPONENTS OF A400M OUTER WING BOX

The figures in this section are representative of the Entry Into Service (EIS)
configuration, but analysis requirements of MSN001 to MSN005 are also covered by this
document. The outer wing box is a hybrid composite/metallic structure comprising of CFRP
front and rear spars, 24 metallic ribs and CFRP upper and lower covers with co-bonded stringers.
It transfers aerodynamic, propulsion and inertia loads to the fuselage via the centre wing box and
provides structural stiffness to assure aero elastic and flight control performance.

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 The interior of the outer wing box forms three sealed fuel tanks (one transfer tank and
two engines feed tanks) and a surge tank at the outboard end of the wing. Fuel pressure loads are
also carried by the outer wing box structure.

Engine nacelle loads are directly introduced to the outer wing box via three attachment
brackets at each engine position. Provision is also made for the mounting of an air-to-air
refueling (AAR) pod below the outer wing box outboard of the outer engine pylon. Figure 2-1
shows the general layout of the A400M wing, with the spar locations identified

Figure2-1: General layout of the A400M Outer Wing Box

2.4.1 Wing box loading

The primary design load for a wing box is aerodynamic lift. Air pressure variation over
the aerodynamic surfaces (covers) creates lift, which is transferred to the spars as vertical shear
via the ribs. Spar structures transfer this lift as shear in the spar webs to the root joint, where
loads are reacted by the weight of the fuselage. Complementary components of shear are reacted
at the wing skins, leading to end load accumulation in the covers.

15
 The wing box also carry loads from fuel pressure, engine loads and leading and trailing
edge attachment loads and other sources.

2.4.2 General description of A400M spar assembly

Front Spar:

The front spar (Figure 2-2) is an inward facing C-section configuration similar to existing
metallic Airbus spar designs. The basic C-section is manufactured with horizontal stiffeners used
to prevent buckling of spar web. A splice joint at rib 10 is used to join the inner front spar to the
outer front spar.

Figure 2-2: A400M front spar configuration

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Rear Spar:

The rear spar (Figure 3) uses an inward facing C-section configuration derived from
existing metallic Airbus spar designs (similar to the front spar). The basic C-section is
manufactured with vertical stiffeners and trailing edge structure used to prevent buckling of the
spar web. A splice joint in rib bay 18 joins the inner rear spar and outer rear spar sections.

The inner rear spar is provided with a single horizontal stiffener to prevent buckling of
the spar web.

Figure 2-3: A400M rear spar configuration

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 CHAPTER-3
PROBLEM DEFINITION

3.1 IDENTIFICATION

The wing spar provides the majority of the weight support and dynamic load integrity
of cantilever monoplanes, often coupled with the strength of the wing box itself. Together, these
two structural components collectively provide the wing rigidity needed to enable the aircraft to
fly safely. Biplanes employing flying wires have much of the flight loads transmitted through the
wires and inter plane struts enabling smaller section and thus lighter spars to be used.

The wing spars are subjected to a wide variety of aerodynamic, structural, turbulence,
gust, wind, flight and ground loads. Some of the forces and loads that the wing spars carry are
mentioned below,

Figure 3-1: Forces and moments acting on spar web

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1. As the aircraft wing rests on the ground, gravity is acting on the wing. The wing weight is
been pulled down due to the gravitational forces acting on the structure and thus a bending
moment is produced since, the wing roots are attached to the fuselage while, the wing tips are
free. The wing spars running through the wing of the aircraft act as cantilever beams and take
these bending loads. Furthermore, not only does the wing spars carry the weight of the wing
while on the ground, modern commercial airplanes carry the fuel inside the wing in the wing
box. Moreover, they also have mounted engines which are attached below the wing known as
podded engines.
2. The primary function of an aircraft wing is to generate lift. As, at a suitable angle of
attack, higher pressure exists on the bottom surface of the wing while, a lower pressure exists on
the top surface of the wing, a pressure differential is created which results in generation of a
differential force which is known as the lift. The lift force generated by the wings of an aircraft
creates an upward bending moment. As the wing roots of an aircraft are attached to the fuselage,
while, the wing tips are free, they rise upward. The wing spars are then used to resist this upward
bending moment. As soon as the wing starts to generate lift, this flight load occurs that has to be
carried by the wing spars.

3. As the aircraft wing flies through the air, a drag force is generated. Drag is a necessary
consequence of flight in a medium such as air since, air or any other fluid has density. The drag
increases with speed and at higher Mach numbers, the drag is considerably higher. These drag
loads must also be resisted by the wing spars.

4. The inertial loads must also be taken by the wing spars which act on the aircraft wing
such as the rolling inertial loads, which is generated as the aircraft rolls.

5. The wing spars are under the effect of both bending and twisting moment. Due to
introduction of wash-out or wash-in and aerodynamic or geometric twist, the wing spars have to
carry the twisting loads. Furthermore, due to deflection of the control surfaces such as the
aileron, the twisting loads are felt by the wing spars which must be resisted. Moreover, twisting
loads and moments are also introduced in the structure by the introduction of podded engines
hanging below the wing. The thrust changes in these engines produce the twisting loads and
moments.

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3.2 OBJECTIVE

Determine the Spar locations with respect to chord length.

Determine the dimensions for flange and web of the spars.
Estimate the number of ribs and their positioning.
To generate the CAD model of wing using the available data and calculate the Bending
moment and Shear forces of the front and rear spars.

3.3 SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM

Estimation of spar position.

Dimension calculations of front and rear spars.
Calculations for number of ribs and their positions.
Profile creation of the wing using the given NACA standards
Creation of the wing geometry using CATIA
Analysis the front and rear spars using NASTRAN and PATRAN

3.4 INPUT DETAILS

Root chord : 2400 mm

Tip chord : 700 mm
Semi Span length : 5500 mm
Exposed Span : 4750 mm
Airfoil (root) : NACA 64A1215
(Tip) : NACA 64A1210
Aircraft weight : 14000 N
Lift Load : 6g
Design Factor : 1.5
Given Spar Position (in % of chord length)
Front Spar : 18-25
Rear Spar : 62-70

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3.5 DERIVED INPUT DETAILS

Limit load : 14000 * 6= 84000 N

Design Load : 84000 * 1.5= 126000 N
Load on semi-span : 126000 / 2= 63000 N
Exposed wing area : 7.3625 E6 mm2
Pressure load on wing : 63000 / 7.3625 E6 = 8556.87 E-6 N/mm2

3.6 WING GEOMETRY

Figure 3-2: Aircraft wing geometry

LEADING EDGE: The foremost edge of an aerofoil, especially a wing or propeller

blade.

TRAILING EDGE: The rear edge of a moving body, especially an aircraft wing or
propeller blade.

ROOT CHORD: The chord length of airfoil at Root of Airplane wing.

TIP CHORD: The chord length of airfoil at Tip of Airplane wing.

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 CHAPTER-4
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

4.1 MAJOR STEPS INVOLVED

Figure 4-1: Wing area dividing sections

Steps involved in the analysis procedure:

1. Divide the wing area into number of divisions.
2. Calculate the chord length at each section.
3. Determine the C.G of each area.
4. Calculate the shear force, bending moment and Torque at the respective sections.
5. Shear force =pressure*area.
6. Bending moment=shear force*CG distance.
7. Torque = Shear force*Distance b/w CG and CP.

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4.2 ASSESMENT CRITERIA FOR WING SPARS

The principal assessment criteria for laminated metallic components of the Trainer wing
spar are:

Shear force
Bending moment
Load distribution
Moment of inertia
Web thickness
Torsion
Mass Calculations
Buckling Calculations
Weight Calculations

These criteria are not necessarily applicable to all spar sub-components. The structural
assessment must take into account degradation effects from environmental conditioning
(moisture and temperature).

Knockdown factors for these are either incorporated within the tools or supplied for
analytical methods. These factors must be applied if the load case requires it.

Shear forces
Unaligned forces pushing one part of a body in one direction, and another part the
body in the opposite direction. When the forces are aligned into each other, they are
called compression forces. An example is a deck of cards being pushed one way on the
top, and the other at the bottom, causing the cards to slide. Another example is when
wind blows at the side of a peaked roof of a home - the side walls experience a force at
their top pushing in the direction of the wind, and their bottom in the opposite direction,
from the ground or foundation.

23
 A crack or tear may develop in a body from parallel shearing forces pushing in
opposite directions at different points of the body. If the forces were aligned and aimed
straight into each other, they would pinch or compress the body, rather than tear or crack
it.

Bending moment

A bending moment is a measure of the average internal stress induced in a

structural element when an external force or moment is applied to the element causing the
element to bend.

Figure 4-2: Shear Force and Bending moment representation on a beam

Moment of inertia:

Moment of inertia is the mass property of a rigid body that defines the torque
needed for a desired angular acceleration about an axis of rotation. Moment of inertia
depends on the shape of the body and may be different around different axes of rotation.
A larger moment of inertia around a given axis requires more torque to increase the
rotation, or to stop the rotation, of a body about that axis.

24
 Moment of inertia depends on the amount and distribution of its mass, and can be
found through the sum of moments of inertia of the masses making up the whole object,
under the same conditions.

Torsion:
In solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque. It
is expressed in Newton meters (Nm) or foot-pound force (ftlbf). In sections
perpendicular to the torque axis, the resultant shear stress in this section is perpendicular
to the radius.
For shafts of uniform cross-section the torsion is:

T= = G (4.1)

Figure 4-3: Torsion representation

Buckling :

In science, buckling is a mathematical instability, leading to a failure mode.

Theoretically, buckling is caused by a bifurcation in the solution to the equations of static
equilibrium. At a certain stage under an increasing load, further load is able to be
sustained in one of two states of equilibrium undeformed state or a laterally-deformed
state.

25
4.3 ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

Figure 4-4: Wing box sections

Chord length L 1= Lroot - *x (4.2)

At section 2, L1 = 2400-((2400-700)/4750)*4275
L1 = 870 mm

Area of Trapezium A1 = 0.5*(L1+Ltip)*h (4.3)

A1 = 0.5*(870+700)*475
A1 = 373 E3 mm2

CG of Trapezoid Section = * (4.4)

CG=475/3*((700+2*870)/ (700+870))
CG = 246 mm from Ltip

Limit load = 84000 N

Design Load = Limit Load*Design factor
Design load on wing, = 84000*1.5 = 1,26,000 N
Design load on semi-span wing, = 63000 N

Pressure load on wing [P] = 8556.87 E-6 N/mm2

Load at Section 2, = P2+P1 = P*A2+P1 = 8557 E-6 * 453625 + 3190.65=7072.25 N

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Bending Moment At Section 2, M2 = P2 * CG2 + P1 * (CG1 + L2) (4.5)
M2 = 3881.6 * 230 + 3190.65 * (229 + 475)
M2 = 3248260 N-mm
4.3.1 Shear Force
By following the same procedure shown in above section about the loads on various
sections of the wing we can estimate the Shear force distribution as

Table 1: Shear force distribution

And the above Shear force distribution can be expressed in graphical form as follows

Figure 4-5: Shear force distribution graph

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4.3.2 Bending Moment Distribution
Bending moment varies as follows along the wing span as follows

Table 2: Bending moment distribution

The bending moment distribution is again represented in graphical form along with Wing profile
as

Figure 4-6: Bending moment distribution graph

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4.3.3 Load Distribution
Now we need to get the load distribution over Front and Rear spars and this can be done
by calculating CP of the wing and we assume the position of Front spar at 25% from Leading
edge and Rear spar is at 62% from Leading edge.

Now we will calculate the same for chord length of 870mm

Centre of Pressure, CP = 45% of Chord Length (C) from LE [870mm]
Front Spar Position = 25% of C from LE [217.5mm]
Rear Spar Position = 62% of C from LE [539.4mm]

Figure 4-7: Load distribution of Airfoil chord

Using the position of CP, a, b, c values for various chord lengths we get the values of Shear force
and bending moment distributions over front and rear spars.

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4.3.4 Shear force & Bending moment distribution

Shear Force on Front Spar = Load * (4.6)

At Section 1, SFFS = 3190.65 * (148/322)

SFFS = 1466.507714 N
Shear Force on Rear Spar SFRS = 3190.65-1466.507714
SFRS = 1724.137447 N
SF on Front Spar = 45.9627% of total load
SF on Rear Spar = 54.03% of total load

Moment is distributed in same ratio as that of the Shear force.

Bending Moment on Front Spar,
MFS = 0.459627 * 730424.4194
MFS = 335722.7846 N-mm
Bending Moment on Rear Spar,
MRS = 730424.4194 335722.7846
MRS = 394701.6348N-mm

Table 3: Shear force and bending moment distribution over Front spar

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 Table 4: Shear force and bending moment distribution over Rear spar

4.4 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Material : AA 2024-T6

Ultimate tensile strength, : 427 Mpa

Shear strength : 283MPa

Density : 2.79 E-6 kg/mm3

Young's Modulus, E : 72400 Mpa

Poisson's Ratio : 0.33

4.4.1 Moment Of Inertia

(4.7)

Where, I = Moment of Inertia, in mm4

M = Bending Moment, in N-mm
y = distance b/w neutral axis to top surface, in mm
= Tensile strength, in Mpa
Now we calculate Moment of Inertia Distribution over the Front and Rear spar as follows
Moment of Inertia on Front Spar,

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 IFS =

IFS = 44411.22998 mm4

Front spar:
Table 5: Moment of Inertia distribution over Front spar

Moment of Inertia on Rear Spar,

IRS =

IRS = 34154.879.36 mm4

Rear Spar :
Table 6: Moment of Inertia distribution over Rear spar

32
4.4.2 TORSION

Figure 4-8: Airfoil section with Torsion box

Figure 4-9: Cut view of Torsion box

Area of Torque Box, A1 = 30980.3 mm2

CG of Torque Box C.G = 166.2193429 mm From Rear spar
Distance Between CG & CP d = 18.268 mm
Torque, T = Load*d = 3190.645161 * 18.17
T = 57974.022 N-mm

Shear flow, q1 = = 0.93536 N/mm

33
Table 7: CG of Torque box from Rear spar

Table 8: Torque on each section of the wing

Table 9: Shear flow distribution on wing

34
 Figure 4-10: Torque distribution graph

4.4.3 Shear Force due to Torsion:

Shear force (SF) on Front Spar

SFFS = q * hFS (4.8)

SFFS = 0.93536*105.602 = 98.7758 N

Total SF on FS = 1465.97+98.7758 = 1564.745887 N

On Rear Spar

SFRS = q*hRS (4.9)

SFRS = 0.93536*86.882

SFRS = 81.26594 N

Total SF on RS = 1724.676+81.26594 = 1806.405 N

35
Front Spar

Table 10: Shear flow due to torsion on Front spar

Rear Spar

Table 11: Shear flow due to torsion on Rear spar

36
4.4.4 Total Shear Force

Front Spar

Table 12: Total Shear force on Front spar

Rear Spar

Table 13: Total Shear force on Rear spar

37
4.4.5 Web Thickness

Thickness of the Web can be calculated from the following formula,

shear strength = (4.10)

Where,

shear strength = Shear strength of the material AA 2024-T6 in MPa

A web = Area of the web = (height * thickness) in mm

283 = 1564.745887 / (105.602 * t web )

t web = 0.052358 mm

A web = height * thickness = 105.602 * 0.052358 = 5.52913 mm2

Moment of Inertia of a rectangular section web is given by,

I web = tweb * = 0.052358 * (105.602)3 / 12 (4.11)

I web = 5138.285518 mm4

Front spar
Table 14: Web Thickness of Front spar

38
Rear spar
Table 15: Web Thickness of Rear spar

4.4.6 Flange Thickness

MOIflange = MOIFront Spar - MOIWeb (4.12)

I flange = IFS Iweb = 44411.22998 5138.285518 = 39272.94446 mm4

Also Moment of Inertia of the flange is given by,

I flange = Aflange * (yFS )2 (4.13)

Where,

Iflange = Moment of Inertia of flange in mm4

yFS = height from neutral axis to top surface of the flange in mm

Hence,

Aflange = Iflange / (yFS )2 = 39272.94446 / (52.801)2

Aflange = 14.08669683 mm2

39
Front spar

Table 16: Flange Thickness of Rear spar

Sections on the Wing from the Root Moment of Inertia on FS Web moment of Inertia on FS Flange moment of Inertia on FS Height of FS Flange Area on FS Flange volume
[mm] [mm4] [mm4] [mm4] [mm] [mm2] [mm3]
4750 - - - 64.492 - -
4275 41514.10137 5140.140358 36373.96101 105.602 13.04686899 6197.262771
3800 237514.76 20667.52088 216847.2391 140.562 43.9013659 20853.1488
3325 717823.9153 50298.79211 667525.1232 169.17 93.299842 44317.42495
2850 1614646.226 95950.29439 1518695.932 192.067 164.6741062 78220.20046
2375 3118139.09 164841.0455 2953298.045 214.551 256.6292667 121898.9017
1900 4179947.258 266864.5695 3913082.689 238.259 275.727693 130970.6542
1425 7498272.6 408492.9294 7089779.671 261.664 414.1949295 196742.5915
950 12203818.71 600347.3166 11603471.39 285.195 570.6424988 271055.1869
475 18618953.79 853277.3942 17765676.4 308.762 745.4079969 354068.7985
0 27099983.81 1179530.227 25920453.58 332.345 938.6945353 445879.9043
Total Volume 1670204.074

Rear spar

Table 17: Flange Thickness of Rear spar

40
4.4.7 MASS CALCULATION

AFS = Aflange + Aweb (4.14)

AFS = 14.08669683 + 5.52913 = 19.61582683 mm2

VFS = AFS * 475 = 19.61582683 * 475 (4.15)

VFS = 9317.517744 mm3

Mass = Density * Total Volume (4.16)

Mass = 2.78 E-6 * 4233483.491

Mass = 11.7690841kg

4.5 BUCKLING

To check whether the web fails under shear buckling.

Condition: Shear stressinduced < Buckling stress (safe design)

The thickness calculation is based on iterations,

Finduced = (4.17)
2
Fcritical = k*E* (4.18)

Where, q = shear flow, in N/mm

E = Young's Modulus, in MPa

b = height of spar, in mm

tweb = web thickness, in mm

k = shear buckling coefficient from graph

41
4.5.1 RIB SPACING
- 10 EQUAL DISTANCES OF 475mm

Web thickness's of front spar at section 1 is as follows,

Finduced = = 0.941 / 0.052 (4.19)

Finduced = 18.09 N/mm2

2
Fallowable = k*E* (4.20)

17.8647 = 5 * 72400 * (t web / 105.602)2

The value calculated for tweb is re substituted in Eqn.(1) and this loop will continue till
we get equal consecutive thickness.

Hence, the thickness of the web is 0.5151759603 mm at section 1. Same calculations

were repeated for all sections of front spar to optimize the web thickness

Front spar

Table 18: Shear buckling calculations on Front spar

42
Rear spar

Table 19: Shear buckling calculations on Rear spar

4.5.2 Mass calculations

Table 20: Mass of spars after Buckling

43
 CHAPTER-5

MODELING AND ANALYSIS

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO CATIA

CATIA (Computer Aided Three-dimensional Interactive Application) is a multi-

platform CAD/CAM/CAE commercial software suite developed by the French company
Dassault Systems and marketed worldwide by IBM. Written in the C++ programming
language, CATIA is the cornerstone of the Dassault Systems product lifecycle management
software suite. The software was created in the late 1970s and early 1980s to develop
Dassault's Mirage fighter jet, then was adopted in the aerospace, automotive, shipbuilding,
and other industries.
CATIA competes in the CAD/CAM/CAE market with Siemens NX,
ENGINEER, Autodesk and Solid Edge.
HISTORY:
CATIA started as an in-house development in 1977 by French aircraft
manufacturer Avions Marcel Dassault, at that time customer of the CAD software.
Initially named CATI (Conception Assiste Tri dimensionnelle Interactive French for
Interactive Aided Three-dimensional Design) it was renamed CATIA in 1981, when
Dassault created a subsidiary to develop and sell the software, and signed a non-exclusive
distribution agreement with IBM. In 1984, the Boeing Company chose CATIA as its main 3D
CAD tool, becoming its largest customer. In 1988, CATIA version 3 was ported from
mainframe computers to UNIX.

In 1990, General Dynamics Electric Boat Corp chose CATIA as its main 3D CAD tool,
to design the U.S. Navy's submarine. In 1992, CADAM was purchased from IBM and the
next year CATIA CADAM V4 was published. In 1996, it was ported from one to four UNIX
operating systems, including IBM AIX, Silicon Graphics IRIX, Sun Microsystems SunOS and
Hewlett-Packard HP-UX.

44
 In 1998, an entirely rewritten version of CATIA, CATIA V5 was released, with support
for UNIX, Windows NT and Windows XP since 2001.

In 2008, Dassault announced and released CATIA V6. While the server can run on
Microsoft Windows, Linux or AIX, client support for any operating system other than
Microsoft Windows is dropped.

FEATURES:
Commonly referred to as a 3D Product Lifecycle Management software suite,
CATIA supports multiple stages of product development (CAx), from conceptualization,
design (CAD), manufacturing (CAM), and engineering (CAE).

CATIA can be customized via application programming interfaces (API). V4 can

be adapted in the Fortran and C programming languages under an API called CAA. V5 can be
adapted via the Visual Basic and C++ programming languages, an API called CAA2 or CAA
V5 that is components (COM)-like interface.

Although later versions of CATIA V4 implemented NURBS, V4 principally used

piecewise polynomial surfaces. CATIA V4 uses a non-manifold solid engine.

Catia V5 features a parametric solid/surface-based package which uses NURBS as

the core surface representation and has several workbenches that provide KBE support.

V5 can work with other applications, including Enovia, Smarteam, and various CAE Analysis
applications.

NOTABLE INDUSTRIES USING CATIA:

CATIA is widely used throughout the engineering industry, especially in the

automotive and aerospace sectors. CATIA V4, CATIA V5, Pro/ENGINEER, NX (formerly
Unigraphics), and Solid Works are the dominant systems.

45
Aerospace

The Boeing Company used CATIA V3 to develop its 777 airliner, and is currently using
CATIA V5 for the 787 series aircraft. They have employed the full range of Dassault Systems'
3D PLM products CATIA, DELMIA, and ENOVIA LCA supplemented by Boeing
developed applications. Chinese Xian JH-7A is the first aircraft developed by CATIA V5, when
the design was completed on September 26, 2000.European aerospace giant Airbus has been
using CATIA since 2001. Canadian aircraft maker Bombardier Aerospace has done all of its
aircraft design on CATIA.

The Brazilian aircraft company, EMBRAER, use Catia V4 and V5 to build all airplanes.

The British Helicopter companies, West lands, use CATIA V4 and V5 to produce all
their aircraft. Westland is now part of an Italian company called Finmeccanica the joined
company calls themselves Agusta Westland.

Automotive

Many automotive companies use CATIA to varying degrees, including BMW, Porsche,
Daimler AG, Chrysler, Audi,[11] Volkswagen, Bentley Motors Limited, Volvo, Fiat, Benteler
AG, PSA Peugeot Citron, Renault, Toyota, Ford, Scandia, Hyundai, koda Auto, Tesla Motors,
Proton,Tata motors and Mahindra & Mahindra Limited. Goodyear uses it in making tires for
automotive and aerospace and also uses a customized CATIA for its design and development.
Many automotive companies use CATIA for car structures door beams, IP supports, bumper
beams, roof rails, side rails, body components because CATIA is very good in surface
creation and Computer representation of surfaces.

Shipbuilding

Dassault Systems has begun serving shipbuilders with CATIA V5 release 8, which
includes special features useful to shipbuilders. GD Electric Boat used CATIA to design the
latest fast attack submarine class for the United States Navy, the Virginia class.[12] Northrop
Grumman Newport News also used CATIA to design the Gerald R. Ford class of super carriers
for the US Navy.[13]

46
Other

Architect Frank Gehry has used the software, through the C-Cubed Virtual Architecture
company, now Virtual Build Team, to design his award-winning curvilinear buildings.[14] His
technology arm, Gehry Technologies, has been developing software based on CATIA V5 named
Digital.[15] Digital Project has been used to design buildings and has successfully completed a
handful of projects.

Dassault Systems S.A. (French pronunciation: [daso], Euro next: DSY) is a leading
company specializing in 3D and PLM (Product Lifecycle Management) software.

Dassault Systmes develops and markets PLM application software and services that
support industrial processes and provide a 3D vision of the entire lifecycle of products from
conception to maintenance to recycling. The Dassault Systmes portfolio consists of CATIA for
designing the virtual product, Solid Works for 3D mechanical design, DELMIA for virtual
production, SIMULIA for virtual testing, ENOVIA for global collaborative lifecycle
management, and 3DVIA for online 3D lifelike experiences.It was created in 1981, and is part of
the Groupe Industriel Marcel Dassault.

5.2 CAD MODELING OF THE WING SPAR

Taking values from NACA Standards

At Root: Profile: NACA 64A1215.

Leading Edge radius = 1.556% c.

Slope of mean line at leading edge = 0.0842.

At Tip: Profile: NACA 64A1210.

Leading Edge radius = 0.701% c.

Slope of mean line at leading edge = 0.0842.

47
Figure 5-1: NACA Airfoils profiles with control points

Figure 5-2: Wing surface generation

48
5.3 DESIGNING OF SPAR ON MANUFACTURING BASIS

The front spar is placed at 25% of chord length from leading edge.

The rear spar is placed at 62% of chord length from leading edge.

Thicknesses of the flanges and webs are different.

The flanges are made of T-sections and L- sections.

The webs are made with sheet metal.

5.4 CROSS SECTION SPAR

Figure 5-3: Cross section of front and rear spars

Skin area, As = (b +2*20*ts) mm2 (5.1)

Effective flange area = (Af - As)/2 (5.2)

Where, b = flange width in mm

ts = skin thickness in mm

Af = designed flange area in mm2

Web thickness is altered as per the availability of sheet metal gages.

49
5.5 FRONT SPAR DIMENSIONS

Table 21: Front spar dimensions (All dimensions are in mm)

5.6 REAR SPAR DIMENSIONS

Table 22: Rear spar dimensions (All dimensions are in mm)

50
5.7 CREATION OF THE SPAR SECTIONS

Figure 5-4: FRONT SPAR Figure 5-5: REAR SPAR

5.8 FULL PROFILE OF WING

Figure 5-6: Complete wing Skeleton view with spars

51
5.9 SPARS REPRESENTATION

Figure 5-7: View of spars

5.10 CRIMP HOLES OR LIGHTENING HOLES

The lightening holes are made in the element in order to reduce the weight of the
element. The crimp holes are made to the web element of the spar. These holes provided in
between the two successive rib locations.

Figure 5-8: Location of Crimp holes

52
 Figure 5-9: Complete spar representation with lightening holes

5.11 NASTRAN

NASTRAN is a finite element analysis (FEA) program that was originally developed for
NASA in the late 1960s under United States government funding for the Aerospace industry.
The MacNeal-Schwendler Corporation (MSC) was one of the principal and original developers
of the public domain NASTRAN code. NASTRAN source code is integrated in a number of
different software packages, which are distributed by a range of companies.

The NASTRAN program has evolved over many versions. Each new version contains
enhancements in analysis capability and numerical performance. Today, NASTRAN is widely
used throughout the world in the aerospace, automotive and maritime industries. It has been
claimed that NASTRAN is the industry standard for basic types of analysis for aerospace
structures, e.g. linear elastic static and dynamic analyses.

53
5.12 PATRAN

PATRAN is the world's most widely used pre/post-processing software for Finite
Element Analysis (FEA), providing solid modeling, meshing, analysis setup and post-processing
for multiple solvers including MSC Nastran, Marc, Abaqus, LS-DYNA, ANSYS, and Pam-
Crash.

Patran provides a rich set of tools that streamline the creation of analysis ready models
for linear, nonlinear, explicit dynamics, thermal, and other finite element solutions. From
geometry cleanup tools that make it easy for engineers to deal with gaps and slivers in CAD, to
solid modeling tools that enable creation of models from scratch, Patran makes it easy for anyone
to create FE models. Meshes are easily created on surfaces and solids alike using fully automated
meshing routines, manual methods that provide more control, or combinations of both. Finally,
loads, boundary conditions, and analysis setup for most popular FE solvers is built in,
minimizing the need to edit input decks.

Patran's comprehensive and industry tested capabilities ensure that your virtual
prototyping efforts provide results fast so that you can evaluate product performance against
requirements and optimize your designs.

5.13 FEM MODELING

A mesh is a network of line elements and interconnecting nodes used to model a

structural system and numerically solve for its simulated behavior under applied loading. First,
computational techniques create an analytical model by populating the material domain with a
finite-element mesh in which each line element is assigned mathematical attributes (axial,
bending, shear, and torsional stiffness, etc.) which simulate the material and geometric properties
of the structural system. The system is then restrained within boundary conditions and subjected
to mechanical or thermal loading.

54
Figure 5-10: Front spar meshing

Figure 5-11: Rear spar meshing

55
 CHAPTER-6

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

6.1 FRONT SPAR ANALYSIS

Figure 6-1: Front spar displacements

Figure 6-2: Shear force of Front spar

56
 Figure 6-3: Front spar Thickness plots

Figure 6-4: Principal stresses of front spar

57
6.2 REAR SPAR ANALYSIS

Figure 6-5: Rear spar flange displacement

Figure 6-6: Rear spar web displacement

58
Figure 6-7: Front spar shear force plot

Figure 6-8: Rear spar Thickness plots

59
 Figure 6-9: Principal stresses of rear spar

Figure 6-10: Von-mises stresses of rear spar

60
 CHAPTER-7

CONCLUSION

Spars are the main structural members of the wing. They extend from the fuselage to the
tip of the wing. The entire load carried by the wing is taken up by the spars. The spars are
designed to have great bending strength. Ribs give the wing section its shape, and they transmit
the air load from the wing covering to the spars.

Front Spar positioning is estimated to 25% and Rear Spar to 62% of the Chord Length.
But we can further optimize this configuration by changing Front spar position between 18-25%
and select the best possible scenario.

We also calculated the various forces acting on the wing and their influences over the
entire wing span and the interaction of Shear force with Torsion on spars is very important aspect
of wing design and we have calculated this interaction mathematically and included it
calculations of Total shear force acting on Front and Rear spars.

Flange and web dimensions are calculated and suitable changes in dimensions are
incorporated from manufacturing point of view and we have included the Buckling influence in
to consideration and we have calculated the weight under buckling environment. Number of Ribs
and their positioning for the prevention of bending and buckling of Spars is calculated. We
idealized the number of Ribs as 10 with equal spacing.

Mass of the spars calculated from iterations is 23.10 kg. The Detail drawings for the front
and rear spars are provided using CATIA V5.

Now we have decided to validate the Numerical values by finding Shear force and
bending moment on the spars analytically using Analysis software.

61
 CHAPTER-8

FUTURE SCOPE

Spar position can be optimized based on buckling calculations. In our work we specified
the location of spars as 25% and 62% for Front and Rear spars but they can be changed
from 18% to 25% for Front spar and we can find best possible scenario with much less
weight requirements.

Further optimization of Rib is possible.

Varying number of Ribs and spacing of Ribs. We used 10 Ribs with equal spacing; then
again we can further decrease weight compensations with 15 Ribs and unequal or equal
spacing.

Use of other materials for the design of spars can be thought of i.e. we can use Composite
materials to reduce the weight demands and influence the Moment of Inertia of spars. But
care must be taken to consider shock / Impact loads effect on Spars and Fail safe criteria
must be increased

Detail stress analysis of individual components and its validation with calculations can be
carried out.

62
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1] Abbot & Albert,'Theory of wing sections',Dover publication,1949.

2] David J. Perry,'Aircraft structures',Mc-Graw Hill publication,1950.

3] E. F. Bruhn,'Analysis and design of flight vehicle structures',1973.

4] Michael C. Y. Niu, 'Airframe Stress Analysis and Sizing', 2001.

5] Michael C. Y. Niu, 'Airframe structural design', Conmilit press Ltd., 1989.

6] Kuethe and Schetzer, 'Foundations of Aerodynamics', 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, New

York, 1959.

7] ASM Material Data Sheet

8] S.S.Rao, The Finite Element method in Engineerin, BH Publications New Delhi, 3rd
Edition, 1999.
9] O.C.Zeinkiewicz, The Finite Element method in Engineering Science, Tata McGraw Hill,
2nd Edition, 1992.
10] T.R.Chandrupatla, Belegundu A.D., Finite Element Engineering, Prentice Hall of India
Ltd, 2001.
11] O.P.Gupta, Finite and Boundary element methods in Engineering, Oxford and IBH
publishing company Pvt.Ltd.New Delhi, 1999.
12] V.Ramamurti, Computer Aided Design in Mechanical Engineering, Tata McGraw Hill
publishing company Ltd.New Delhi, 1987.
13] C.S.Krishnamoorthy, Finite Element Analysis, Theory and Programming 2nd edition, Tata
McGraw Hill publishing company Ltd.New Delhi, 2002.
14] Gupta,L., Advanced Composite Materials, Himalayan Books, New Delhi, 1998.

15] Jones, R.M., Mechanics of Composite Materials, McGraw Hill Kogakusha, ltd, Tokyo.

63