1.

Capacitance pressure transducer is based on the fact that dielectric constants of liquids, solids and gases
change under pressure. The figure below shows an arrangement of a cylindrical capacitor that can withstand large
pressure. As the change in dielectric constant is quite small (only about percent change for a pressure change
of about 10 MPa), it is usable only at large change in pressure. Besides, the capacitance-pressure relation is non-
linear and is affected by temperature variation. The measurement of this capacitance is done by a resonance
circuit. The schematic is shown below. The oscillogram giving the variation of the output voltage with capacitance
is also shown below.

2. The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses electric resistance variation in wires to sense

the strain produced by a force on the wires. If a strip of conductive metal is stretched, it will become skinnier and
longer, both changes resulting in an increase of electrical resistance end-to-end. Conversely, if a strip of
conductive metal is placed under compressive force (without buckling), it will broaden and shorten. If these
stresses are kept within the elastic limit of the metal strip (so that the strip does not permanently deform), the strip
can be used as a measuring element for physical force, the amount of applied force inferred from measuring its

resistance.

3. Most displacement transducers sense displacement by means of a sensing shaft, which is mechanically

connected to the point or object whose displacement is to be measured.

The mechanical elements that are used to convert the applied force into a displacement are called force-summing
devices.
Various types of displacement transducers:
(i) Reluctive transducer used in AC measuring circuits.
(ii) Potentiometric transducer used in DC systems.
Digital output transducer used when very close
accuracy of measurements required.

4. Photo-electric transducers
Photo-electric are such primary measuring transducers, which react on an electromagnetic radiation,
falling on the surface of transforming element. A radiation can be visible, i.e. light, and also to have a large or less
wave-length and be invisible. Three basic types of photo-electric transducers are known: two from them officially
classified as semiconductor devices
Types of accelerometer mounting
An accelerometer is a sensor that senses the dynamic motion of the surface that it is attached to by producing an
electrical output which is analogous to that motion. With this, it is important to mount the accelerometer properly
and ensure it is tightly coupled to the test surface to duplicate the motion from the test object to the accelerometer
without discrepancies.
There are several mounting methods for accelerometers and each mounting method is suitable for different
scenarios.

Stud Mounting
The stud mount method is the preferred method of mounting an accelerometer to the test object.
It yields the best results because when the accelerometer is installed in this fashion, it is fused together with the
test surface by the clamping force of the stud. This ensures the exact duplication of motion of both bodies at all
frequencies. Usually, there is a thin layer of silicone grease between mating surfaces to fill any voids between.
Studs come either as an integral part of the accelerometer or as a removable piece of the accelerometer.
Removable studs are favoured as they can be easily replaced when worn out.

Adhesive Mounting
When the situation arises that the stud mount method is impractical or impossible, adhesive mounting is the
recommended method. Such as when mounting the accelerometer on a thin sheet of metal where it is not possible
to drill for stud mounting.
For adhesive mounting, some accelerometers are deigned to be mounted directly to the test surface while others
require mounting adapters or bases for adhesive mounting. For the indirect method, these adapters/bases are first
glued to the test surface before the accelerometers are stud mounted to them.
For the best results, the use of cyanoacrylate instant bond adhesives is recommended. These adhesives set
quickly and only need a small amount to create a strong bond. Their adhesive property prevents thick glue lines
between the tested surface and accelerometer that may affect readings.

Magnetic Mounting
Magnetic Mounting attaches accelerometers to ferromagnetic surfaces and gives the users an advantage in that
the accelerometer can be moved quickly from place to place. The accelerometer is attached to the magnetic
adapter (via a stud mount) before being carefully coupled to the tested surface.
In general, magnetic adapters should be used with discretion and they are rarely trusted at frequencies above 1
kHz. Response degradation in direct proportion to the weight of the accelerometer may occur and for the best
results, avoid magnetic mounting to unclean surfaces, non-flat surfaces and surfaces with thick paint.

The following mounting methods are recommended for accelerometers:

Stud mounting with stud bolt, insulating flange or adhesive pad
Magnetic base
Adhesive by bee wax, cyanoacrylate (e.g. the gel-like Loctite 454) or epoxy glue
Mounting cube for triaxial measurement with three uniaxial accelerometers
Accelerometer probe by hand pressure
 Accelerometer with movable probe tip

DIFFERENCE OF COMPRESSION AND SHEAR TYPE ACCELEROMETERS

SHEAR

COMPRESSION

The rapid increase of temperature produces more noise in the transducer output, and the magnitude of the
fluctuations in the water level readings can sometimes exceed the accuracy specification of the sensor. When the
pressure transducers are operated in an environment where temperature is relatively stable, the output contains
much less noise. There fore, the fluctuation of the signal is within the measurement resolution. Individual sensors
have different responses to the temperature fluctuation due to differing individual compensation errors. Both
positive and negative relationships were observed between the temperature and sensor output. Under extreme
climate conditions where ambient temperature can drop below freezing point, the pressure transducer can
generate erroneous outputs due to the impaired contact with the atmosphere through the venting cable.
What are Hand-Arm and Whole-Body Vibration?
Hand-Arm Vibration (HAV) is a condition caused by regular exposure to vibrating and percussive
tools, or working with material in contact with grinding or cutting operations.
Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVS) refers to damage to muscles, joints, circulation and nerves in
the hand and arm caused by HAV.
Whole-Body Vibration (WBV) is experienced when sitting, standing or lying on a vibrating surface.
For example, a forklift truck operator or tractor driver may be exposed to vibration through the seat
resulting in WBV.
Noise and vibration are usually connected - if there is an issue with vibration in the workplace its
likely that noise also poses a risk.

Vibration White Finger

The term Vibration White Finger (VWF) is used to describe damage to circulation, usually to the
fingers, arising from long-term, regular contact with vibrating tools.
Symptoms can include a tingling sensation and numbness, or whiteness of parts of the fingers.
With continued exposure to vibration, these symptoms may become more severe, particularly in cold
weather.
During an attack, the fingers lose their normal sense of touch. After the attack, which may last for up to
half an hour, the affected finger(s) may become painful, red and throbbing when the circulation returns.
Other conditions linked to exposure to vibration can cause permanent loss of feeling, numbness and
tingling in the hand.

Risks to health from vibration

Prolonged exposure can lead to considerable pain and time off work, and may result in permanent
disability. The most well-known health effect is VWF, but other effects include damage to sensory
nerves, muscles and joints in the hands and arms.
The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) states that each year, approximately 3,000 new claims for
Industrial Injury Disability Benefit are made in relation to [acronym VWF]vibration white finger[end
acronym] and vibration-related carpal tunnel syndrome.
In addition, the HSE maintains that [acronym HAV]Hand-Arm Vibration[end acronym] is a major
cause of occupational ill health and it is estimated around five million workers are exposed to HAV in
the workplace. Two million of these workers are exposed to levels of vibration where there are clear
risks of developing disease.
Drivers who are exposed to intense long-term vibration are at risk of developing WBV that can cause
chronic back pain.
The risk of permanent damage from vibration depends on a number of factors including:
how high the level of vibration is
how long the equipment is used for short exposures and occasional spells can be equally as
damaging depending on other factors
how tightly the equipment is gripped
how awkward the equipment is to use
how cold and wet it is when use the equipment is used.

Exposure to WBV is not the only cause of back pain in drivers and other workers.

Workers at particular risk from vibration injuries

Those working in construction, engineering, agriculture and mining are recognised as being at risk.
HAV can affect workers who use power tools and cutting equipment such as road breakers, power
drills, chainsaws, strimmers, polishers or grinders. The problem can be made worse by cold or wet
conditions.
WBV can affect workers driving or operating heavy plant and vehicles such as construction plant
drivers, agricultural machinery drivers and those working in quarry vehicles.
Those using vehicles off-road, where there is an increased likelihood of jolts and jarring are much more
at risk than those driving on the road.
In vehicles, vibrations are transmitted via the seat to the buttocks, from the floor to the feet and from
the headrest to the head.
Vibration through the feet can also be a problem for employees standing on the platforms of stationary
plant such as rock crushers.

Legal duties and obligations around vibration

The Control of Vibration at Work Regulations 2005
Exposure Action Values and Exposure Limit Values
Exposure Action Values (EAVs) indicate the level of vibration at which action must be taken to reduce
exposure. Exposure Limit Values (ELVs) set the maximum level of vibration that should not be
exceeded in any single day.
Both types of value are calculated as the average exposure experienced over an eight-hour period.
For Hand-Arm Vibration:
the Exposure Action Value is 2.5m/s A(8)
the Exposure Limit Value is 5.0m/s A(8).

For Whole-Body Vibration:

the Exposure Action Value is 0.5m/s A(8)
 the Exposure Limit Value is 1.15m/s A(8).

Typical Natural
Type of Passive Isolation Applications
Frequency
Large industrial equipment, some optics and 1.5 - 3 Hz, large systems
Air Isolators
instruments customized to 0.5 Hz
Springs or spring
Heavy loads, pumps, compressors 3 - 9 Hz
dampers
Large high-load applications where isolation of
3 - 40 Hz, depending on
Elastomer or cork pads medium to high frequency noise and vibration
size of pad and load
is required
Molded or bonded
Machinery, instruments, vehicles, aviation 10 - 20+ Hz
elastomer mounts
Negative-stiffness Electron microscopes, sensitive instruments,
0.17 - 2.5 Hz
isolators optics and laser systems, cryogenic systems
Wire rope isolators Machinery, instruments, vehicles, aviation 10 - 40+ Hz
Depends on type of cord
Bungee cord isolators Laboratory, home, etc.
and the mass they support
Base isolators Buildings and large structures Low, seismic frequencies
Any, but usually used at
Tuned Mass Dampers Buildings, large structures, aerospace
low frequencies