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In Geotechnical Engineering In Malaysia ...................................................... 18
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Routine Slope Maintenance Work ................................................................... 24
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Errata
JURUTERA
Number 6 June 2005
IEM Registered on 1st May 1959
1. Introduction 3. Tin Mining Activities flow down along a sluice built on a tall
Kuala Lumpur Limestone is well Tin mining activities in Kuala Lumpur wooden framework called palong
known for its highly erratic karstic started in 1857 when the first mine was (Figure 3), thus concentrating the
features. With the exception of Batu operated in Ampang. Tin mining was heavy minerals including the tin ore
Caves, exposures of Kuala Lumpur rampant in the past and concentrated cassiterite (Ayob 1965).
Limestone are mainly found in tin in the limestone area of Kuala Lumpur The mining activities left behind
mining areas. Such exposures seldom as shown in Figure 2. Note that most numerous ponds and remnants mainly
exist today after the closure of the tin information concerning the tin mining consisting of sand and clay slime,
mines. Ex-tin mining lands are covered industry of Selangor before the Second forming a highly heterogeneous
with remnants of highly heterogeneous World War was lost or destroyed overburden materials over the
nature from slime to sand. during the war (Yin 1986), and as a limestone as illustrated in Figure 4.
If the underlying karstic limestone result, it has not been possible to have
bedrock is overlooked or not dealt with a complete and accurate record of all
appropriately, it will pose great the mining areas.
uncertainties and difficulties in
foundation construction. In less
fortunate cases, adjacent properties are
affected or the buildings suffer
damages or failures after their
completion.
Figure 4: Tin mining remnant of heterogeneous
2. Geology of Kuala Lumpur nature (Chan & Hong 1986)
Area
Published geological maps of Kuala 4. Karstic Features
Lumpur area show that Kuala Lumpur 4.1 Development of Karsts
Limestone Formation dominates the Karst topography in limestone is
majority area of KL. A geological formed by a chemical dissolution
section through KL is shown in Figure process when groundwater circulates
1. The limestone is estimated to be through the limestone as illustrated in
about 1,850m thick, overlying graphitic Figure 5. Carbon dioxide from the
schist known as Hawthornden Schist. atmosphere is fixed or converted in the
The top of the sequence is Kenny Hill soil in an aqueous state and combined
Figure 2: Ex-tin mining area in Kuala Lumpur
formation which occupies the with rainwater to form carbonic acid,
(GSM unpublished)
heartland of KL including areas at which readily dissolves carbonate
Most tin mine tenures expired in rocks. Karstic features develop from a
KLCC and Bukit Bintang.
self-accelerating process of water flow
the early 80s. The common mining
along well-defined pathways such as
method was open cast and gravel
bedding planes, joints and faults. As
pump. This method involved the water percolates downward under
excavation by big machines such as the force of gravity, it dissolves and
bucket wheels and navies. At enlarges the pathways. Enlargement
confined places, such as potholes and
pinnacles, the sediments were first
broken by water jet and washed down
Figure 1: Geological section through Kuala to a pool which was then pumped to
Lumpur (Yeap 1986)
of a pathway allows more water surface denudation rates compiled by depressions can occur. Such a feature
flow which increases the dissolution Jennings (1983) and White (1988) vary was encountered in a deep excavation
rate. As the enlarged pathway from 5mm to 200mm per ka. The at a site near the junction of Jalan
transmits more water, it pirates maximum rate of 200mm per ka is Cheras/Jalan Chan Sow Lin. The
drainage from the surrounding rock expected for tropic climate with an depression was about 27m deep.
mass. Over time, this process results in annual rainfall of 3000mm. Potholes as shown in Figure 8 were
very jagged appearance, sometimes The literature review by Fatihah & exposed at an excavation site near Kg.
dissect vertically and deeply into the Yeap (2002) shows limestone Pandan Round-about. The biggest
rock terrain as seen in Figure 6. denudation rates of 15 to 100 mm/ka pothole measured 11m in dia-meter
in different parts of the world except and 8m deep. Another pothole was
Williams (1966) obtained values range suspected 150m away as detected by
from 3-6300mm/ka in Ireland. boreholes supplemented by
Local research on the topic is Mackintosh probing tests. The
limited. Fatihah & Yeap (2002) potholes at Sg. Besi Tin Mines observed
conducted a research on the limestone by Ayob (1965) were as big as 10m in
dissolution rates in the Kinta and diameter and 25m deep. Simi-lar
Lenggong valleys. They left limestone features are described as well like
samples in running streams, stagnant holes by Yeap (1986). Their sizes vary
pond water and subaerial condition. from 30m to 200m in diameter!
The estimated limestone denudation
rates for the three cases were
Figure 6: Originally flat limestone plateau
369mm/ka, 224mm/ka and 134mm/ka
dissected deeply by dissolution (Chng 1984)
respectively. Exposing the limestone
Water will continue to percolate samples in running streams, stagnant
downward until it reaches the water pond water and subaerial condition is
table, below which all pore space is analogous of various conditions that
occupied by water. Since the rock is may be experienced by limestone.
saturated with water, water flow slows According to Sowers (1996), the Figure 8: A pothole
down and so does the dissolution rate. collapses of limestone cavern roofs
The water table fluctuates up and should be very rare although many Deep dissections as shown in
down as a result of seasonal change limestone caverns have experienced Figure 6 are common features.
and creates a zone of preferential some roof collapse in the geological It is not surprising that pile lengths
dissolution along the zone of past. This is due to the very slow rate vary significantly in limestone area.
fluctuation. Over time, this process of dissolution in limestone. Moreover,
creates solution channels. the roof of a cave is not dissolved 4.5 Solution Channels and Cavities
The development of subsurface aggressively unless the groundwater It is unlikely that cavities exist in
karstic topography over limestone flow is full. isolation in limestone. They are part of
terrain is classified in five types as the solution channel system. Their
illustrated in Figure 7 by Yin (1986). 4.3 Limestone Bedrock Profile encounters by soil investigation bore-
As shown in Figure 1, limestone holes are commonly reported as
usually occurs at shallow depths of a cavities locally.
few metres to less than 25m except in Based on the authors experience,
areas covered by the thick Kenny Hill the vertical dimension of cavities
formation where the limestone is encoun-tered by boreholes is seldom
encountered as deep as 200m such as at greater than 3m, similar to
the Petronas Twin Towers (Azam et. al. observations by Ting (1986). Cavities
1996). are usually partially filled or without
Note that Cliff-like drops in in-fill. The in-fills are usually slimy,
limestone profile were encountered at having low N values when Standard
the sites of Petronas Twin Towers Penetration Tests (SPT) are conducted
(Azam et. al. 1996), Pan Pacific Hotel on them.
Figure 7: Evolution and development of limestone
(Mitchell, 1986) and Bistari Large forms of solution channels
karst (Yin 1986)
Condominium (Hewitt & Gue 1996). are found typically in dense non-
4.2 Rate of Limestone Dissolution The difference in bedrock levels varies porous limestone which is thick-
The dissolution of limestone is a very from 70m to more than 100m within bedded and well-jointed (Gobbett
slow process compared to the human the sites. Yeap (1986) attributes such 1965). Soft porous and poorly jointed
life span. The dissolution rate is abrupt rock profile to fault zone and limestone does not provide a
expressed in ka (one thousand year). contact zone between limestone and favourable environment because
Tens of thousands of years is other formations. groundwater flow is not concentrated
considered a reasonable time in into particular channels. The cross-
Kaufmanns (2004) dissolution kinetics 4.4 Steep Depressions, Potholes and sections of small limestone solution
model for limestone conduit deve- Deep Cut Solution Features channels are more of arch as in Figure
lopment. Sowers (1996) quotes the rock On a flat limestone terrain, steep 9 (b) to (f) rather than flat roof which is
11. Gobbett, D.J. & Hutchison, C.S. 24. Yeap E.B., 1986, Irregular
1973, Geology of the Malay Topography of The Subsurface
Peninsula, New York: Wiley- Carbonate Bedrock in The Kuala
Interscience. Lumpur Area, Foundation Problems
in Limestone Areas of Peninsular
12. Hewitt, P. & Gue, S. S., Piled raft
Malaysia, Geo. Eng. Tech. Div., IEM.
foundation in a weathered
sedimentary formation, Kuala 25. Yin E.H., 1986, Geology and Mineral
Lumpur, Malaysia, 12th SEAGC, Resources of Kuala Lumpur-Klang
6-19 May, 1996, Kuala Lumpur, Valley (Draft), Geological Survey
p367-372. Malaysia District Memoir.
13. Kaderabek, T. J., Reynolds, R. T.,
1981, Miami limestone foundation
design and construction, J. Geo. Eng.
Tech. Div., IEM GT7, Jul. 1981,
pp. 859 -
Those who know next to nothing and are unaware that they know
next to nothing will not know what needs to be known
Routine Slope
Maintenance Work
.........................................................................................
By: Ir. Yee Yew Weng
1. Introduction term design strength after taking into woven geotextile as a separator between
Engineering geosynthetic products are into consideration of various factors, the soft clay and the sand drainage layer.
widely used for civil engineering projects required shall be adequate to take the
to solve various geotechnical problems. anticipated working stress to be
Among the family of geosynthetics and developed.
related products are woven and
non-woven geotextiles, extruded,
bonded and knitted geogrids, geocells,
drainage composites, geosynthetic clay
liners, geomembranes and composite
biodegradable products. Geosynthetics
Figure 3: Soft ground treatment (with PVD)
are used in various fields, including Figure 1: Separater
environment, transportation, hydraulic Frequently, situations arise where the
works, agriculture, etc. road embankment faces a stability
problem as well. In this case, the
2. Functions of Geosynthetic embankment can be reinforced with
Materials and Selection of either woven high-strength geotextile or
Material Properties geogrids. These two materials generally
Important functions of Geosynthetics perform a similar function as
Figure 2: Reinforcement of embankment
products are filtration, separation, reinforcement for the embankment.
reinforcement, containment, barrier to As mentioned earlier, roads traverse
fluids, etc. In the selection of the type of 3. Typical Applications of over hilly terrains, requiring the
geosynthetic material for use in a Geosynthetic Materials in Civil construction of high embankments and
particular application, its properties Engineering Works steep slopes. Geosynthetic materials can
should be appropriate to suit the be used to reinforce these embankments
intended function(s) of the material. For 3.1 Roads and Highways and slopes. These include the woven
example, for the filtration function, the In the construction of roads and high strength geotextile and geogrids.
geosynthetic material should possess the highways, the application of Steep reinforced slopes and walls have
necessary properties to permit passage of geosynthetic materials is widespread. often been constructed with the use of
fluids, but limiting passage of solids. This includes the stabilisation of poor these geosynthetic materials.
These properties include permeability subgrade to reduce differential
and effective pore size. In considering settlement and rutting of the pavement.
effective permeability, one has to take Types of geosynthetic material suitable
account of the permeability of the soil as for such applications include geogrid
well. It will not be economical to specify and geocells. These geosynthetic
a high permeability for the geosynthetic materials act to reinforce the subgrade
material whereas the low permeability of and to improve the stiffness of
the soil is the limiting value. subgrade or road base so as to reduce
As for the separation function, the excessive localised shear deformation Figure 4: Reinforced soil wall
property to specify is the effective pore of the subgrade.
size of the geosyhthetic material. An Roads nowadays frequently traverse 3.2 Reclamation
important consideration to note is the over soft ground as well as through hilly Shortage of land areas for construction of
effective size of the soil particles that areas. The construction of roads over soft built facilities has necessitated the need
need to be separated. Frequently, ground requires treatment of the soft to reclaim land, both from the sea as well
geosythetic material are used to separate soils to improve the stability and to as from ponds and lakes. To facilitate
cohesionless fill material from clayey reduce settlement of the road. A typical placement of fill material over the soft
soils. In this application, the limiting pore ground treatment method utilises pre- soils at the base of such areas, woven
size should be related to the size of the fabricated vertical drains (PVD) to high strength geotextile is laid over
clay particles. accelerate the consolidation settlement of bottom of the sea or pond. The function
For the reinforcement function, the the soft soil. This PVD consists of a non- of this layer of geotextile is to provide
tensile strength of the geosynthetic woven filter fabric and a core which acts support for the fill materials as well as to
material is an important property to as a drainage medium. This is commonly spread the load over the soft soils. This
consider. The tensile strength, or long applied together with a layer of non- layer of geotextile functions as basal
reinforcement and prevents the 4.2 Environmental Protection is to retain suspended sediments within
occurrence of stability failures of the base Environmental protection issues are the reclamation site, hence preventing
as the fill materials are placed. becoming important especially in the contamination of the areas outside the
reclamation projects. To prevent reclamation site.
3.3 Erosion Control contamination of surrounding areas with
Soil erosion on slopes has become an sediments, silt curtains can be erected to 5. Summary
issue of concern. Mitigating actions such line the boundary of the reclamation site. Generally, geosynthetic materials has
as by turfing have frequently failed to These silt curtains are fabricated either been effectively applied in various fields
arrest the occurrence of soil erosion, from woven geotextile or non-woven in civil engineering works. These
especially in areas where vegetation geotextile, depending in the applications have indicated the
growth is difficult or impossible. Such hydrographic conditions at the location. versatility of geosynthetic material to
areas include steep slopes and slopes These curtains are commonly suspended solve our engineering problems
with acidic soils or hard and rocky soils. from floats. The function of these curtains encountered in these projects. The
In this case, the application of geocells performance of geotechnical works can
will help to enhance vegetation growth, be highly enhanced with the appropriate
thereby reducing the risk of erosion. inclusion of geosynthetic products.
Geocells can be infilled with fertilised
soils and enhance vegetation growth.
Turf reinforcement mats have often
been used to assist growth of vegetation
on steep slopes. These mats serve to
retain the seeds and prevent it from being
washed downslope by rainfall and
surface runoff.
4. Innovative Applications of
Figure 6: Silt curtain in use for
Geosynthetic Materials
environmental protection in coastal
reclamation project
4.1 Coastal Protection
Amongst the various products within the
Geosynthetic industry, geotubes and
sand-filled mattresses are gaining
popularity in coastal and marine works.
These geotextile-tubes (Geotubes) can be
used in a variety of coastal environments.
It is particularly suitable for the
protection of environmentally sensitive
areas, such as mangroves and wetlands.
It provides a barrier or dyke whereby
sediment deposition behind these
barriers can be formed, where mangrove
growth can be initiated and maintained.
This sediment deposition can be natural
or it can be artificially filled with suitable
soil. These geotextile tubes are fabricated
from woven geotextile and non-woven
geotextile. These tubes are commonly
infilled with sand or clay slurry.
Oleh: Prof. Madya Ir. Dr Zainab Mohamed, MBEM, FIEM, AGSM, Fakulti Kejuruteraan Awam,
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor
kejanggalan jurutera geoteknik dan ahli Malaysia mewujudkan Accredited Checkers Memberikan penilaian kuantitatif pada
geologi untuk duduk semeja. Secara tidak yang akan mempertanggungjawabkan hal sifat dan proses geo-bahan yang
langsung ia menunjukkan batasan amalan kelulusan kepada pakar perunding yang tidak menentu
ilmu pengamal kejuruteraan dalam bidang dilantik (Buletin IJM, Jan 2005) diharap Mempertingkatkan penilaian dalam
kepakaran masing-masing atau adakah akan membuahkan hasil ke arah hasrat kontak model jasad batuan dari bahan
masih terdapat rongga antara kejuruteraan amalan lestari kejuruteraan geoteknik di batuan
Malaysia tercinta. Mempunyai kesedaran dan prihatin
geoteknik dengan kejuruteraan geologi
pada permasalahan geoteknik yang
bagi pengamal di Malaysia. Walaubagai-
Amalan Lestari Kejuruteraan berkaitan dengan luluhawa
manapun coretan Presiden Institusi
Geoteknik Menggunakan kaedah pembinaan
Jurutera Malaysia di muka depan Buletin mesra alam
IJM Mac 2005 boleh dianggap sebagai Keprofesionalan dan inovasi jurutera
Menghargai sumbangan khidmat pakar
destinasi Institusi Jurutera Malaysia dalam geoteknik tidak sepatutnya diperlekeh
dari bidang lain dalam penilaian isu
usaha menyeru ke arah pembangunan setiap kali berlakunya geobencana. Ini juga
alam sekitar
tidak bermakna pengamal seharusnya
lestari.
merasa selesa dengan pengetahuan dan Kriteria yang disenaraikan jelas
Pihak kerajaan dan badan profesional
telah mula berusaha untuk menangani pengalaman yang sedia ada. Insiden mengintepretasi apa yang dimaksudkan
dan mengurangkan impak terhadap kegagalan cerun binaan yang berulang dengan amalan lestari. Ini bermakna
persekitaran terutama yang melibatkan adalah salah satu petanda pada peri amalan lestari seseorang jurutera terletak
aktiviti pembangunan fizkal, namun sejauh pentingnya seseorang pengamal pada sikap dan etika individu amnya dan
mana keberkesanannya masih samar. Dari memahami dan prihatin pada proses alam kumpulan profesional khasnya yang
sudut teknikal amalan dan pendekatan semulajadi yang bertindak balas dengan terlibat secara terus dalam proses
konvensional dalam pembangunan di aktiviti buatan manusia. Kurangnya rekabentuk dan prosidur pembinaan walau
kawasan sensitif serta kelulusan yang kesedaran pada proses alam yang apa dan di mana juga peranannya. Jika ini
berkait rapat dengan undang-undang menyebabkan perubahan dan kemerosotan dapat dilakukan dengan berkesan, soal
masih boleh dipertikaikan sama ada ia sifat kekuatan jasad bumi menyebabkan penguatkuasaan tidak akan timbul.
mencukupi atau belum dihayati langkah berjaga-jaga tidak diberi perhatian. Jika disemak spesifikasi piawai bagi
sepenuhnya oleh semua pihak yang Padahal ini dapat memberikan data yang pembangunan fizikal sesebuah kawasan
terlibat. Langkah Lembaga Jurutera sama berat bagi mengatasi masalah secara rambang, didapati prosidur bagi
ketidakstabilan jangkamasa memulakan pembersihan tapak dan kerja-
panjang sesebuah struktur kerja tanah yang berkaitan dengannya
geoteknik. menyatakan garispanduan am sahaja. Skop
Amalan kejuruteraan geo- kerja pengorekan dan kerja-kerja tanah
teknik kerajaan Hong Kong hanya menyenaraikan peraturan umum
adalah satu contoh yang terbaik mengenai pembersihan tapak, sistem
pernah dirujuk oleh Malaysia saliran kawasan yang hendak
dalam usaha menyediakan dibangunkan, kemusnahan struktur sedia
persekitaran penempatan ada, kerja pengorekan di bawah aras bumi
penduduk di kawasan tanah dan pemeliharaan serta pemuliharaan
tinggi yang selamat lagi lestari. pokok-pokok sedia ada. Arahan khusus
Sistem selenggaraan cerun yang bagi setiap skop kerja semuanya tertumpu
komprehensif telah dibina dan pada maklumat terperinci yang sepatutnya
diamalkan oleh kerajaan Hong diperincikan dalam pelan pembinaan. Ini
Kong bagi mengurangkan risiko bermakna apa dan bagaimana prosidur
bencana disebabkan kegagalan kerja hendak dilakukan mestilah dijelaskan
cerun. Beberapa persidangan dengan jelas dalam lukisan binaan, diselia
pernah diadakan di Malaysia dan dikuatkuasakan bagi memastikan
Kegagalan cerun Bukit Lanjan menunjukkan campuran
bahan tanah dan bahan batuan yang mencabar ilmu amalan bagi mempelajari amalan kerosakan persekitaran disebabkan aktiviti
kejuruteraan geoteknik kerajaan Hong Kong pembangunan dapat diminimum. Pada
terutamanya selepas insiden masa yang sama keadaan cuaca Malaysia
Highland Tower, tetapi hasil yang dirahmati hujan sepanjang tahun
dari persidangan tersebut masih hendaklah diambilkira dalam perancangan
menjadi tanda tanya. kerja tanah bagi mengelak kesan banjir kilat
Amalan lestari kejuruteraan di kawasan yang lebih rendah.
geoteknik mendefinasikan ciri- Sifat keterbukaan pengamal kejuru-
ciri berikut: teraan adalah diharapkan supaya setiap
Menghayati perundangan, geobencana yang terjadi dikongsi bersama
pengawalan dan polisi alam agar kesilapan teknikal tidak berulang
sekitar demi maruah profesion yang murni.
Amalan kejuruteraan Penghayatan pada laporan EIA boleh
geoteknik untuk faedah dilaksanakan melalui perancangan kerja
yang lebih teratur dan mesra alam. Fokus
masyarakat
utama pada kos pembinaan, tempoh projek
Amalan keprofesionalan yang
yang pendek dan penguatkuasaan yang
Salah satu kriteria pembangunan lestari ialah pemuliharaan meminimum kesan negatif
lemah menjadi penyebab kepada apa yang
bukit-bukau pada persekitaran
berlaku sehingga segelintir masyarakat pada keseimbangan penggunaan sumber pembinaan , pengetahuan dan keperi-
merumuskan bahawa pem-bangunan asli dan perlunya tinggalan untuk generasi hatinan pada sifat semulajadi jasad bumi
fizikal telah menyebabkan kemusnahan akan datang tidak boleh diabaikan. adalah kaedah rekabentuk yang terbaik
alam sekitar. Aktivis-aktivis ini Sudah sampai masanya jurutera Malaysia bagi menjamin suasana kehidupan yang
tidak pula menafikan bahawa kebaikan dan mempunyai keper-hatinan pada se- harmoni untuk generasi akan datang.
keselesaan hidup yang mereka dikecapi lenggaraan alam sekitar dan ekosistem bagi Namun khidmat jurutera awam akan
adalah hasil dari pembangunan negara. mempromosikan pembangunan lestari. terbantut apabila peruntukan pem-
Oleh itu adalah penting kelemahan pada Setiap cadangan pem-bangunan mestilah bangunan fizikal tidak diimbangi dengan
prosidur piawai pembangunan fizikal yang memfokus pada halatuju yang mempunyai keperluan melabur pada amalan pem-
samar diteliti semula supaya perancangan indeks pengukur ke arah tema deklarasi . bangunan lestari andainya semua pihak
kerja turut mengambilkira kesensitifan bersungguh-sungguh hendak mencapai
masyarakat dan kesan negatif pada alam hasrat negara maju pada tahun 2020.
Penutup
sekitar.
Seperti biasa berita sensasi yang dimuatkan
Deklarasi Shanghai 2004 bertema oleh media akan dilupakan. Namun Rujukan
Engineers Shape The Sustainable Future sebagai rakyat Malaysia yang terlatih
mengagong-kan peranan para jurutera 1. Annual Report on Government Slope
dalam kerjaya yang diberi kepercayaan dan Safety Work 2002. Government of Hong
(Buletin IJM, Mac 2005). Namun cabaran mandat melaksanakan amanah dengan Kong. URL: http://hkss.ced.hk/
masa kini tentang keberulangkalian memegang pada etika kerja, adalah (4/1/2004)
geobencana berkaitrapat amalan jurutera diharapkan setiap individu yang terlibat 2. Zainab Mohamed. 2004. Engineering
geoteknik dengan kemerosotan berterusan secara langsung atau sebaliknya hendaklah Characterisation of Weathered
alam sekitar. Misi pembangunan komuniti mula membuka mata. Pembangunan lestari Sedimentary Rock for Civil
jurutera sebagai sumber tenaga yang adalah keperluan kritikal masa kini Engineering Work. unpublished PhD
bertanggungjawab ke arah menyediakan dan akan datang oleh itu pengamal thesis. UKM.
suasana ke-hidupan masyarakat yang kejuruteraan hendak-lah merenung 3. Zainab Mohamed. 2004. Sumbangan
selamat dan harmoni mestilah kembali asas ilmu kejuruteraan untuk Jurutera Awam Ke Arah
dipertahankan. Jurutera diminta supaya memper-tingkatkan kaedah amalan Pembangunan Lestari. Salam Lestari
lebih berdedikasi dalam membangunkan geoteknik yang sesuai dengan persekitaran Special Issue Oct 2004. Intitute for
dunia yang lebih lestari melalui amalan iklim Malaysia. Disebalik perkembangan Environment and Development.
ilmu yang menterjemahkan sumber kepada tekno-logi yang banyak membantu Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
produk dan perkhidmatan. Kesedaran mempercepatkan proses analisis dan
By: Ir. Yap Keam Min, FIEM, MICE, MIEAust, P. Eng, C. Eng
Chairman, Working Group MS 1314: Part 5:2004 - Precast Prestressed Concrete Square Piles
Abstract
This article briefly traces the development of precast concrete piles in Malaysia. Vastly improved
technologies for producing high-strength concrete coupled with developments in installation equipment and
methods have significantly changed pile design and construction. The issues that will arise when the British
codes of practice are withdrawn in a few years time are addressed.
Introduction a big part and none is more important grade 20 concrete and, where driving
Precast piles in the early years were than the super-plasticizer type. True to conditions were easy, grade 15 concrete
mainly reinforced concrete with its name super, it imparts the ability to was used. The minimum size of pile
2
concrete of 20 N/mm strength heavily reduce the water content without loss of was 250 mm square with a working
reinforced with mild steel. Pile sizes workability. Water cement (w/c) ratio of load of 25 tonnes.
were typically 300mm or larger, square less than 0.30 is possible and hence Those piles were heavily reinforced
section and had low working loads. higher concrete strengths can be with mild steel and included large
Piles were often cast on site by main obtained. volumes of lateral stirrups. The heavy
contractors, who also did their own Pile drivers of present times are more reinforcement needed was probably
piling works. The largest user of these efficient, mobile and environmental because the concrete grades used
piles was the Public Works Department friendly than those of the past. The old were low. CP No. 4 recommended
or JKR. Piles for heavy structures such workhorse of the piling industry, the the minimum main longitudinal
as bridges, wharves, ports etc. were diesel hammer (Figure 1), has been reinforcements to be 11/4 % of the
made of steel. replaced by the hydraulic type. cross-sectional area of the piles
In the last forty years or so, the Hydraulic jack-in machines (Figure 2) are for lengths up to 30 times their least
development of precast concrete piles now being used to install piles especially
has been phenomenal. Today precast in city centers where noise and vibration
piles are reinforced concrete square, are important considerations.
prestressed concrete square and hollow
cylindrical prestressed spun with a
wide range of sizes. With the rapid
progress of the construction industry,
factory manufacturing of concrete piles
is now the norm. Piles are mass-
produced in factory-controlled
conditions making consistent quality
control possible. Prestressed concrete
spun piles have largely replaced steel
piles in applications to support heavy Figure 1: Diesel hammer, the old workhorse of the
and marine structures. For light Piling Industry
structures, small sized prestressed
concrete and reinforced concrete piles Piling practice in the 1950s
square sections, are now preferred over In the 1950s most piles were reinforced
timber piles. concrete piles and were designed
The advancement of precast concrete according to the British Code
piles, in fact of the whole precast Foundations The Civil Engineering
industry, is mainly due to the progress Code of Practice, No.4 (1954). Typical
achieved in concrete technology, sizes and its corresponding carrying
particularly improvements in making capacities are given in Table 1 (RAO). Figure 2 : Injection machine, environmental
friendly with less vibration and low noise
high strength concrete. Admixtures play RAO mentioned that piles were made of (courtesy of Soilmech Engineering)
width, 11/2 % for lengths 30 to 40 times reinforcements were basically for piles
and 2% for lengths over 40 times the which were cast on site. Figure 3 shows a
least width. reinforced concrete pile being used in the
sea, which is not common these days.
Piling Practice in the 1970's
Ting (1977) describes the piling practice Current Practice
in the 1970s. Piles were designed based Precast concrete piles in current use are
on the British Standard CP2004 Code of reinforced concrete square, prestressed
Practice for Foundations. According to concrete square and hollow cylindrical
Ting, the most common piles used were prestressed spun. Typical concrete
the 300mm and 375mm square section strengths and reinforce-ments are given
reinforced concrete piles. The concrete in Table 5.
strength for the piles was only Reinforced concrete piles are widely
25 N/mm2. (Table 2). The grades of used in buildings. There are a variety of
concrete and cement contents for sizes ranging from the small (150mm
reinforced concrete piles as recom- square) to the large (450mm square). The
mended by CP2004 are given in Table 3. concrete for reinforced concrete piles is
(Grade 25 concrete was recommended typically 45 N/mm2 and hence the
for hard and very hard driving working loads are higher. (Figure 4)
conditions and in marine works!) The
working loads of the piles were low
because of the concrete strength and
concerns over in quality control.
Prestressed concrete piles of square
section were also used and some typical
working loads are given in Table 2.
Neoh (1997) reported that the old JKR
specifications for reinforced concrete
piles were heavily reinforced such as
2.12% to 3.7% of main longitudinal
reinforcement often using mild steel bars
and lateral reinforcement of as much as Figure 4: The present reinforced concrete piles of
2.1% of the area of concrete. The high grade 45 N/mm2
Figure 5 : Prestressed concrete spun piles driven 1. Criteria of static load test
in the sea BS 8004 clause 7.5.6.5 states that the
ultimate bearing capacity of the pile may
Relevant Code of Practice/
be taken as the force at which penetration
Standards
is equal to 10% of the diameter of the base
Pile design in Malaysia has always
of the pile.
followed the British Standards, currently
Although this criterion has been
the BS 8004. However, all the British
widely used by engineers to define the
Standards will soon be replaced by Euro-
failure load of the static load test, it is
codes; and similarly BS 8004 will be
time to analyse its limitation. This
withdrawn and replaced by Euro-code 7
criterion was suggested by Terzaghi
in 2008.
in 1942 when piles were large and
The Institution of Engineers,
had low working loads. For the modern
Malaysia (IEM) has come up with a
high load-bearing capacity pile with
position paper for concrete codes of
small cross-sectional areas such as micro
practice for the local construction
piles or steel piles, the 10% pile
industry after 2008. IEM has
diameter rule may not be applicable,
recommended that the industry should
especially for long piles. Sometimes
follow Euro-code EC 2 - Euro Concrete
the elastic shortening of long small
Code of Practice. We may expect the
piles is already larger than 10% of the
foundation design to follow suit.
pile diameter. Steel piles manufacturers
For the benefit of engineers who are
have often challenged this criterion.
wondering which code to follow after
(Constrado)
2008, there is the recently published
Malaysian Standard MS 1756:2004: Code 2. Spacing of the piles
of Practice of Foundations. It is basically The usual standard of 2 times diameter
a full adoption of BS 8004. pile for end bearing piles and 3 times
There are also the Malaysian diameter for friction piles have to be
Standards MS: 1314 Part 1 to Part 6 which applied with some common sense. The
were published in 2004 and are as standard applies to large piles but not to
follows: small piles. For instance, when designing
Part 1: General requirements and for 200mm sq. precast piles, 2 x diameter
specifications is only 400mm, which is unnecessarily
Part 2: Method for determination of close. In reality, the spacing of piles
bending strength of precast depends on the size of the pile, the
concrete piles (bend test) working load, the length of the pile, and
whether it is frictional or end bearing.
Figure 6 shows a four-pile group for United Kingdom where the concrete Operation procedures should be
150mm square piles after installation. used is as high as 50 N/mm2. documented for piling personnel to
Note how close the piles are. In precast concrete works where cycle follow. The system also requires records
time is crucial these super super- to show evidence of work done. Training
plasticizers are used to achieve high early of personnel is an important part of a
strengths without the need for steam quality system and training of pile
curing. High early strength is also very drivers is essential.
important in prestressed concrete pile
manufacturing for detensioning of
5. Possible problems with future
tendons.
re-development works
Table 1. Common size of reinforced concrete piles in the early years (RAO, 1949)
Table 2. Typical pile and size used in the 1970s (Ting, 1977)
2
300mm x 300mm Precast reinforced concrete 25 N/mm 1:1 1/2:3 40
2
375mm x 375mm Precast reinforced concrete 25 N/mm 1:1 1/2:3 65
Prestressed concrete 2
350mm x 350mm 41 N/mm 1:1:2 76
21m pile depth
2
Prestressed concrete 41 N/mm 1:1:2 110
350mm x 350mm
27m pile depth
Table 3. Cement content and cube strength of concrete for precast reinforced concrete piles (CP2004, 1972)
Reinforced concrete piles are still the One of the most important parts of code (EN 12794:2003 - draft) on precast
most common precast concrete piles. precast concrete piling is the splicing of concrete products - Foundation piles,
Perhaps it's because of its simpler and piles. The most common method is the gives four classifications of pile joints
less capital intensive manufacturing welded mild steel plates joint. (this joint according to its required strength. The
process than prestressed concrete piles. is not too popular in UK where they use author is now conducting research and
Most of the old prestressed concrete piles mainly mechanical joints. ).The basic testing of pile joints at a local university.
manufacturers used heavy steel moulds principle is that the pile when joined With the recent earthquake scare in
to cast piles. The tendons were stressed should have the same strength as the the country, there is a call for engineers to
against the moulds and de-tensioning body of the pile. MS 1314:2004 gives consider seismic loading in their design.
was by cutting the strands. Piles are now guidelines to a standard pile joint. Prestressed concrete piles are
manufactured in long line method where However, there should not be just a advantageous because of its high
the tendons are stressed against the standard joint for all forces conditions. bending and flexural strength. In some
abutments. The forces are transferred The joints should be designed to its earthquake-prone areas such as New
into the concrete by releasing the strands required strength, i.e. the joint which is Zealand and North America, prestressed
gradually with hydraulics jacks. Sudden subject to only purely compression concrete piles have almost replaced
transfer by cutting is not allowed by most should be different to one thats required reinforced concrete piles. (Coduta)
standards, including MS 1314:2004. to resist high bending forces. The Euro-
Conclusion
Precast concrete piles have transformed from piles of
low concrete strengths and heavy reinforcements with References
low working loads to the modern high-strength piles
with high capacities. With modern heavier and more 1. British Standard BS 8004 - Code of Practice for Foundations, 1986
efficient hammers, installation of piles with higher load 2. British Standard CP 2004 - Code of Practice for Foundations, 1972
capacities is possible. 3. British Standard CP No 4 - Foundations, 1954
Engineers should be more innovative and not merely
4. Cornfield G.M - Steel Bearing Piles - Constrado Publication 2/74,
follow the policy of do things as we have always done.
1974
Most codes of practice derive a lot of its
recommendations from experiences, often established 5. Coduta, D.P. Foundation design, principles and practices.
through trial and error practice. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1994
Quality control of both manufacturing and piling 6. European Standards EN 12794 Precast concrete products-
operations should be an integral part of pile design. A foundation piles. 2003 (draft)
quality assurance system should be an important part of 7. Neoh C.A - Design of Precast Concrete Piles to MS 1314
piling works. requirements. Bulletin IEM, Feb 1997
We should adopt the Euro-codes for our foundation 8. RAO K.L. - Calculation, design and testing of reinforced concrete,
design after the British codes are withdrawn, as the 1961
Euro-codes would be based on a wider scope of
9. Ting W.H - A note on the determination of the bearing capacity of
experiences covering more diverse conditions in many
concrete piles Peninsular Malaysia - Bulletin IEM, Nov 1977
European countries.
10. Whitaker T. The design of piled foundations, Pergamon Press,
1976
Recently, one of our private implementing the first slopes is to establish a long-term and short
highway toll concessionaires took trial slope telemetry interval, continuous data monitoring system
the challenge of initiating their wireless internet web- of the relevant critical parameters such as
own critical slope monitoring based data monitoring rain fall intensity, piezometer level and
program along a stretch of highway program with movement of the in-placed inclinometers.
to show their corporate and social threshold early Once the long-term data trend of these
responsibility. The program started warning system for the parameters are sampled, one can then
in 2004 and it comprises a) low- three parameters of possibly analyse the data and produce
cost data-logging rain gauge for rain fall intensity, statistical modelling to better predict the
continuous rainfall recording, in piezometer pressure individual instruments failure threshold. Of
order to obtain the rainfall intensity and movement in the course, one should not forget the basic
with data downloaded every two in-placed geological input of the slopes to derive the
weeks compared to the previous inclinometers before threshold levels for each and every
manually-operated rain gauges, fully implementing the instrument.
which can only offer, at best, daily system on all the
rainfall measurement, b) open standpipe critical slopes along the highway. The above FUTURE APPLICATIONS OF
piezometer to measure the water table and a system is made possible due to the locally TELEMETRY IN OTHER
halcrow bucket to measure the maximum developed technology for data-logging and
water table, although this is only done once telemetry systems and also the locally
AREAS
every two weeks and c) inclinometer access assembled components of the in-placed Currently, locally developed technology for
hole with the standard manual inclinometer inclinometer with MEMS device to lower data logging, telemetry systems and the
readings taken by lowering the inclinometer the cost of the instrument to a more locally assembled components of the in-
probe into the inclinometer access pipe and acceptable level. placed inclinometer with MEMS device are
taking readings every 0.5 meter from the only being tested for geotechnical aspects
and we are very sure that the future is bright
bottom of the access hole once every two THE IMPORTANCE OF
weeks. for the telemetry wireless internet web-based
CONTINUOUS MONITORING early warning system to be utilised in other
In 2005, the private highway toll Once again, the way to improve in the area aspects of Civil Material Testing.
concessionaire took a step further by of geotechnical instrumentation for critical
Introduction A section under the action of applied where Pn, MnX, MnY are the total axial
Today engineers depend on computer loads and bending moments will have force strength and bending moment
more than their forefathers in carrying part of the region under compression strengths about the global X- and Y-axis.
out their daily work. Computer aided and part of the region under tension. The Pconcrete is the force of the concrete; Mxconcrete
analysis is now an indispensable part line where the stresses change from and Myconcrete are the bending moment in
compression to tension is called neutral global X and Y axis due to the concrete
of a standard engineering curriculum
axis (NA). For concrete, one assumes an respectively. Abi is the area of the steel bar
and most engineers have at least
equivalent rectangular stress block as i , fsi the stress of the steel bar i , fci the
some rudimentary acquaintance with
shown in Figure 1. The maximum strain stress of the displaced concrete at steel
the computer programs relating to is taken as 0.0035.
their field. bar i , ex , and ey the are the eccentricities of
For steel reinforcing bars, one
This article serves to recount briefly the axial load, and Xbi and Ybi are the x and
assumes an elastic plastic relationship
the theory of Reinforced Concrete (RC) y coordinate of the steel i bar respectively.
between stress and strain as shown in
column analysis and demonstrate the use Figure 2. fy is the yield strength for the n is the number of steel bar, nbc is the
of computer method in the analysis and steel and m is the partial safety factor for number of steel bar in the equivalent
design for short RC column. the steel. rectangular stress block region.
There are two kinds of column
Column analysis analysis. One is given the eccentricities of
Columns are vital structural elements for the loads and the diameter of the
buildings. They are primarily used to reinforcement bars; find the axial load
carry compressive loads. They also carry capacity that can be sustained by the
bending moment due to the eccentricities reinforced concrete section. Another
in the applied load. Columns are involves finding the required bar
generally divided into two categories, diameters for given the axial load
namely short columns and slender capacity and bending moment. To solve
columns. Short columns are the columns for either cases, one needs to know the
which length is small compare to the location of the neutral axis. However the
Figure 2: Stress strain curve for
dimensions of the cross section. For reinforcement
location of the neutral axis is usually
slender columns, the length is unknown. Thus the solutions for the
comparatively larger. For slender The equations relating axial load above equations are highly nonlinear in
columns, there exist also secondary capacity and bending moment in a that one needs to determine the
moments due to lateral displacements column is given by the following sets of reinforcement bar area (or the axial load
that could cause a significant reduction equations: capacity) and the position of the neutral
in axial load capacity. Only short column axis at once.
n nbc
theory is discussed in this article. Pn = Pconcrete + Abi fsi Abi fci Such a problem is difficult to solve by
In Malaysia, concrete is the i=1 i=1 hand, given the fact that the volume of
conventional construction material. n nbc arithmetic involved is laborious. Indeed,
MnX = Mxconcrete + Abi fsi Ybi Abi fci Ybi hand solutions have been restricted to a
Reinforcement steel bars are added to the i=1 i=1
Computer solution:
With this, computer method seems to be
the only way to analyze arbitrary shape
RC columns under biaxial bending. One
particularly popular method is Quasi-
Newton method, a modification of
Newton-Raphson method. As its name
implies, this method can be traced back
to Isaac Newton, who used its precursor
to find roots of the nonlinear equation.
Efforts have been labored to expand this
technique to solve multiple coupled Figure 3: Biaxial interaction curve at Mnx = Mny *tan(63.43), Mtot = Mnx2 + Mny2
nonlinear equations. Because of its speed
and ease for computer implementation, it This name is derived from the fact that
has been widely used in virtually every the surface is the capacity or the limits of
discipline of engineering. the section. The section can take any load
Quasi-Newton method is also well- point that falls inside the surface; but any
adapted to the analysis of RC column load combination that falls outside the
under biaxial bending. There are a few 3D surface will cause the failure of the
variations of Quasi-Newton method such section.
as [2] and [3]. We concentrate on the
technique presented in [2]. As said, this Example: Hollow-Circular Column Figure 5: A 3D failure surface for
circular column
method is fast to converge and general, under biaxial bending
but it may fail to converge on certain Figure 4 shows a circular column of
cases when the load is highly eccentric diameter 610mm with a circular opening
and the geometry of the concrete is of diameter 356mm. This column has 8 Example: T column with
highly irregular. A cure for this drawback reinforcement bars of diameter 22.23mm. reinforcement bars
is by introducing backtracking technique Figure 3 shows the biaxial interaction As a further demonstration of the ability
and coordinate transformation [1]. With curve at 63.43. The results are compared of the proposed computer method, an
this, Quasi-Newton method becomes to [5]. The material parameters are as example for biaxial interaction diagram
applicable in commercial software. given in reference [5] and will not be for T column is shown in Figure 6.
reproduced here. There are some slight
2D interaction diagram discrepancies the two for axial load
higher than 1000kN. The reasons for this
2D interaction diagrams are frequently
could be due to:
employed to check for the adequacy of a
reinforced concrete section. There are two
kinds of interaction diagram, one is
biaxial moment interaction curve plotted
at a constant load, and another is axial
load vs. moment plotted at a constant
Mnx/Mny ratio. For the former, it can be Figure 6: A T shape column, material parameters
used to determine the maximum are as given in [5]
allowable moment for a given axial load;
for the latter, it is used to calculate the Figure 7 shows the comparison of this
maximum allowable axial load and article result with reference [5] and
moment for a given Mnx/Mny ratio. Any reference [7] for Mnx = Mny*tan(11). The
load point that falls outside the curve is reasons for discrepancies between the
Figure 4: A circular column with circular void proposed method and references are
unacceptable because it exceeds the
capacity of the section. discussed before.
1. The method used by this article Figure 8 shows the 3D surface of the
2D interaction diagram is just a
uses equivalent rectangular stress block given section. Figure 9 is generated by
special case of the more general 3D
for concrete (Figure 1) whereas [5] uses a cutting the 3D surface at the Pn level of
interaction diagram, which plots every
parabolic- linear curve. 345kN. It is evident that at this load level,
possible set of value for Pn , Mnx and Mny on
2. A multi-linear elastoplastic stress- the section can take higher moment
3D axis. The plot for 3D surface gives one
strain relationship for reinforcement is about positive x axis than negative x axis.
a feel on the strength of bending moment
used in [5], whereas this article uses a
for different Mnx/Mny ratio. It can
linear-plastic stress-strain relationship as Conclusion
somewhat serve as an accuracy check for
shown in Figure 2. The theory for short RC column was
the method or computer algorithm, for
A 3D surface view for this column is briefly presented. The most popular
the surface should appear smooth. This
presented in Figure 5. computer technique for analyzing RC
3D surface is also called failure surface.
Figure 7: Mnx and Mny curve for the ratio Mnx and Mny *tan(11)
Reference:
1. Ngu, S.H., and Tiong, C.I. (2004). 5. Rodriguez, J.A., and Aristizabal-
The analysis of reinforced concrete Ochoa, J.D. (1999). Biaxial
column with arbitrary cross section interaction diagrams for short RC
under biaxial moment and axial columns of any cross section. J.
load. 7th ICCT 2004- M27, 293-310. Struct. Engrg, ASCE, 125(6), 672-683.
3. Yau, C. Y., Chan, S.L., and So, 7. Hsu, C. T.T. (1988). T-shaped
A.K.W. (1993). Biaxial bending reinforced concrete members under
design of arbitrarily shaped biaxial bending and axial
reinforced-concrete column. ACI compression. ACI Struct. J., 85(2),
Struct. J., 90(3), 269-278. 167-179.
By: Ir. Albert Lim Lum Kong, B.Sc. M.Sc., Polyfelt Asia Sdn Bhd
Introduction
Throughout Malaysia, the availability of
land for development is becoming
increasingly scarce. Growing public
resistance to the conversion of
agricultural land and protected forest
areas means town planners, engineers
and architects are obliged to find ways to
better utilise marginal and waste land
that invariably comprises soft soils. In
highland areas, the incidence of slope
failures resulting from uncontrolled
destruction of the natural vegetation is
similarly becoming a common problem
that requires an engineering solution.
Geosynthetics offer a practical and
low-cost solution for a variety of
problems associated with construction
over soft or unstable soil and the repair of
failed or unstable slopes. Geosynthetics
are tough durable materials with defined Problems arising from construction over soft soils area commonly solved by installing geosynthetics
engineering characteristics. They are easy directly over the soft subgrade
to install and can, if designed correctly,
reduce construction costs whilst
significantly enhancing the strength and
usefulness of unstable residual soil.
The complication with residual
Malaysian soil is that it often comprises
fine sandy clay or silt and is constantly
saturated by heavy rain. Once it becomes
too wet, it becomes unstable.
Reinforcement of such soils is therefore a Polymer coated high tenacity Non-woven geotextiles reinforced High tenacity knitted
technical issue, requiring selection of polyester grids are suited to with high tenacity polyester yarns geotextiles are used to reinforce
reinforcement materials that are the reinforcement of gravels are used to strengthen and drain large soil structures over soft
compatible with the soil and capable of and sand fine-grained clay soils substrates
performing a permanent reinforcing
function without degrading or losing
strength over time. Geosynthetic soil. The face of the slope is then hydro- Reinforced segmental block walls
reinforcement, like all construction seeded and a bio-degradable erosion Geosynthetic Reinforced Segmental
materials, therefore needs to have protection mat is laid to protect the face Walls (SRW) incorporating modular
defined minimum quality standards and from rainfall erosion until the grass is concrete block facings is another fast
be designed into the soil. Correctly used, stabilised. The stability of the steep growing application, particularly in
they are a versatile and cost-effective slopes is usually enhanced by township developments due to their
solution to a wide variety of common soil incorporating a mesh facing system that cost-effectiveness and attractive and
and engineering problems. includes grass. Slopes as high as 20m aesthetically pleasing appearance. These
have been successfully treated using this systems provide architects, property
Reinforcement of unstable slopes method. developers, engineers and house owners
Slopes denuded of natural vegetation with a variety of finishes that can be
quickly erode and become unstable. adapted to any site configuration. Plants
Composite geotextile reinforcement and vegetation can be added to enhance
designed to reinforce and drain fine- the final aesthetics.
grained soils such as laterite are The soil fill behind the block facings
commonly used to strengthen and repair are reinforced with polymer coated, high
slopes such as the one shown in a local tenacity fiber grids to increase stability
housing development project near Kuala and ensure the long-term integrity of the
Lumpur. vertical structure. Structures as high as
In such applications, the re- 10m are not uncommon.
inforcement is placed in layers within the
Note from the Editor: There were a few letters of comments received this month. One of these is published in this issue while the others will be published in
the subsequent issue (July 2005). Any inconvenience caused is much regretted.
and quarries in Kuala Lumpur, Kelantan available in Jabatan Mineral and Geosains.
W e would like to refer to the article
written by Ir. Tan Yean Chin on the
above subject in the March 2005 issue
and Sabah. In his work, he made sure that
mine slopes in the mines were stable
Jabatan Mineral and Geosains actually has
engineering geologists, mining engineers,
of Jurutera Bulletin. Our comments are enough for mining and safe for the general mineral engineers, etc., with above-
as follows: public in the vicinity of the mines. He had mentioned training though they may not be
As a mining engineer, the first writer made a study on the slope stability of what at the right division and at the right place.
has more than 25 years experience in was one of the largest copper mines in Jabatan Mineral and Geoscience was
dealing with soil and rock slopes. As an Malaysia (500m depth, with a mine hole of formed as a result of the merger of the
engineer in the Geotechnical Engineering 1.5km in diameter) and submitted a PhD Geological Department and the Mines
(Mining Technology) Division of the Mines thesis for it. He confirmed that geology Department. It is therefore not correct for a
Department, he had to make sure the slopes plays a main role in determining the developer or a private consultant engineer
he designed remained stable long enough stability of the slope. to restrict the department to comment only
to ensure that mining can take place safely, The factor of geology is very important on geological conditions. Quite often the
and he also had to ensure that structures in mining and also in the design of consultant engineer does not give sufficient
such as roads and railways near mining foundations for civil structures. Without a site investigation reports to enable the
areas remain stable to enable the miners to stable foundation, even the best design officer in the department to give the desired
mine valuable tin ore out of the ground and structures will not stand for very long. It is comment. They are there to evaluate the
to ensure that said structures remained the duty of engineers to design such consultants report and not to write a report
undisturbed. He also had many structures and it is also the duty of for the consultant to evaluate.
opportunities to carry out many technical engineers to look into and design stable and Development of hill slopes requires
investigations to deter-mine the reason why safe foundations on the ground. The expertise of engineers and geologists and
slope failures occurred in mines, some of stability of foundations is not just they have to work together to ensure the
which resulted in fatal accidents. Many dependent on where the foundation is and safety of proposed structures and also the
such failures resulted in the death of many how it is designed but also on the geology people who are going to live there. While
people, particularly those staying near of the area. In a hill slope area, we may be the design of structures is generally within
mining areas. Slope failure cases such as talking about areas which may be hundreds the expertise of civil engineers, the ability to
that of the Capitol Mining incident in of metres away from the proposed design safe slopes fall within the purview
Puchong, 1981, where more than 20 people structures and well beyond the areas given of not just civil engineers but other
perished, could enable us to study these to the developers. In such cases, engineers engineers with geological training or
phenomena closely. Many field equipment need to be conversant with the local geologists with engineering training as
such as vane shear, Mackintosh probe, SPT, geology, like the geological structure, soil well. No doubt the Registration of
Penetrometer and geophysical equipment and rock types, dip and strikes, water Engineers Act 1967 give professional
such as seismic and electrical resistivity conditions, etc. Unfor-tunately, not all civil engineers the right to submit plans but the
equipment were used to assist in the engineers are competent enough to
investigation. All typical laboratory tests to engineers who submit such plans must
evaluate geological conditions, hence the show that they do have the expertise in the
find the various soil parameters needed for need for geologists with engineering
safe slope design were carried out. right field. They must understand and be
training or engineers with advanced able to explain what they submit and must
Early in the first writers career,
geological training. Here we are talking be responsible for what they submit.
drawing and calculations were done
about engineering geologists, civil Cutting and pasting or copying without
manually to find a suitable safe slope and it
engineers with geotechnical engineering understanding is not an option. Quite often,
was a tedious process, a stark contrast to
training or a new breed of engineers called consultants just submit plans without the
the present, where computer programs are
geological engineers or mining engineers technical and geological report.
used. Malaysia was the number one
with similar training. Civil engineers tend Being a Jack of all trades and the master
producer and exporter of tin ore in the
to specialise in soil mechanics and of none will not do. This is one of the fields
world at that time. Almost all tin ore was
mined from alluvial ground, meaning soil, foundation engineering and mining where engineers and geologists must work
using opencast or gravel pump mining engineers in rock mechanics with together for the benefit of everyone. After
techniques. The mining engineers in application in underground tunneling, all, two heads are better than one. But of
Malaysia who dealt with mining slopes tailing dams, explosives and rock blasting, course, it is the engineer who will have to
have to be well-versed in soil mechanics. In and excavation engineering while others sign the plans.
fact, Malaysian mining engineers are very are somewhere in between. When dealing The first writer is a retired engineer
familiar with soil slope stability at least in with development, regardless of whether it from the Mines Department and is now
theory and practice through daily is for the development of a residential area, working as a consultant engineer. The
involvement and long experience. for highways, or for other structures on hill second writer is also an ex-Mines
However, they may not use their slopes, the knowledge of geology, soil and Department engineer and is now a senior
knowledge to design civil structures. rock mechanics is very important and this lecturer at Universiti Sains Malaysia,
The second writer used to work with requires the expertise of engineers and lecturing courses such as Geomechanics
the Mines Department overseeing mines geologists. Such expertise is actually and Blasting Technology.
some of the delegates craved for sushi, we sea. After the presentation and talk on time, we enjoyed the beautiful cherry
made our way to the Tsukiji Market where tsunami, we were guided to the extensive blossoms around us. It was definitely worth
we feasted on sashimi, sushi and unagi. The laboratory in the institute. There were the 1.5km walk up the hill.
market was the place where all the fresh experimental lab for large structure, At night, we had the traditional dinner
fishes were sold through a bidding process tsunami waves and other water related and we were entertained by the Japanese
in the wee hours of the morning. disaster. with their songs and judo performances.
After a satisfying lunch, we proceeded As PARI is located in a small coastal The Malaysian delegates sang the Rasa
to the Yurikamome LRT control centre. town, all the delegates took some time to Sayang song in return. After dinner,
After the presentation, we even had the walk around town and appreciated some of everyone had an enjoyable bath in the
chance to visit the site of the extension line the cherry blossoms that had just started to outdoor hot spring and a nice sleep on the
of the privately-owned LRT. For the night, appear. It was time to say goodbye to futon.
we were introduced to the night life of the Tokyo! The night was spent around the city
local Japanese. The night started with a centre, taking in all the sceneries and food
9h April 2005 (Saturday)
drinking session and dinner at the izakaya along the street.
recommended by the young engineers and It was a very solemn journey back to the
proceeded with another drinking session at 8h April 2005 (Friday) city filled with exchanges of name cards
another location. The ever efficient Some of the delegates were so reluctant to and more photo taking. The young
Nishimura-san was so concerned that he leave that they extended their day while engineers sent us off at the train station and
reiterated a few times for all the delegates some flew back to KLIA. The delegates its back to KLIA again!
to wake up on time for the visit next that stayed on were bundled onto the The trip was filled with wonderful
morning. Everyone was reluctant to take train again, this time by the Young memories of beautiful sceneries, joyous and
their rest as tomorrow is yet another Member Institution of Professional wonderful new friends. The Japanese were
working day. Engineer Japan (YMIPEJ) to the ryokan. very courteous and took such initiative to
Ryokan is a traditional house where all communicate with us. Some even try to
7th April 2005 (Thursday) visitors sleep on tatami mat and bathe in learn up Bahasa Malaysia few weeks before
The last day of the visit was to the Port and the hot spring. our arrival. We have learnt and seen so
Airport Research Institute (PARI) which En-route to our destination, we were much, not only in terms of technology and
was more than two hours away from the joined by 10 young engineers from the engineering aspects, but culturally as well.
city. After the long train ride, we reached institution and enjoyed our lunch Hopefully, more young engineers can come
the coastal area of Japan where we were underneath the cherry blossom tree. We along together in our next delegation and
greeted by strong winds and smell of the had a wonderful picnic and at the same experience this cultural exchange.