ATLSS Report 14 01

Federal Highway Administration Project
DTFH61-11-H-0027
Advancing Steel and Concrete Bridge Technology to Improve
Infrastructure Performance
Task No. 11
Designing and Detailing Post Tensioned Bridges to Accommodate Non-

Destructive Evaluation
Subtask 11.1
Literature Review
January 2015
By
Christina Cercone
Clay Naito
John Corven
Stephen Pessiki
Wesley Keller
Shamim Pakzad
ATLSS REPORT NO. 14-01
ATLSS is a National Center for Engineering Research

on Advanced Technology for Large Structural Systems
117 ATLSS Drive

Bethlehem, PA 18015-4729
Phone: (610)758-3525 www.atlss.lehigh.edu

Fax: (610)758-5902 Email: inatl@lehigh.edu
Abstract
Post-tensioned concrete bridges represent a major component of the American bridge inventory. Many
new post-tensioned concrete bridges will be constructed to meet our infrastructure needs. Post-tensioning
(PT) tendons are comprised of prestressing strand, ducts, anchorages, grout, and corrosion protection
equipment. Current details for the construction of post-tensioning tendons do not facilitate the inspection
of the various tendon components. Recent cases of unexpected corrosion of post-tensioning tendons have
illustrated the importance of developing detailing changes that would allow improved inspection and
integration of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods.
The overall research program aims to develop guidance for the design and detailing of post-tensioned
bridges and tendon components to facilitate integration of NDE methods. The effort is focused on
evaluation of grouted internal and external post tensioning systems in precast I-girder, precast U-girder,
precast segmental box girder, and cast in-place box girder superstructures. Substructure elements are
outside the scope of this effort.
This report represents a brief overview of post-tensioned bridge construction and issues associated with
them. The current methods available for inspection are summarized and their benefits and limitations are
discussed. A comprehensive literature review on currently available NDE methods for post-tensioned
bridge systems is provided. The literature review focuses on NDE techniques that can be used to detect
the following issues in posttensioned bridge girder systems: (1) Grout Voids/Condition, (2)
Strand/Anchorage Corrosion, and (3) Remaining Prestress Force. Within each of these categorizes NDE
techniques that can be used to identify issues with existing post-tensioned systems and NDE techniques
that can be integrated into new construction are presented. The literature review indicates that Electrically
Isolated Tendons, Embedded Half-Cell Methods, Time Domain Reflectometry and Ultrasonic Testing
Methods are promising detection tools that can be integrated into new construction. For existing
construction, other NDE methods may be useful. This includes: Impact Echo for grout void detection,
Magnetic Flux Leakage for corrosion, Radiography for corrosion and grout voids, Ground Penetrating
Radar for location of tendons, and Acoustic Emission for strand breakage. In all cases, visual techniques
should not be overlooked as they provide an effective tool for confirmation of in-situ damage during field
inspection.
ATLSS Report 14-01 FHWA Subtask 11.1 Page i

Table of Contents
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 1
2 Brief Overview on Post-tensioned Bridge Construction and Issues ..................................................... 2
2.1 Post-Tensioned Bridge Construction ............................................................................................ 2
2.1.1 Cast-in-Place Bridges on Falsework ..................................................................................... 2
2.1.2 Post-Tensioned AASHTO, Bulb-T, and Spliced Girders ..................................................... 3
2.1.3 Segmental Box Girder Bridges ............................................................................................. 3
2.1.4 Transverse Top Slab Post-Tensioning .................................................................................. 5
2.1.5 Post-Tensioning of Substructures ......................................................................................... 6
2.2 Post-Tensioned Components......................................................................................................... 7
2.2.1 Anchorages ........................................................................................................................... 7
2.2.2 Ducts ..................................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.3 Permanent Grout Caps ........................................................................................................ 10
2.2.4 Prestressing Strand .............................................................................................................. 11
2.2.5 Post-Tensioning Bars .......................................................................................................... 11
2.3 Damage Conditions Observed in PT Tendons ............................................................................ 12
2.3.1 Corrosion Along the Length of Internal Tendons ............................................................... 12
2.3.2 Cantilever Tendon Corrosion through Segment Joints ....................................................... 13
3.3.3 External Tendon Failure by Corrosion at the Anchorages .................................................. 13
2.3.3 Cases of Post-Tensioned Tendon Corrosion ....................................................................... 14
3 Overview of Applicable Inspection Methods ..................................................................................... 16
3.1 Acoustic Emission ...................................................................................................................... 16
3.1.1 Applications ........................................................................................................................ 16
3.1.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 16
3.1.3 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 18
3.1.4 Viability in Post-Tensioned Applications ........................................................................... 18
3.1.5 References ........................................................................................................................... 19
3.2 Electrically Isolated Tendons ...................................................................................................... 19
3.2.1 Applications ........................................................................................................................ 19
3.2.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 20
3.2.3 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 23
3.2.5 References ........................................................................................................................... 24
3.3 Ground Penetrating Radar ........................................................................................................... 25
3.3.1 Applications ........................................................................................................................ 25
3.3.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 25
ATLSS Report 14-01 FHWA Subtask 11.1 Page ii

3.3.3 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 28
3.3.5 References ........................................................................................................................... 30
3.4 Half-Cell Potential ...................................................................................................................... 31
3.4.1 Applications ........................................................................................................................ 31
3.4.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 31
3.4.3 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 34
3.4.5 References ........................................................................................................................... 35
3.5 Impact Echo ................................................................................................................................ 35
3.5.1 Applications ........................................................................................................................ 35
3.5.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 36
3.5.3 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 37
3.5.5 References ........................................................................................................................... 37
3.6 Infrared Thermography ............................................................................................................... 39
3.6.1 Applications ........................................................................................................................ 39
3.6.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 39
3.6.3 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 40
3.6.5 References ........................................................................................................................... 40
3.7 Magnetic Flux Leakage............................................................................................................... 41
3.7.1 Applications ........................................................................................................................ 41
3.7.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 41
3.7.3 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 44
3.7.5 References ........................................................................................................................... 44
3.8 Radiography ................................................................................................................................ 45
3.8.1 Applications ........................................................................................................................ 45
3.8.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 45
3.8.3 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 47
3.8.5 References ........................................................................................................................... 48
3.9 Signal Processing for Defect Detection ...................................................................................... 48
3.9.1 Applications ........................................................................................................................ 48
3.9.2 Methodology and Applications ........................................................................................... 49
ATLSS Report 14-01 FHWA Subtask 11.1 Page iii

3.9.3 References ........................................................................................................................... 51
3.10 Time Domain Reflectometry ...................................................................................................... 52
3.10.1 Applications ........................................................................................................................ 52
3.10.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 52
3.10.3 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 55
3.10.5 References ........................................................................................................................... 56
3.11 Ultrasonic Testing ....................................................................................................................... 56
3.11.1 Applications ........................................................................................................................ 56
3.11.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 57
3.11.3 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 58
3.11.5 References ........................................................................................................................... 59
3.12 Visual Inspection ........................................................................................................................ 60
3.12.1 Applications ........................................................................................................................ 60
3.12.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 60
3.12.3 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 61
3.12.5 References ........................................................................................................................... 61
4 Summary of NDE methods and tools ................................................................................................. 63
4.1 Future Work ................................................................................................................................ 65
5 Agency Sponsored Studies.................................................................................................................. 67
5.1 Department of Transportation Reports ....................................................................................... 67
5.1.1 Improved Inspection Techniques for Steel Prestressing/Post-tensioning Strand Final
Report Volume 1 ............................................................................................................................... 67
5.1.2 FDOT Protocol for Condition Assessment of Steel Strands in Post-tensioned Segmental
Concrete Bridges- Final Report Volume II ...................................................................................... 67
5.1.3 Inspection Methods and Techniques to Determine Non Visible Corrosion of Prestressing
Strands in Concrete Bridge Components Task 2 Assessment of Candidate NDT Methods ............ 68
Strands in Concrete Bridge Components Task 3 - Forensic Evaluation and Rating Methodology .... 69
5.1.5 Nondestructive Method to Detect Corrosion of Steel Elements in Concrete ...................... 69
5.1.6 Effect of Voids in Grouted, Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridge Construction: Volume 1
Electrochemical Testing and Reliability Assessment ......................................................................... 70
5.1.7 Detection of Voids in Prestressed Concrete Bridges using Thermal Imaging and Ground-
Penetrating Radar ................................................................................................................................ 71
5.1.8 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges Load Rating Post-Tensioned
Concrete Segmental Bridges (Volume 10A)....................................................................................... 71
ATLSS Report 14-01 FHWA Subtask 11.1 Page iv

Concrete Beam Bridges (Volume 10B) .............................................................................................. 72
5.1.10 Evaluating Nondestructive Testing Techniques to Detect Voids in Bonded Post-Tensioned
Ducts Final Report ........................................................................................................................... 72
5.1.11 Test and Assessment of NDT Methods for Post-Tensioning Systems in Segmental
Balanced Cantilever Concrete Bridges ............................................................................................... 72
5.1.12 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges Post-Tensioning in Florida Bridges
(Volume 1) .......................................................................................................................................... 75
5.1.13 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges Design and Construction Inspection
of Precast Segmental Balanced Cantilever Bridges (Volume 2) ........................................................ 75
5.1.14 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges Design and Construction Inspection
of Precast Segmental Span-By-Span Bridges (Volume 3) .................................................................. 75
5.1.15 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges- Design and Construction Inspection
of Precast Concrete Spliced I-Grider Bridges (Volume 4) ................................................................. 76
5.1.16 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges - Design and Construction Inspection
of Cast-In-Place Segmental Balanced Cantilever Bridges (Volume 5) .............................................. 76
5.1.17 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges - Design and Construction Inspection
of Bridges Cast-In-Place on Falsework (Volume 6) ........................................................................... 76
5.1.18 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges Design and Construction of Post-
Tensioned Substructures ..................................................................................................................... 76
5.1.19 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges Design and Construction of
Transverse Post-Tensioning of Superstructures (Volume 8) .............................................................. 77
5.1.20 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges Condition Inspection and
Maintenance of Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges (Volume 9) ............................................................ 77
5.1.21 Mid-Bay Bridge Post-Tensioning Evaluation ..................................................................... 77
5.1.22 Initial Development of Methods for Assessing Condition of Post-Tensioned Tendons of
Segmental Bridges .............................................................................................................................. 78
5.1.23 Tensile Test Results of Post Tensioning Cables from the Midbay Bridge ......................... 79
5.1.24 Corrosion Evaluation of Post-Tensioned Tendons in Florida Bridges ............................... 79
5.2 ACI Reports ................................................................................................................................ 80
5.2.1 Corrosion of Prestressing Steels (ACI 222.2R-01) ............................................................. 80
5.3 NCHRP Reports .......................................................................................................................... 80
5.3.1 Non-Destructive Evaluation Method for Determination of Internal Grout Conditions inside
Bridge Post-Tensioning Ducts using Rolling Stress Waves for Continuous Scanning ...................... 80
5.3.2 Nondestructive Methods for Condition Evaluation of Prestressing Steel Strands in
Concrete Bridges, Final Report Phase I: Technology Review ............................................................ 81
5.4 Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) ................................................................................ 82
5.4.1 Conclusions, Recommendations and Design Guidelines for Corrosion Protection of Post-
Tensioned Bridges .............................................................................................................................. 82
5.4.2 Improving Bridge Inspections ............................................................................................. 82
ATLSS Report 14-01 FHWA Subtask 11.1 Page v

5.4.3 Magnetic-Based NDE of Prestressed and Post-Tensioned Concrete Members The MFL
System 82
5.4.4 Demonstration of Dual-Band Infrared Thermal Imaging for Bridge Inspection ................ 83
5.5 ASTM Standards ......................................................................................................................... 84
5.5.1 ASTM A 36 -12: Standard Specification for Carbon Structural Steel ................................ 84
5.5.2 ASTM A 53 -12: Standard Specification for Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc-
Coated, Welded and Seamless ............................................................................................................ 84
5.5.3 ASTM A 240 -13: Standard Specification for Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless
Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip for Pressure Vessels and for General Applications................................ 84
5.5.4 ASTM A 416 -12: Standard Specification for Steel Strand, Uncoated Seven-Wire for
Prestressed Concrete ........................................................................................................................... 85
5.5.5 ASTM A 653 -13: Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) or
Zinc-Iron Alloy-Coated (Galvannealed) by the Hot-Dip Process....................................................... 85
5.5.6 ASTM A 722 -12: Standard Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bars for
Prestressing Concrete .......................................................................................................................... 85
5.5.7 ASTM C876 09: Standard Test Method for Corrosion Potentials of Uncoated
Reinforcing Steel in Concrete ............................................................................................................. 85
5.5.8 ASTM D 1693 -13: Standard Test Method for Environmental Stress-Cracking of Ethylene
Plastics 85
5.5.9 ASTM D4101-14: Standard Specification for Polypropylene Injection and Extrusion
Materials 85
5.5.10 ASTM F 405 13: Standard Specification for Corrugated Polyethylene (PE) Pipe and
Fittings 85
5.6 Other ........................................................................................................................................... 86
5.6.1 Post-tensioned Multistrand Anchorage Capacity Deterioration Due to Corrosion: John Day
Lock Project ........................................................................................................................................ 86
5.6.2 Guide Specification for Grouted Post-Tensioning .............................................................. 86
5.6.3 Quality Control and Monitoring of Electrically Isolated Post-Tensioning Tendons in
Bridges 86
5.6.4 Swiss Guideline Measures to Ensure Durability of Post-Tensioning Tendons in Structures
87
6 Grout Condition .................................................................................................................................. 89
6.1 Application of Gamma Ray Scattering Technique for Non-Destructive Evaluation of Voids in
Concrete .................................................................................................................................................. 89
6.2 Quantitative Evaluation of Contactless Impact Echo for Non-Destructive Assessment of Void
Detection within Tendon Ducts .............................................................................................................. 89
6.3 Non-Destructive Testing Methods to Identify Voids in External Post-Tensioned Tendons ....... 89
6.4 Detecting Voids in Grouted Tendon Ducts of Post-Tensioned Concrete Structures Using Three
Different Methods ................................................................................................................................... 90
6.5 Concrete Bridge Condition Assessment with Impact Echo Scanning ........................................ 90
6.6 Inspection of Voids in External Tendons of Posttensioned Bridges ........................................... 90
ATLSS Report 14-01 FHWA Subtask 11.1 Page vi

6.7 Modified SIBIE Procedure for Ungrouted Tendon Ducts Applied to Scanning Impact-Echo ... 91
6.8 On-Site Measurement of Delamination and Surface Crack in Concrete Structure by Visualized
NDT 91
6.9 Identification of Ungrouted Tendon Duct in Prestressed Concrete by SIBIE ............................ 91
6.10 Estimation of Surface-Crack Depth in Concrete by Scanning SIBIE Procedure ........................ 92
6.11 Imaging of Internal Cracks in Concrete Structures Using the Surface Rendering Technique .... 92
6.12 Ultrasonic Imaging Methods for Investigation of Post-tensioned Concrete Structures: A Study
of Interfaces at Artificial Grouting and Its Verification.......................................................................... 93
6.13 Imaging Concrete Structures Using Air-Coupled Impact-Echo ................................................. 93
6.14 Impact-Echo Scanning Evaluation of Grout/Void Conditions Inside Bridge Post-Tensioning
Ducts for Tendon Corrosion Mitigation.................................................................................................. 93
6.15 Impact-Echo Scanning for Grout Void Detection in Post-tensioned Bridge Ducts - Findings
from a Research Project and a Case History ........................................................................................... 94
6.16 Sensitivity Studies of Grout Defects in Posttensioned Bridge Ducts Using Impact Echo
Scanning Method .................................................................................................................................... 94
6.17 Imaging of Ungrouted Tendon Ducts in Prestressed Concrete by Improved SIBIE................... 95
6.18 Automated NDE of Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridges Using Imaging Echo Methods .............. 95
6.19 Impact Echo Scanning for Discontinuity Detection and Imaging in Posttensioned Concrete
Bridges and Other Structures .................................................................................................................. 96
6.20 Complementary Application of Radar, Impact-Echo and Ultrasonics for Testing Concrete
Structures and Metallic Tendon Ducts .................................................................................................... 96
6.21 Contribution of Capacitance Probes for Nondestructive Inspection of External Post-Tensioned
Ducts 97
6.22 Ultrasonic Imaging of Concrete Elements Using Reconstruction by Synthetic Aperture
Focusing Technique ................................................................................................................................ 97
6.23 Ultrasonic Guided Waves for Inspection of Grouted Tendons and Bolts ................................... 97
6.24 Guidance on the use of NDE on Voided Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridge Beams using Impact
Echo 98
6.25 Use of the MegascanTM Imaging Process in Inspection Systems for Post-Tensioned Bridges and
Other Major Structures ........................................................................................................................... 98
6.26 Comparison of NDT Techniques on a Post-Tensioned Beam Before its Autopsy ..................... 98
6.27 Stack Imaging of Spectral Amplitudes Based on Impact-Echo for Flaw Detection ................... 99
6.28 Applications of Impact-Echo for Flaw Detection ....................................................................... 99
6.29 Ultrasonic Tomography of Grouted Duct Post-Tensioned Reinforced Concrete Bridge Beams 99
6.30 : Nondestructive Evaluation of Concrete and Masonry ............................................................ 100
6.31 Detecting Voids in Grouted Tendon Ducts of Post-Tensioned Concrete Structures using the
Impact Echo Method ............................................................................................................................. 100
7 Strand Corrosion ............................................................................................................................... 101
7.1 Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Reinforced Concrete under Accelerated Corrosion ............ 101
7.2 Corrosion Damage Quantification of Prestressing Strands using Acoustic Emission .............. 101
ATLSS Report 14-01 FHWA Subtask 11.1 Page vii

7.3 Detection of Corrosion of Post-Tensioned Strands in Grouted Assemblies ............................. 101
7.4 Monitoring of Electrically Isolated Post-Tensioning Tendons ................................................. 102
7.5 Evaluation of NDT Methods for Detection of Prestressing Steel Damage at Post-Tensioned
Concrete Structures ............................................................................................................................... 102
7.6 Enhanced Durability, Quality Control and Monitoring of Electrically Isolated Tendons ........ 103
7.7 Corrosion of the Strand-Anchorage System in Post-Tensioned Grouted Assemblies .............. 103
7.8 Long-Term Monitoring of Electrically Isolated Post-Tensioning Tendons .............................. 103
7.9 Electrical Isolation as Enhanced Protection for Posttensioning Tendons in Concrete Structures
(PL3) 104
7.10 Experience with Electrically Isolated Tendons in Switzerland................................................. 104
7.11 Protection Against Corrosion and Monitoring of Posttensioning Tendons in Prestressed
Concrete Railway Bridges in Italy ........................................................................................................ 104
7.12 Corrosion Protection and Monitoring of Electrically Isolated Post-Tensioning Tendons ........ 105
7.13 Mechanism of Corrosion of Steel Strands in Post Tensioned Grouted Assemblies ................. 105
7.14 Location of Prestressing Steel Fractures in Concrete ............................................................... 105
7.15 Half-Cell Potential Measurements Potential Mapping on Reinforced Concrete Structures .. 106
7.16 Ultrasonic Imaging A Novel Way to Investigate Corrosion Status in Post-Tensioned Concrete
Members ............................................................................................................................................... 106
7.17 Comparison of NDT Techniques on a Post-Tensioned Beam Before its Autopsy ................... 106
7.18 Recent Developments in SQUID NDE ..................................................................................... 107
7.19 SQUID Array for Magnetic Inspection of Prestressed Concrete Bridges ................................. 107
7.20 Continuous Acoustic Monitoring of Grouted Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridges ..................... 107
8 Strand Location ................................................................................................................................. 109
8.1 Application of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) as a Diagnostic Technique in Concrete Bridge
109
8.2 Rebar Detection Using GPR: An Emerging Non Destructive QC Approach ........................... 109
8.3 Results of Reconstructed and Fused NDT Data Measured in the Laboratory and On-Site
Bridges .................................................................................................................................................. 110
8.4 Ground Penetrating Radar for Concrete Evaluation Studies..................................................... 110
Structures and Metallic Tendon Ducts .................................................................................................. 110
8.6 Nondestructive Evaluation of Concrete Infrastructure with Ground Penetrating Radar ........... 111
8.7 Comparison of NDT Techniques on a Post-Tensioned Beam Before its Autopsy ................... 111
8.8 Condition Assessment of Transportation Infrastructure Using Ground-Penetrating Radar...... 111
8.9 Automated NDE of PT Concrete Structures ............................................................................. 112
9 Remaining Prestress .......................................................................................................................... 113
9.1 Detection of Initial Yield and Onset of Failure in Bonded Post-Tensioned Concrete Beams .. 113
9.2 Estimation of Existing Prestress Level on Bonded Strand Using Impact-Echo Test................ 113
ATLSS Report 14-01 FHWA Subtask 11.1 Page viii

9.3 Determination of the Residual Prestress Force of In-Service Girders using Non-Destructive
Testing113
9.4 Non-Destructive Evaluation of the Stress Levels in Prestressed Steel Strands using
Acoustoelastic Effect ............................................................................................................................ 114
9.5 Health Monitoring to Detect Failure of Prestressing (PS) Cables in Segmental Box-Girder
Bridges .................................................................................................................................................. 114
9.6 A Smart Steel Strand for the Evaluation of Prestress Loss Distribution in Post-Tensioned
Concrete Structures ............................................................................................................................... 115
9.7 Comparison of Prestress Losses for a Prestress Concrete Bridge Made with High-Performance
Concrete ................................................................................................................................................ 115
9.8 Ultrasonic Wave Propagation in Progressively Loaded Multi-Wire Strands ........................... 115
9.9 Application of a New Nondestructive Evaluation Technique to a 25-Year-Old Prestressed
Concrete Girder..................................................................................................................................... 116
10 NDE Methods with Multiple Applications ................................................................................... 117
10.1 Guidelines for the Thermographic Inspection of Concrete Bridge Components in Shaded
Conditions ............................................................................................................................................. 117
10.2 Comparison of NDT Methods for Assessment of a Concrete Bridge Deck ............................. 117
10.3 Use of Neutron Radiography and Tomography to Visualize the Autonomous Crack Sealing
Efficiency in Cementitious Materials ................................................................................................... 118
10.4 Commissioning of Portable 950 keV/3.95 MeV X-band Linac X-Ray Sources for On-Site
Transmission Testing ............................................................................................................................ 118
10.5 Non-Destructive Radiographic Evaluation and Repairs to Pre-Stressed Structure Following
Partial Collapse ..................................................................................................................................... 119
10.6 Application of Thermal IR Imagery for Concrete Bridge Inspection ....................................... 119
10.7 Gamma-Ray Inspection of Post Tensioning Cables in a Concrete Bridge ............................... 119
10.8 Environmental Effects on Subsurface Defect Detection in Concrete Structures Using Infrared
Thermography ....................................................................................................................................... 120
10.9 Gamma-Ray Imaging for Void and Corrosion Assessment in PT Girders ............................... 120
10.10 Evaluation of Radar and Complementary Echo Methods for NDT of Concrete Elements... 120
10.11 Thermographic Crack Detection by Eddy Current Excitation .............................................. 121
Bridges 121
10.13 Time-Domain Reflectometry to Detect Voids in Posttensioning Ducts ............................... 121
10.14 Ultrasonic C-Scan Imaging of Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridge Structures for Detection of
Corrosion and Voids ............................................................................................................................. 122
10.15 Progress in Ultrasonic Imaging of Concrete ......................................................................... 122
10.16 Recent Research in Nondestructive Evaluation of Civil Infrastructures............................... 123
10.17 Detecting Corrosion in Existing Structures Using Time Domain Reflectometry ................. 123
10.18 Ultrasonic C-scan Imaging: Preliminary Evaluation for Corrosion and Void Detection in
Posttensioned Tendons.......................................................................................................................... 124
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10.19 Time Domain Reflectometry for Void Detection in Grouted Posttensioned Bridges ........... 124
10.20 Use of the Megascan Imaging Process in Inspection Systems for Post Tensioned Bridges and
Other Major Structures ......................................................................................................................... 125
10.21 Non-Contact Ultrasonic Imagining for Post-Tensioned Bridges to Investigate Corrosion and
Void Status ............................................................................................................................................ 125
10.22 Experiments to Relate Acoustic Emission Energy to Fracture Energy of Concrete ............. 125
10.23 Corrosion Detection of Steel Cables Using Time Domain Reflectometry ........................... 126
10.24 The Impact-Echo Method: An Overview ............................................................................. 126
10.25 Accuracy of NDE in Bridge Assessment .............................................................................. 126
10.26 Detecting Faults in Posttensioning Ducts by Electrical Time-Domain Reflectometry ......... 127
10.27 Non-Destructive Examination of Corroded Concrete Structures using Radiography .......... 127
10.28 Using Emissivity-Corrected Thermal Maps to Locate Deep Structural Defects in Concrete
Bridge Decks......................................................................................................................................... 128
10.29 Imaging of Reinforced Concrete: State-of-the-Art Review ................................................. 128
10.30 Principles of Thermography and Radar for Bridge Deck Assessment .................................. 128
10.31 Automated NDE of PT Concrete Structures ......................................................................... 129
11 Sensor Networks and Damage Detection ...................................................................................... 130
11.1 Automatic Delamination Detection of Concrete Bridge Decks Using Impact Signals ............. 130
11.2 Autoregressive Statistical Pattern Recognition Algorithms for Damage Detection in Civil
Structures .............................................................................................................................................. 130
11.3 Procedures for Fatigue Crack Growth Monitoring and Fatigue Life Prediction Using Acoustic
Emission Data and Neural Networks .................................................................................................... 130
11.4 Time Series: Theory and Methods (2nd Edition) ....................................................................... 131
11.5 Discrete Wavelet Transform to Improve Guided-Wave-Based Health Monitoring of Tendons
and Cables ............................................................................................................................................. 131
11.6 Pattern Recognition Techniques for the Emerging Field of Bioinformatics: A Review........... 131
11.7 Introduction to Time Series and Forecasting (2nd Edition) ....................................................... 132
11.8 Resampling Methods: A Practical Guide to Data Analysis ...................................................... 132
11.9 Parameter Estimation and Hypothesis Testing in Linear Models ............................................. 132
11.10 Large-Scale Simulation Studies in Image Pattern Recognition ............................................ 132
11.11 The Jackknife and Bootstrap ................................................................................................. 132
11.12 Document Analysis- From Pixels to Contents ...................................................................... 133
11.13 Continuous Speech Recognition by Statistical Methods....................................................... 133
ATLSS Report 14-01 FHWA Subtask 11.1 Page x

Table of Figures
Figure 2.1: Cast-in-place post-tensioned construction in California............................................................ 2
Figure 2.2: Post-tensioned bulb-T girder fabrication and installation ......................................................... 3
Figure 2.3: Precast segmental balanced cantilever construction .................................................................. 4
Figure 2.4: Cast-in-Place segmental construction using form travelers....................................................... 4
Figure 2.5: Span-by-span construction ........................................................................................................ 5
Figure 2.6: Typical span post-tensioning for span-by-span construction .................................................... 5
Figure 2.7: Transverse post-tensioning in the top slab of box girder............................................................ 6
Figure 2.8: Precast segmental piers............................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2.9: Basic bearing plate anchorage system ....................................................................................... 7
Figure 2.10: Multi-plane anchorage system and confinement reinforcement .............................................. 8
Figure 2.11: Anchorage system for flat duct tendon (Courtesy of DSI) ....................................................... 8
Figure 2.12: Post-tensioning bar anchorage system..................................................................................... 9
Figure 2.13: Corrugated metal duct .............................................................................................................. 9
Figure 2.14: Corrugated plastic duct .......................................................................................................... 10
Figure 2.15: Permanent plastic grout caps ................................................................................................. 11
Figure 2.16 7-Wire Prestressing Strand (American Spring Wire Corp) ..................................................... 11
Figure 2.17: Post-Tensioning Bar (VSL) .................................................................................................... 12
Figure 2.18: Box girder damage due to improper drainage ....................................................................... 13
Figure 2.19: Epoxy joint leaking in early precast segmental bridges with internal tendons ....................... 13
Figure 2.20: Corrosion of strands just behind the wedge plate .................................................................. 14
Figure 2.21: External tendon corrosion along the free length of the tendon .............................................. 14
Figure 3.1: Acoustic emission monitoring of concrete beam flexure tests: (a) test assembly, .................. 17
Figure 3.2: Laboratory tests of acoustically monitored post-tensioned concrete beams under accelerated
corrosion (Figure adapted from Mangual et al. 2012) ................................................................................ 18
Figure 3.3: Electrically isolated tendon schematic (Figure adapted from Della Vedova and Elsener, 2006)
.................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 3.4: Connection box for impedance measurements (Elsener, 2004b) ............................................ 21
Figure 3.5: Principle of measuring the electrical impedance of a tendon with the LCR meter (Elsener and
Buchler, 2011)............................................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 3.6: Electrical equivalent circuit for an electrically isolated tendon with small defect (Elsener and
Buchler, 2011)............................................................................................................................................. 22
Figure 3.7: Limit Values (28 days after injection) (ASTRA, 2007) ........................................................... 22
Figure 3.8: Evolution of electrical resistance over time (Della Vedova and Elsener, 2006) ..................... 23
Figure 3.9: Schematic of GPR Process (Maierhofer, 2003)....................................................................... 25
Figure 3.10: Example of GPR components (Jones et al., 2010) ................................................................ 26
Figure 3.11: Mobile system with GPR antennas and data acquisition system (Iyer, Sinha and Schokker,
2005) ........................................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 3.12: 2D Radargram of Sample 1 revealing in the position of the embedded plastic ducts
(Cheilakou et al., 2012) ............................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 3.13: Transverse scan showing reduced refelection amplitude indication corrosion (Jones et al.,
2010) ........................................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 3.14: Reference Electrode Circuitry (ASTM C 876, 2009) ............................................................ 32
Figure 3.15: Half-cell electrode and multimeter (Naito, Jones and Hodgson, 2010) ................................ 33
Figure 3.16: Half-cell potential map (Naito, Jones and Hodgson, 2010)................................................... 34
Figure 3.17: Schematic illustration of the impact echo method (Carino, 2001) ......................................... 36
Figure 3.18: Finite element simulation of stress wave propagation in a linear elastic medium due to
impact loading (Carino, 2001) .................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 3.19: Frequency spectra from impact echo tests: (a) solid slab and (b) slab with a subsurface void
(Carino, 2001) ............................................................................................................................................. 37
ATLSS Report 14-01 FHWA Subtask 11.1 Page xi

Figure 3.20: Thermal image of a concrete block with subsurface voids (void depth shown) (Washer,
Fenwick and Nelson, 2013) ........................................................................................................................ 40
Figure 3.21: Magnetic flux leakage due to defect (DaSilva et al., 2009).................................................... 42
Figure 3.22: MFL system for post-tensioned bridge inspection (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a) ............... 43
Figure 3.23: MFL graph indicating no corrosion (Jones et al., 2010)......................................................... 43
Figure 3.24: MFL graph indicating corrosion (Jones et al., 2010) ............................................................. 43
Figure 3.25: Portable 7.5MeV X-ray Betatron (Sentinel, 2014) ................................................................. 46
Figure 3.26: Schematic illustration of radiographic testing (Rao, 2007) .................................................... 46
Figure 3.27: Radiographic images of post-tensioned concrete: (a) fully grouted post-tensioning steel duct,
(b) voided post-tensioning steel duct (Brown and St. Leger, 2003) ........................................................... 47
Figure 3.28: Functional block diagram for typical time domain reflectometer (Liu et al., 2002) ............. 52
Figure 3.29: Twin-conductor transmission line (Liu et al., 2002) ............................................................. 53
Figure 3.30: Time domain reflectometry return of 3m rebar sample with 50% pitting corrosion in middle
(Liu et al., 2002).......................................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 3.31: Reflected TDR voltage wave signal (Li et al., 2005) ............................................................. 54
Figure 3.32: Pulse-echo test configuration for the inspection of post-tensioning steel using guided
ultrasonic waves (Beard, Lowe and Cawley, 2003).................................................................................... 57
Figure 3.33: Illustration of ultrasonic imaging: equipment (top) and test configuration (bottom) for a shear
wave array (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a) ................................................................................................. 58
Figure 3.34: Illustration of a conventional SAFT image (top) and a phase modified SAFT image (bottom)
collected from a post-tensioned concrete beam. The color in the phase modified image indicates the
phase of the reflected wave (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a) ....................................................................... 58
Figure 3.35: Photos a and b show duct partially grouted with strand exposure. Photo c............................ 61
ATLSS Report 14-01 FHWA Subtask 11.1 Page xii

1 Introduction
Post-tensioned concrete bridges represent a major component of the American bridge inventory and due
to the benefits provided by this construction technique it is likely that many new post-tensioned concrete
bridges will be built in the future to meet our infrastructure needs. Post-tensioning tendons are comprised
of prestressing strand, ducts, anchorages, grout, and corrosion protection equipment. Current details for
the construction of post-tensioning tendons do not facilitate the long term inspection of the various tendon
components. Recent cases of unexpected corrosion of post-tensioning tendons have illustrated the
importance of developing detailing changes that would allow improved inspection and integration of
nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods.
This research program aims to develop guidance for the design and detailing of post-tensioned bridges
and tendon components to facilitate integration of NDE methods. This guidance includes evaluation of
both internal and external post tensioning systems with emphasis on precast I-girder, precast U-girder,
precast segmental box girder, and cast in-place box girder superstructures. This study focuses only on
grouted PT systems and bridge superstructure elements.
This report represents a comprehensive literature review on topics associated with the goals of the
research effort. Included in section 2 is an overview of PT bridge systems. The details on the components
of these systems, the materials used, and the problems observed are presented and discussed. Section 3
details the methods used for NDE inspection of concrete systems. The discussion is tailored toward the
application of these methods for PT systems. This section is written to provide the background on the
methods. Section 4 discusses the merits and limitations of the NDE methods and provides a
recommendation on the use of the methods in PT systems.
A summary of published literature relating to deterioration of post-tensioned bridge systems is included in
sections 5 through 11 of the report. The summary includes published reports from reputable
organizations, refereed journal papers and conference proceedings. Within each of these sections the title,
author, and brief abstract of the publication is provided. The literature review focuses on NDE techniques
that can be used to detect the following issues in posttensioned bridge girder systems: (1) Grout
Voids/Condition, (2) Strand/Anchorage Corrosion, and (3) Remaining Prestress Force. Within each of
these categorizes NDE techniques that can be used to identify issues with existing PT systems and NDE
techniques that can be integrated into new construction will be presented.
Section 5 contains related literature published by agencies and organizations including state departments
of transportation, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), and National Cooperative Highway
Research Program (NCHRP). Many of these reports are comprehensive and address the inspection of the
PT system as a whole including NDE techniques for the detection of grout voids/condition,
strand/anchorage corrosion and remaining prestress force. Since a number of the reports in this section
review many different NDE techniques they also provide guidance and recommendations on their
findings. This section is subdivided based on the agency producing the report.
Sections 6 (grout condition), 7 (strand corrosion), 8 (strand location), and 9 (remaining prestress force)
identify journal articles and conference papers that contain information on NDE techniques that can be
used to specifically address these issues. Section 10 contains literature on NDE techniques that can be
used to identify one or more of the issues addressed in sections 6 through 8. Section 11 summarizes
literature related to how data can be collected using sensor networks to identify damage.
ATLSS Report 14-01 FHWA Subtask 11.1 Page 1

2 Brief Overview on Post-tensioned Bridge Construction and Issues
To understand the technology needed for improved inspection methods for post-tensioned bridge systems
it is necessary to have a basic understanding of the systems and the damage that has been observed. This
topic has been covered in depth by Corven (2002) (See sections 5.1.12 through 5.1.20). For completeness
of this report a short overview of post-tensioned bridge construction and observed damage conditions are
summarized in this section. A detailed effort on this topic will be provided in follow-on reports.
2.1 Post-Tensioned Bridge Construction

Prestressing can be applied to concrete bridge members in two ways, by pretensioning or post-tensioning.
In pretensioned members the prestressing strands are tensioned against restraining bulkheads before the
concrete is cast. After the concrete has been placed, allowed to harden and attained sufficient strength, the
strands are released and their force is transferred to the concrete member. Prestressing by post-tensioning
involves installing and stressing prestressing strand or bar tendons after the concrete has been placed,
hardened and attained a minimum compressive strength for that transfer. This section presents the major
types of post-tensioned concrete bridges.
2.1.1 Cast-in-Place Bridges on Falsework

Bridges of this type have a superstructure cross-section of solid or cellular construction. They are built
on-site using formwork supported by temporary falsework (Figure 2.1). Formwork creates the shape of
the concrete section and any internal voids or diaphragms. Reinforcement and post-tensioning ducts are
installed in the forms and then the concrete is placed, consolidated and cured. When the concrete attains
sufficient strength, post-tensioning strands are installed and stressed to predetermined forces.
Figure 2.1: Cast-in-place post-tensioned construction in California
Longitudinal post-tensioning is typically comprised of multi-strand tendons draped along the length of the
girder to a designed profile. In continuous spans, the tendon profile lies in the bottom of the girder in the
mid-span region and rises to the top of the section over interior supports. In simple spans and at the
expansion ends of continuous spans, post-tensioning anchors are arranged vertically so that the resultant
of the tendon anchor force passes close to the centroid of the section.

2.1.2 Post-Tensioned AASHTO, Bulb-T, and Spliced Girders
Precast, post-tensioned AASHTO and bulb-T girders may be cast in segments and later post-tensioned
together to make simple spans or a series of continuous spans. The individual girder segments are
typically pre-tensioned at the precast plant to carry their own self weight during transportation to the site
and erection. Figure 2.2 show the fabrication and stressing operations for a simple span bulb-T girder.
Post-tensioning ducts that are cast into the webs are spliced at the cast-in-place joints. The ducts follow a
smoothly curved, draped profile along each girder line. For continuous spans, the profiles rise to the top
of the girders over the interior piers and drape to the bottom flange in mid-span regions. Longer spans
can be built using similar techniques. A variable depth girder section cantilevering over a pier can be
spliced to a typical precast girder in the main and side-spans.
Figure 2.2: Post-tensioned bulb-T girder fabrication and installation
2.1.3 Segmental Box Girder Bridges
2.1.3.1 Precast Segmental Balanced Cantilever Bridges
Precast segmental balanced cantilever construction, shown in Figure 2.3, involves the symmetrical
erection of segments about a supporting pier. When a segment is lifted into position, adjoining match-
cast faces are coated with epoxy and temporary post-tensioning bars are installed and stressed to attach
the segment to the cantilever. Typically, after a new, balancing segment, is in place on each end of the
cantilever, post-tensioning tendons are installed and stressed from one segment on one end of the
cantilever to its counter-part on the other.

Figure 2.3: Precast segmental balanced cantilever construction
2.1.3.2 Cast-in-Place Segmental Balanced Cantilever Bridges
Cast-in-place balanced cantilever construction, depicted in Figure 2.4, uses form travelers to cast
segments at the end of the cantilevers. Form travelers support the concrete of the newly cast segment
until it has reached a satisfactory strength for post-tensioning. The types of longitudinal post-tensioning
tendons used in cast-in-place balanced cantilever construction are the same as for precast segment
balanced cantilever.
Figure 2.4: Cast-in-Place segmental construction using form travelers

2.1.3.3 Precast Segmental Balanced Cantilever Bridges
Span-by-span construction involves the erection of all segments of a span on a temporary support system
with small closure joints cast at one or both ends next to the segments over the pier. Figure 2.5 shows
span-by-span construction using an overhead gantry to temporarily support the precast segments.
Figure 2.5: Span-by-span construction
Span-by-span bridges typically use tendons that are external to the concrete box girder. Figure 2.6 shows
a typical layout of external tendons in a span-by-span bridge. The tendons anchor high at each end of the
span in diaphragms cast with the end segments. Within the span, the tendons deviate through deviators to
provide the needed vertical tendon profile.
Figure 2.6: Typical span post-tensioning for span-by-span construction
2.1.4 Transverse Top Slab Post-Tensioning

Top slabs of precast and cast-in-place segmental, and similar boxes cast-in-place on falsework are often
transversely post-tensioned. Transverse post-tensioning typically comprises internal, multi-strand
tendons grouted after stressing. Tendons are spaced at regular, frequent intervals, approximately 2 to 3
feet along the length of the structure. Tendons anchor in the block-outs in the edges of the top slab
cantilever wings. Block-outs are subsequently filled with concrete and are usually covered with a traffic

barrier. Figure 2.7 shows the positioning of transverse post-tensioning tendons in a cast-in-place balanced
cantilever box girder bridge.
Figure 2.7: Transverse post-tensioning in the top slab of box girder
2.1.5 Post-Tensioning of Substructures

Substructures for most bridges are typically built using reinforced concrete construction. Special bents,
required to miss underlying obstacles, or to accommodate wide bridges, may also contain post tensioning
tendons. Post-tensioning tendons are sometimes used in hammerheads of t-piers, straddle bents, and
cantilever piers.
Precast concrete segmental piers, similar to that shown in Figure 2.8, with vertical post-tensioning have
been used on many projects. The piers are vertically post-tensioned with a combination of PT bars and
strand tendons. The post-tensioning bars are used to temporarily secure precast segments and compress
epoxy in the joints as they are erected prior to installing permanent strand tendons. Strand tendons are
typically full height, being anchored in the pier cap at the top and in the footing at the bottom.

Figure 2.8: Precast segmental piers
2.2 Post-Tensioned Components

This section presents the most commonly used types of post-tensioning components used in bridge
construction.
2.2.1 Anchorages
2.2.1.1 Basic Bearing Plate Systems
A basic bearing plate is a flat plate bearing directly against concrete. This includes square, rectangular, or
round plates, sheared or torch cut from readily available steel plate, normally ASTM A36. Basic bearing
plates are used in conjunction with galvanized sheet metal or plastic trumpets to transition from the strand
spacing in the wedge plate to the duct (Figure 2.9).
Figure 2.9: Basic bearing plate anchorage system

2.2.1.2 Special Bearing Plate Systems
A special bearing plate or anchorage device is any anchorage hardware that transfers tendon force into the
concrete but does not meet normal analytical design requirements for basic bearing plates. Covered by
this definition are devices having single or multiple plane bearing surfaces, and devices combining
bearing and wedge plate in once piece. These anchorages typically require increased confinement
reinforcement and should be accepted on the basis of physical tests. Figure 2.10 shows a cut-away view
of a multi-plane anchorage system. These systems are commonly confined with spiral reinforcement
around the anchor. Figure 2.11 shows the components of the anchorage system for a four strand tendon in
flat duct, commonly used in slabs.
Figure 2.10: Multi-plane anchorage system and confinement reinforcement
Figure 2.11: Anchorage system for flat duct tendon (Courtesy of DSI)
2.2.1.3 Post-Tensioning Bar Anchor Systems
Anchorage systems for post-tensioning bars are comprised of bearing plates and anchor nuts similar to the
components shown in Figure 2.12.

Figure 2.12: Post-tensioning bar anchorage system
2.2.2 Ducts
2.2.2.1 Corrugated Steel
Corrugated ducts and connectors should be fabricated from galvanized sheet steel that meets the
requirements of ASTM A653, with coating designation G90 (PTI/ASBI M50.3-12, 2012). The ducts are
spirally wound to the necessary diameter from strip steel with a minimum wall thickness of 0.45mm (26-
gauge) for ducts less than 66mm (2-5/8 in) diameter or 0.6mm (24-gauge) for ducts of greater diameter.
These ducts are manufactured with welded or interlocking seams with sufficient rigidity to maintain the
correct profile between supports during concrete placement (Figure 2.13). Ducts should also be able to
flex without crimping or flattening. Joints between sections of duct and between ducts and anchor
components should be made with positive, metallic connections that provide a smooth interior alignment
with no lips or abrupt angle changes.
Figure 2.13: Corrugated metal duct

2.2.2.2 Smooth, Rigid, Steel Pipe
Rigid steel ducts are typically used in those portions of external tendons deviating though segmental
bridge pier segment diaphragms or deviators. In these areas of curved tendon alignments, the steel pipe
should be pre-fabricated to the required radius. Smooth steel pipes should conform to ASTM A53/A53M
Standard Specification for Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc Coated, Welded and Seamless,
Grade B Schedule 40.
2.2.2.3 Corrugated Plastic
Corrugated plastic ducts, as shown in Figure 2.14, are also used for tendons internal to the concrete.
These ducts should be seamless and fabricated from polyethylene or polypropylene (ASTM F405 and
D4101) meeting the requirements of Section 4.3.5.2 of Guide Specification for Grouted Post-
Tensioning (PTI/ASBI M50.3-12, 2012).
Figure 2.14: Corrugated plastic duct
2.2.3 Permanent Grout Caps

Permanent grout caps similar to those shown in Figure 2.15 are provided to protect the tendons at the
anchorages. Permanent grout caps are made of a non-corrosive material such as fiber reinforced plastic,
stainless steel, or galvanized ferrous metal with a minimum thickness of zinc of 120 m. To ensure an
enduring, maintenance-free, life of 75 years fiber reinforced plastic caps should contain an anti-oxidant
additive with an environmental stress cracking endurance of 192 hours per ASTM D1693; stainless steel
caps should meet the requirements of ASTM A240 Type 316.

Figure 2.15: Permanent plastic grout caps
2.2.4 Prestressing Strand

The strand used in post-tensioned bridge systems must meet the requirements of ASTM A416,Standard
Specification for Steel Strand Uncoated Seven-Wire for Prestressed Concrete, and consist of wires
having a center wire enclosed tightly by six helically placed outer wires with uniform pitch of not less
than 12 and not more than 16 times the nominal diameter of the strand. Unless otherwise noted on the
contract documents uncoated Grade 270, low relation, 7- wire strand (Figure 2.16) should be used
(PTI/ASBI M50.3-12, 2012).
Figure 2.16 7-Wire Prestressing Strand (www.amspringwire.com)
2.2.5 Post-Tensioning Bars

Bars used in post-tensioned tendons shall conform to ASTM A722, Standard Specification for Uncoated
High-Strength Steel Bar for Prestressing Concrete. Bars have a minimum ultimate tensile strength of
150,000 psi (1035 MPa). Unless otherwise noted in the contract documents, Grade 150, uncoated, high
strength, thread bar shall be used (PTI/ASBI M50.3-12, 2012).

Figure 2.17: Post-Tensioning Bar (www.vsl.net)
2.3 Damage Conditions Observed in PT Tendons

This section provides a brief overview of damage found in post-tensioned bridges related to post-
tensioning corrosion.
2.3.1 Corrosion Along the Length of Internal Tendons

Salt laden water that permeates into sound concrete over time can eventually reach tendons embedded in
concrete elements. The damage shown in Figure 2.18 is an extreme case where a box girder bridges
drainage system leaked into the core of the box over the course of 25 years. Both the surrounding duct
and enclosed strands were highly corroded.

Figure 2.18: Box girder damage due to improper drainage
2.3.2 Cantilever Tendon Corrosion through Segment Joints

Some precast segmental bridges have reported water leaking through the epoxied joints (Figure 2.19) and
efflorescence coming from the top slab continuity tendons. These bridges were of a vintage where plastic
duct and duct couplers were not used. As a result, there is concern that the leaking joints could lead to
corrosion in the internal cantilever tendons.
Figure 2.19: Epoxy joint leaking in early precast segmental bridges with internal tendons
3.3.3 External Tendon Failure by Corrosion at the Anchorages

Two span-by-span bridges have experienced failure of an external post-tensioning tendon as a result of
corrosion at the end anchorages. Examination of the removed tendon indicated a void in the grout and
heavy pitting of the prestressing strands inside the anchor head (Figure 2.20). Initially, the corrosion was
attributed to excessive bleed water at grout/void interface. Further investigation indicated that cyclical
recharge of the void in the anchor head by water contaminated by wind-born ocean salt spray was a

primary cause of tendon corrosion. The contaminated water leaked through the expansion joints and ran
down the inside faces of the segment diaphragms onto the anchorages.
Figure 2.20: Corrosion of strands just behind the wedge plate
3.3.4 External Tendon Corrosion along the Free Length of Tendon

A few tendons in early span-by-span post-tensioned bridges have experienced corrosion along the free
length of the tendons, between the diaphragms and deviators (Figure 2.21). This type of damage was
attributed to a breach in the surrounding polyethylene duct, allowing access of moisture and development
of isolated corrosion.
Figure 2.21: External tendon corrosion along the free length of the tendon
2.3.3 Cases of Post-Tensioned Tendon Corrosion

Table 2.1 presents a number of post-tensioned bridges that experienced tendon corrosion throughout their
service life. Included in the table is the bridge name, bridge type, location of the bridge and observed
damage to the tendons. The degree of damage observed varied included significant tendon corrosion,
complete failure of tendons, and in some extreme cases complete collapse of the bridge. In cases where

the tendons did not reach the point of failure the tendon corrosion observed was significant enough to
cause bridge closures and/or require repairs to the system.
Observed
Bridge Name Bridge Type Location Year Damage Causes of Corrosion
Precast
Niles Channel Tendon Water infiltration into tendon
Segmental PT Florida 1999
Bridge* Failure anchorage with voids
Box Girder
Precast
Mid Bay Tendon Cracked PT ducts and exposed strand
Bridge* Failure along water bleed trails
Box Girder
Precast Poor grout quality/practices, voids
Sunshine Segmental PT Tendon near anchorage, cracked HDPE
Florida 2000 ducts, water infiltration through
Skyway** Box Girder / Failure
#
Cable Stay segmental joints
Deficient Grout (Grout having high
Precast
Ringling Tendon moisture content, high pore water
Causeway*** Failure pH, low total chloride concentrations
Box Girder
and high sulfate concentrations)
Varina-Enon Cable Stay with Tendon Voids in tendons and absence of
++ Virginia 2001 #
Bridge PT Box Girder Failure grout
Bickton Mortar joints allowed moisture,
Precast Bridge chlorides and oxygen transport at
Meadows UK 1967
Segmental Collapse #
Footbridge joints
Transverse joints between segments
Ynys-Y- Bridge
+++ Segmental PT Whales 1985 filled with dry mortar caulking
Gwas Collapse #
allowing water infiltration
Malle Precast Bridge Voids in duct and ingress of water
+++ Belgium 1992
Bridge Segmental Collapse and chlorides
+ ++ +++
*(Powers et al., 1999), **(Garcia, 2006), ***(Goldsberry, 2013), (Sprinkel and Napier, 2008),
#
(Youn and Kim, 2006), (Trejo et al., 2009)
Table 2.1: Cases of Post-Tension Tendon Corrosion

3 Overview of Applicable Inspection Methods
To address the issues with current PT bridge construction, as discussed in section 2, an overview of the
applicable inspection methods are provided. Each overview includes a summary on the use of the
method, a description of the method, accuracy as reported in the literature, and recommended use with
respect to post-tensioned grouted bridge systems. The methods examined in this section in, alphabetical
order, are summarized below.
Acoustic Emission
Electrically Isolated Tendons
Ground Penetrating Radar
Half-Cell Potential
Impact Echo
Infrared Thermography
Radiography
Time Domain Reflectometry
Ultrasonic Testing
Visual Inspection
3.1 Acoustic Emission
3.1.1 Applications
Acoustic emission (AE) monitoring techniques have applications in various fields. In the chemical
industry AE is used to detect stress corrosion cracking, pitting and crevice corrosion in stainless steel. In
the field of civil engineering this method has been used to monitor railroad, highway bridges, load-
bearing structures, pipes and storage tanks (Chang and Liu, 2003). AE has been applied for the detection
and localization of corrosion-induced cracking in steel reinforcing bars (Di Benedetti et al., 2012), for
detecting the onset of corrosion of bonded prestressing tendons (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a), measuring
mass loss in prestressing steel (Mangual et al. 2012), for identifying initial yield in bonded post-
tensioning tendons (Salamone et al., 2012), and for the identification of wire fracture in bonded, partially
bonded and unbonded prestressing strands (Cullington et al., 2001).
3.1.2 Methodology
Acoustic emission monitoring is a nondestructive method that can be used for both global and local
monitoring. AE can refer to both the monitoring technique itself and the phenomenon on which this
technique is based. The AE phenomenon refers to the transient elastic waves that are generated by the
rapid release of energy from localized material or bond failures, per ASTM E1316. The AE technique
refers to the use of one or more sensors to capture these events that may take place in a material (Di
Benedetti et al., 2012). Acoustic emission monitoring is considered to be a passive monitoring
technique where the detection system must wait for an occurrence, usually due to corrosion, wire fracture
or cracking, to capture stress waves (Ciolko and Tabatabai, 1999). Effective implementation of this
method in the field requires continuous monitoring and a permanent data acquisition system.
AE monitoring provides information regarding plastic changes in a material or structure by recording the
transient stress waves generated by the rapid release of energy from localized material or interfacial bond
failures. These stress waves propagate through the material and are recorded by surface-mounted and/or
embedded sensors. By utilizing a network of spatially distributed sensors, the energy source can then be
located by using triangulation techniques. The recorded waveforms can also be compared to experimental
and/or numerical simulation data in order to identify causality (i.e. the damage mechanism that provided

the source of energy release). Material failures are typically characterized by short burst emissions (short
rise time) with intensities that are larger than the continuous background noise in the recording.
An application of AE monitoring is illustrated in Figure 3.1 for a concrete beam flexure test. The typical
shape of the resulting waveform and time history recording of cumulative AE energy are presented in
Figure 3.1 (b) and (c), respectively. The energy released by the damage mechanism is measured as the
area under the amplitude-time curve, while rise time and signal duration (defined in Figure 3.1 (b)) can
provide clues regarding the type of damage mechanism. By utilizing a network of sensors along the
surface of the structure, variations in AE events at different transducer positions can be calculated. The
location of the AE event can then be determined by using triangulation techniques.
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 3.1: Acoustic emission monitoring of concrete beam flexure tests: (a) test assembly,
(b) typical acoustic emission signal, (c) load and acoustic emission energy histories
(Figure adapted from Landis and Baillon, 2002)
A schematic illustration of the test assembly utilized by Mangual et al. (2012) for studying mass loss in
prestressing strands under accelerated corrosion is presented in Figure 3.2(a). The study suggests that AE
monitoring, using the approach outlined previously, can provide estimates of corrosion-induced mass loss
that are comparable with the half-cell potential method. Figure 3.2(b) shows an increase in cumulative
AE energy refered to as cumulative signal strength (CSS) that occurs near the onset of corrosion in the
post-tensioning steel. Note that this sharp increase was only observed in one of the nine cases illustrated.

(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 3.2: Laboratory tests of acoustically monitored post-tensioned concrete beams under accelerated
corrosion (Figure adapted from Mangual et al. 2012)
An examination of AE monitoring techniques for corrosion detection in post-tensioning tendons was
conducted by Cullington et al., 2001. They utilized a SoundPrint acoustic monitoring system to examine
a 10 m long post-tensioned concrete beam. The study found that wire fractures in unbonded tendons
produced very large events which could be easily detected by the monitoring system. Fractures in
grouted tendons were found to be more difficult to detect due to the fact that the magnitude of the event
caused by the wire fracture was much smaller (Cullington et al., 2001). The system examined was later
installed for monitoring on the Railway Viaduct in Huntingdon U.K.
3.1.3 Limitations
One of the major limitations of AE monitoring is that this method is not able to detect existing damage,
i.e. damage occurring prior to the installation of the structural monitoring system. AE application in the
field can also be expensive and can generate large volumes of data that can be difficult to interpret
(Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a). When this method is applied in the field expertise is required to
differentiate signals created by damage events from those generated by ambient noise. This method also
requires supporting experimental and/or numerical data for calibration and validation of signal processing
and data interpretation algorithms. A priori knowledge of the baseline condition of the structure is
necessary since the procedure relies on an estimation of cumulative damage. The accuracy of AE
monitoring is influenced by signal attenuation (distance between the AE event and surface transducers),
specimen geometry (multiple reflective surface and orientations can complicate data interpretation), and
material composition. Finally, for post-tensioning applications, the AE method requires a high number of
closely spaced sensors due to the leakage of the ultrasonic waves into the concrete (Bartoli et al., 2009).
3.1.4 Viability in Post-Tensioned Applications

AE is currently best suited for continuous monitoring of fracture sensitive details, e.g. post-tensioning
steel anchorage regions and tie down locations, and where environmental corrosion poses a significant

threat. The use of sensor networks can enhance damage detection and location capabilities. Acoustic
emission can be successfully applied in practice for the detection of corrosion induced failures of
prestressing wire for unbonded tendons and stay cables (Iyer, Schokker and Sinha, 2002). Although
recent laboratory experiments have shown promising results for detecting the onset of corrosion in
bonded prestressing tendons (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a) this technology has not been used validated in
realistic PT bridge structures and would require additional evaluation to ensure that it is capable of
measuring damage associated with breakage of individual wires or strands. Additional research is needed
to validate the approach for realistic field applications.
3.1.5 References
Further information on acoustic emission monitoring can be found in the following references included in
this report:
Report Volume 1 (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a)
Concrete Bridges- Final Report Volume II (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012b)
5.3.2 Nondestructive Methods for Condition Evaluation of Prestressing Steel Strands in Concrete
Bridges, Final Report Phase I: Technology Review (Ciolko and Tabatabai, 1999)
7.1 Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Reinforced Concrete under Accelerated Corrosion (Di
Benedetti et al., 2012)
7.2 Corrosion Damage Quantification of Prestressing Strands using Acoustic Emission (Mangual
et al., 2012)
7.16 Ultrasonic Imaging A Novel Way to Investigate Corrosion Status in Post-Tensioned
Concrete Members (Iyer, Schokker and Sinha, 2002)
7.20 Continuous Acoustic Monitoring of Grouted Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridges (Cullington
et al., 2001)
9.1 Detection of Initial Yield and Onset of Failure in Bonded Post-Tensioned Concrete Beams
(Salamone et al., 2012)
Bridges (Bartoli et al., 2009)
10.16 Recent Research in Nondestructive Evaluation of Civil Infrastructures (Chang and Liu,
2003)
10.22 Experiments to Relate Acoustic Emission Energy to Fracture Energy of Concrete (Landis
and Bailon, 2002)
10.29 Imaging of Reinforced Concrete: State-of-the-Art Review (Pla-Rucki and Eberhard, 1995)
11.1 Automatic Delamination Detection of Concrete Bridge Decks Using Impact Signals
(Zhang, Harichandran, and Ramuhalli, 2012)
11.3 Procedures for Fatigue Crack Growth Monitoring and Fatigue Life Prediction Using
Acoustic Emission Data and Neural Networks (Barsoum et al., 2011)
3.2 Electrically Isolated Tendons
3.2.1 Applications
Electrically isolated tendons (EIT) are an enhanced tendon/anchorage detailing system used in bonded
post-tensioned systems. One of the main advantages in comparison to traditional tendon/anchorage
systems is that an EIT system provides enhanced corrosion protection of the tendons and allows for
quality control during construction and monitoring during the service life of the system (Della Vedova
and Elsener, 2006). EIT systems are typically used in situations where corrosion due to stray current is a

potential issue or in systems where a high level of protection of the strands is desired. In addition to
quality control monitoring the EIT system also has the potential to identify breeches in the corrosion
protection system of the tendon throughout the service life of the structure by monitoring for the ingress
of water into the grouted duct.
3.2.2 Methodology
The electrically isolated tendon system for internal grouted post-tensioning applications was developed to
provide an increased level of protection and provide monitoring capability of the tendons. Electrically
isolated tendons differ from typical post-tensioned system details in that they provide full electrical
isolation of the PT tendons from the normal rebar network. This requires the use of electrically isolated
anchor heads, corrugated plastic ducts (polyethylene or polypropylene), and special care at grout vents.
Detailing of EITs is critical to the effective implementation of the system, particularly near the
anchorages in order to ensure complete encapsulation and electrical isolation. An overview of the design
of an electrically isolated system is provided by Della Vedova and Elsener, 2006. The following provides
a summary of the detailing required at the anchorage region to ensure electrical isolation of the system.
In order to achieve electrical isolation a mechanically resistant insulation plate is placed between the steel
anchor head with wedges that block the strand and cast iron bearing plate. This electrically isolates the
tendon from the non-prestressed reinforcement network. In addition a plastic trumpet is tightly connected
to the duct inside the anchorage to isolate the strand from the cast-iron bearing anchorage. An electric
terminal must attached to the anchorage head and appropriately routed to allow access for impedance
measurements. It is important that an access box be used to collect the electrical terminals from the
tendons and that it be positioned to provide easy access for future inspection and maintenance personnel
(Della Vedova and Elsener, 2006). A schematic of a typically electrically isolated tendon anchorage is
presented in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3: Electrically isolated tendon schematic (Figure adapted from Della Vedova and Elsener, 2006)
One of the major advantages of using electrically isolated tendons is that the corrosion protection of the
steel strands can be monitored during construction and throughout the service life of the structure using
AC impedance measurements (electrical resistance measurements). The impedance measurements require
a sound electrical connection to each tendon and an additional connection to the non-prestressed
reinforcement in the component (Elsener, 2004b). Typically, all connection wires are routed to an
accessible connection box, which will be used by inspectors to take measurements (Figure 3.4). The
impedance measurements are taken with a portable LCR meter, which can measure the inductance (L),
the capacitance (C), and resistance (R) of a component. For the chosen measurement frequency the LCR

meter then calculates and displays the ohmic resistance (R), the capacitance (C), and the loss factor (D),
which are then recorded by the inspector (Elsener, 2004b).
Figure 3.4: Connection box for impedance measurements (Elsener, 2004b)
The impedance measurements taken are performed between the steels stand in the duct and the normal
(non-prestressed) reinforcement network in the concrete (Figure 3.5). Therefore, the measuring system
includes the grout within the duct, the duct itself (including any defects) and the concrete surrounding the
duct (Elsener and Buchler, 2011). The concrete and grout are pure resistances (in the range of measuring
frequencies between 100 and 1000 Hz), in contrast the plastic duct is in essence a capacitance in parallel
with a very high resistance (Figure 3.6), as a result system defects and/or imperfections are represented by
ohmic resistance in parallel (Elsener, 2008). The ohmic resistance, capacitance, and loss factor
measurements can determine the degree of electrical isolation at any time after grouting, which is used for
quality control and long term monitoring of the corrosion protection of the tendons (Della Vedova,
Elsener, Evangelista, 2004).
Figure 3.5: Principle of measuring the electrical impedance of a tendon with the LCR meter (Elsener and
Buchler, 2011)

Figure 3.6: Electrical equivalent circuit for an electrically isolated tendon with small defect (Elsener and
Buchler, 2011)
It is recommended by Elsener and Buchler, 2011, that impedance measurements be taken after the
tendons have been stressed but before introducing the grouting material. These resistance measurements
can be used to identify short circuits or unexpected low impedance values between the prestressing
strands and the normal reinforcement, allowing the possibility for repairs to be made. For quality control
purposes in order for electrically isolated tendons to meet the acceptance criteria resistance measurements
must be taken after the tendon is grouted and compared to the published limiting values (Figure 3.7).
Based on the 2007 revision to the Swiss guideline Measures to Ensure Durability of Post-Tensioning
Tendons in Structures (ASTRA, 2007) the electrical resistance measurements may be performed anytime
between 7 and 56 days and normalizing the measured values to 28 days. In addition, the acceptance
criteria have been adjusted to reflect the various applications for which EIT can specified; preventing
fretting between the normal reinforcement and prestressing strand (fatigue), use for the purpose of long
term monitoring (monitoring) and for protection against stray current (stray current).
Figure 3.7: Limit Values (28 days after injection) (ASTRA, 2007)
For long term monitoring the resistance values can be analyzed over time to provide information on the
condition of the corrosion protection system. A continuous increase in the resistance measurements over
time is expected due to the hydration of the grout and concrete surrounding the tendon. Figure 3.8 shows
an example of the increasing trend of electrical resistance measurements that is expected with time.
Based on this principle that the resistance measurements should increase over time early warning signs of
a breech in the corrosion protection system can potentially be identified by deviations from the trend line
(decreasing resistance measurements). It should be noted that it is important to monitor the temperature at
the time of inspection because temperature variations can cause some variation in the expected
measurements.

As previously mentioned a deviation in the trend of the resistance measurements over time can indicate
that a defect in the corrosion protection system is present. An increase in moisture level of the grout or
concrete is typically the cause of the decrease in measured resistance, so the ingress of water potentially
containing chlorides can be identified at an early stage. If inspections are conducted a regular intervals
the electrical impedance measurements can provide early warnings that the corrosion protection systems
has been breached before corrosion begins (Elsener, 2005).
Figure 3.8: Evolution of electrical resistance over time (Della Vedova and Elsener, 2006)
The use of electrically isolated tendons for monitoring purposes have been tested in laboratory
experiments (Elsener and Buchler, 2011; Elsener, 2008; Elsener 2004a) and have more recently been
implemented in a number of post-tensioned bridges in Switzerland and Italy (Elsener, 2008; Della
Vedova and Elsener, 2006; Elsener 2004b; Della Vedova and Evangelista, 2004; Della Vedova, Elsener
and Evangelista, 2004) where data measurements for quality control monitoring have been collected and
published. In addition guidelines for implementing electrically isolated tendons into post-tensioned
construction have been developed and published in a Swiss guideline Measures to Ensure Durability of
Post-Tensioning Tendons in Structures (ASTRA, 2007). Example of bridges where electrically isolated
tendons are current implemented include Piaceza Viaduct and Marchiazza Viaduct in Italy and P.S. du
Milieu, Wiesebrucke Basel and Glattal Viaduct in Switzerland.
3.2.3 Limitations
One of the limitations that arise with respect to NDE using electrically isolated tendons is that fact that
this type of evaluation cannot be used on existing systems with conventional non-isolated
tendon/anchorage detailing. When implementing EITs into new construction extreme care must be taken
during the construction phase to insure that electrical isolation of the tendon is achieved. If a short circuit
is present then future NDE is not possible, making the system ineffective. Currently the acceptance
criteria for EITs is strict but can be achieved if there is adequate planning and detailing in the design stage
assuring there is room for the tendon between normal rebar, careful workmanship during the construction
phase and the control over the ducts for leaks at joints, couplers, welding or defects is taken (Elsener,
2005).
Another limitation of the EIT system is that it although it can potentially identify breeches in the
corrosion protection system the method cannot currently identify the location of defect along length of the

tendon. Being able to determine the location of the damage along the length tendon would be an area
worth investigating for improvement of the EIT system. The information gained by being able to
determine defect location would make this a more complete system by allowing the area of damage to
quickly be investigated with respect to durability and allow for repairs to be made. Some recent efforts
have been made to determine if applying the magnetic flux method using the electrical connections
between the prestressing strand and normal reinforcing can be used to successfully identify defect
location along the strand (Elsener and Buchler, 2011). It should also be noted that although these systems
have been implemented there have been no known cases where damage has been identified based on long
term monitoring techniques. This may be attributed to the fact that these systems have not been in place
long enough (15-20 years) where corrosion of the tendons is expected, but this should continue to be
investigated over time to establish the capability for long term monitoring.

Electrically isolated tendons are applicable where internal grouted tendons require the highest level of
protection and/or for monitoring of the tendons for quality control and throughout the life of the structure.
Currently the main advantage of this system is the ability to provide quality control measurements leading
to an overall higher level of protection for the strands. The condition of the corrosion protection system,
particularly the ability to the ingress of water can potentially be detected through long term monitoring of
the impedance measurements. This method can be used to identify early warning signs of deterioration to
the corrosion protection system identifying possible tendon corrosion. NDE using EITs cannot be applied
to as built systems that do not already have electrically isolated tendons. NDE of the EITs using
impedance measurements appears to be viable tool to monitor the corrosion protection system of the
tendon based on the presented literature. It is recommended that the EIT system be examined further to
verify its ability to detect breeches in the corrosion protection system as well as potential to identify
location of defects along the length of the tendon.
3.2.5 References
Further information on electrically isolated tendons can be found in the following references included in
this report:
Bridges (Elsener and Buchler, 2011)
(ASTRA, 2007)
7.4 Monitoring of Electrically Isolated Post-Tensioning Tendons (Elsener, 2008)
7.6 Enhanced Durability, Quality Control and Monitoring of Electrically Isolated Tendons (Della
Vedova and Elsener, 2006)
7.8 Long-Term Monitoring of Electrically Isolated Post-Tensioning Tendons (Elsener, 2005)
7.9 Electrical Isolation as Enhanced Protection for Posttensioning Tendons in Concrete Structures
(PL3) (Elsener, 2004a)
7.10 Experience with Electrically Isolated Tendons in Switzerland (Elsener, 2004b)
7.11 Protection Against Corrosion and Monitoring of Posttensioning Tendons in Prestressed
Concrete Railway Bridges in Italy (Della Vedova and Evangelista, 2004)
7.12 Corrosion Protection and Monitoring of Electrically Isolated Post-Tensioning Tendons
(Della Vedova, Elsener and Evangelista, 2004)

3.3 Ground Penetrating Radar
3.3.1 Applications
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) has a large variety of uses as an NDE technique in many different fields
including geotechnical, structural, environmental and mining applications. In the field of structural
engineering GPR is typically used in concrete structures to detect the location of reinforcing bars, tension
cables, conduits, grade beams, voids in the concrete, and slab thickness (Gehrig, Morris and Bryant,
2004). GPR has also been investigated for applications of strand corrosion detection (Jones et al., 2010)
and to assess grout conditions in plastic ducts (Zhou, Wang & Zhang, 2012), which is an extension of this
method that requires continued research efforts. For post tensioned systems GPR is primarily used to
identify the location of metallic ducts and has more recently been investigated for locating plastic ducts
(Cheilakou et al., 2012).
3.3.2 Methodology
Ground penetrating radar, for the application of locating embedded metallic components in concrete
structures, is a commonly used NDE method with commercially available test equipment. GPR
techniques for civil engineering applications are based on the propagation of high frequency
electromagnetic waves, typically between 20MHz and 2.5 GHz, through the specimen under
investigation. When an impulse encounters an interface between material layers with different dielectric
properties a portion of the wave is reflected back to the receiving point (Kohl and Streicher, 2006). Some
examples of what constitutes as an interface between layers include in a concrete system can include;
reinforcing bars, metal or plastic ducts, voids and the end of a specimen. Figure 3.9 shows the principle of
GPR reflections at inhomogeneities in the material. The velocity at which the pulses propagates through
the specimen and the intensity of the reflections are a function of the dielectric properties of the material,
therefore if the permittivity of a material is known then the depth at which the reflection occurred can be
determined using the propagation time (Maierhofer, 2003). Knowing the depth at which the reflection
occurred means the location of items of interest such as metallic ducts in PT systems can be identified.
Figure 3.9: Schematic of GPR Process (Maierhofer, 2003)
A typical ground penetration radar system used for concrete infrastructure applications generally requires
the following components; a control unit (computer), pulse generator, antennae cable of receiving and
transmitting, and a video monitor. Ground penetrating radar has a wide variety of NDE applications
therefore there are many antenna manufactures, antenna types, signal setting options, operating
frequencies and software packages to choose from. It is important that each GPR system be designed to
meet the NDE needs of the system being evaluated (Gehrig, Morris and Bryant, 2004). An example of a

GPR system used for the purpose of identifying corrosion in prestressing beam can be seen in Figure
3.10. When taking measurements the GPR system is placed and moved in a known pattern on the surface
of the material under investigation generating an image in real time. Systematically surveying an area in
a rectangular grid pattern can allow for a radar image of the ground to be built up. These images can then
be displayed as two-dimensional representations or as a three-dimensional reconstruction (Zhou, Wang
and Zhang, 2012).
Figure 3.10: Example of GPR components (Jones et al., 2010)
Typically there are two classifications of antennae technology used for evaluating concrete structures; (1)
ground coupled and (2) air or horn coupled. Ground coupled equipment typically maintains direct contact
with the specimen surface and generally provides more qualitative then quantitative information and is
able to penetrate deeper into the material (Maser, 1996). Examples of suitable applications of ground
coupled antenna evaluation of concrete structures are bridge decks, streets, highways, parking lots,
retaining walls and foundations systems. Air coupled technology provides more quantitative results at
higher resolutions but for shallower penetration depths and is a noncontact method that can operated 20-
50 cm above the surface from a moving vehicle traveling a normal highway speed (Figure 3.11) (Maser,
1996). Air coupled technology is typically used for road condition evaluation because of its ability to
efficiently collect data. In addition to the antenna technology there are also two different types of
antennas that can be used in a radar system; (1) bistatic and (2) monostatic antennae. A bistatic antenna
uses two antennae, one to transmit and the other to receive while a monostatic antennas uses one antenna
that is capable of transmitting and receiving. In the case of concrete evaluation, monostatic antennae tend
to perform better due to their higher data collection and processing efficiency (Gehrig, Morris and Bryant,
2004). Typical inspections can be carried out using 500 MHz, 900 MHz, 1 GHz and 1.5 GHz bowtie
antennas as well as 1 and 2.5 GHz horn antennas (Maierhofer, 2003).

Figure 3.11: Mobile system with GPR antennas and data acquisition system
(Iyer, Sinha and Schokker, 2005)
The most common application for GPR in concrete structures is for locating embedded metallic
components. In post-tensioned systems this method is best suited for the locate tendon ducts and
determine the depth of concrete cover (Maierhofer et al., 2004). Detecting metallic ducts utilizes the
same principles as detecting rebar; the reflections caused by the metallic tendon ducts and rebar can be
observed and recorded in order to determine their location. The ability of the GPR method to determine
the location of both tendon ducts and reinforcing bars has been validated in a number of different
publications (Bala, Garg and Jain, 2011; Kohl and Streicher, 2006; Gehrig, Morris and Bryant, 2004;
Maierhofer et al., 2004; Maierhofer, 2003; Derobert, Aubagnac and Abraham, 2002). In addition to using
GPR to locate metallic ducts laboratory experiments have explored the capability of this method to locate
embedded plastic ducts. A research effort by Cheilakou et al., 2012 focused on the inspection of different
concrete blocks with embedded steel reinforcement bars and plastic ducts. It was concluded that the GPR
system used for this investigation was able to provide accurate depth and position of the top rebar and
plastic ducts (Cheilakou et al., 2012). An example of a 2D radargram produced during this study showing
the position of an embedded plastic duct can be seen in Figure 3.12.
Figure 3.12: 2D Radargram of Sample 1 revealing in the position of the embedded plastic ducts
(Cheilakou et al., 2012)

GPR has also been investigated for identifying grout condition and voids within post tensioned ducts. It
was determined that GPR can only be applied in this capacity when plastic ducts are used due to the fact
that electromagnetic waves cannot penetrate through metal (Wiggenhauser, Streicher and Friese, 2011).
In particular GPR is likely sensitive to the occurrence of soft, non-setting and chalky grouts or cases or
water intrusion since these are likely to exhibit higher levels of moisture and electrolytes with in the grout
(Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a). The application of GPR technology as a method to determine grout
condition within post tensioned ducts has been explored in various research studies (Zhou, Wang and
Zhang, 2012; Pollock et al., 2008; Maierhofer et al., 2004; Derobert, Aubagnac and Abraham, 2002).
Results from Pollock et al., 2008 concluded that PT strands and simulated air voids within the grouted
steel ducts were not detectable; however, simulated voids within plastic ducts were generally detectable in
GPR images. This application of GPR shows promise but needs to be investigated further to overcome
issues such as void orientation which can affect the ability of the method to successfully identify grout
voids within the plastic ducts (Pollock et al., 2008).
In addition to the previous applications GPR has been investigated as a potential method to identify
corrosion. When using GPR as a NDE technique for corrosion detection there are two main principles
that are applied: (1) corroded reinforcement will produce a GPR reflection and (2) the moisture condition
in the concrete that produced the corrosion will alter the GPR reflection (Jones et al., 2010). Laboratory
experiments were conducted by Jones et al., 2010 to investigate the ability of the GPR method to identify
strand corrosion in prestressed beams. For the application of prestressing steel a high frequency antenna is
needed due to the face that prestressing steel is more closely spaced and has a smaller diameter than
conventional steel reinforcement. Scans of the each beam were made in both the transverse and
longitudinal direction. An example of a transverse scan where corrosion is indicated can be seen in Figure
3.13. Upon the completion of the study the following conclusions were made by the authors. The method
appears to only pick up heavy corrosion damage in the strand: i.e. heavy pitting and wire loss and did not
allow for localized identification of corrosion (Jones et al., 2010).
Figure 3.13: Transverse scan showing reduced refelection amplitude indication corrosion (Jones et al.,
2010)
3.3.3 Limitations
One of the main issues affecting the accuracy and implementation of ground penetrating radar is the fact
that metal interfaces produce 100% reflection of the wave. This means that identifying duct location in

areas with larger amounts of reinforcing (typically where bars are spaced less than 7 cm apart
(Mairerhofer, 2003)) is not possible. An additional result of the complete reflection of the wave at metal
interfaces is that this method cannot be used to inspect grout condition within metal ducts because it is
physically infeasible to test inside a metal duct with the type of waves used in GPR (Derobert, Aubagnac
and Abraham, 2002).
GPR scans can also be difficult to interpret and the estimation of depth of reflectors (bars or voids)
depends on an assumed velocity of wave propagation (Ciolko and Tabatabai, 1999). The accuracy of the
ground penetrating radar method is also currently limited by penetration depth, depth resolution and
horizontal resolution. The effect of these parameters on the accuracy as presented by Maierhofer, 2003 is
briefly summarized. Penetration depth depends on the damping of the electromagnetic waves, which is
dependent on the absorption in the material, loss due to the effective angle of the antenna and loss due to
scattering and reflection. Typically the depth of penetration decrease as the frequency of the antenna
increases. The depth of resolution is affected by the duration of the electromagnetic impulses and
therefore on the bandwidth of the antenna used. Antennas with higher frequencies results in increased
depth resolution. The horizontal resolution, which is the distance between two adjacent reflections
centers, depends on the damping of the electromagnetic waves in the material, the antenna aperture and
the frequency (Maierhofer, 2003).
Ground penetrating radar is also affected by electric properties of the system being evaluated. The GPR
method requires that the permittivity of the material be known. The permittivity of the materials,
however, is influenced by outside parameters such as; material temperature, moisture content, salt
content, pore structure and pulse frequency. Consequently, in order to have accurate results using GPR,
calibration measurements of the material need to be taken, which in many cases may require taking core
samples of the specimen
The application of ground penetrating radar as a method for detecting strand corrosion and grout
condition within plastic tendon ducts still has many limitations. In the case of prestressing strand
corrosion GPR was found to only be able to accurately detect heavy pitting and wire loss (Jones et al.,
2010). This limits the ability to detect corrosion at early stages and requires significant levels of corrosion
to be present in the field. When investigating grout condition this method has not proved to be
consistently accurate. Testing of GPR on plastic ducts with simulated voids has shown that voids in the
tendon duct were detectable if the width (larger dimension) of the void was oriented facing the emitted
microwaves, while voids with the thickness (smallest dimension) oriented facing the microwaves tended
to be masked by the presence of the tendon (Pollock et al., 2008). In addition there is little published
literature currently available on GPRs sensitivity to other grout conditions issues such as soft, non-setting
and chalky grout or water intrusion. Further investigation and technological improvements to allow for
increased sensitivity to corrosion levels and grout voids in plastic should be explored for this method
before it is recommended for use in the field for these applications.
.

Ground penetrating radar can be quickly and easily implemented on bridge decks due to the fact that it
can be performed from a moving vehicle. Even in the case of post tensioned beams and girders, which
normally utilizes hand help devises, GPR can still easily be implemented since access to only one side of
the structural component is required. This method is generally not expensive to use in comparison to
other NDE techniques and does not pose a significant safety or heath risk to the user or the public. The
electromagnetic emissions of GPR are typically below 0.001 W/m2 which is significantly less than the
OSHA regulation of 100 W/m2, this means that a bridge can remain open to the public during inspections
conducted using GPR.

Typically this method has been found to be successful in the field for identifying the location metallic
ducts, assuming that there is no interference due to congested rebar layouts. Recent advances in
technology have also made GPR useful in situations where subsurface imaging is desired as it can
produce one of the highest resolutions of any subsurface imaging technique. This method has also shown
promise in the area of grout void detection of plastic tendon ducts and corrosion detection but is not
currently recommended for this application in the field given the current state of technology. Continued
research on this method to expand its NDE capabilities for inspection PT bridge systems is recommended
due to its low cost and ease and speed of application.
3.3.5 References
Further information on GPR methods can be found in the following references included in this report:
Strands in Concrete Bridge Components Task 2 Assessment of Candidate NDT Methods (Jones
et al., 2010)
Penetrating Radar (Pollock et al., 2008)
6.4 Detecting Voids in Grouted Tendon Ducts of Post-Tensioned Concrete Structures Using
Three Different Methods (Zhou, Wang and Zhang, 2012)
Structures and Metallic Tendon Ducts (Maierhofer et al., 2004)
6.26 Comparison of NDT Techniques on a Post-Tensioned Beam Before its Autopsy (Derobert,
Aubagnac and Abraham, 2002)
7.17 Comparison of NDT Techniques on a Post-Tensioned Beam Before its Autopsy (Cullington
et al., 2001)
8.1 Application of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) as a Diagnostic Technique in Concrete
Bridge (Cheilakou et al., 2012)
8.2 Rebar Detection Using GPR: An Emerging Non Destructive QC Approach (Bala, Garg and
Jain, 2011)
8.4 Ground Penetrating Radar for Concrete Evaluation Studies (Gehrig, Morris and Bryant,
2004)
8.6 Nondestructive Evaluation of Concrete Infrastructure with Ground Penetrating Radar
(Maierhofer, 2003)
8.8 Condition Assessment of Transportation Infrastructure Using Ground-Penetrating Radar
(Maser, 1996)
10.10 Evaluation of Radar and Complementary Echo Methods for NDT of Concrete Elements
(Maierhofer et al., 2008)
Bridges (Kohl and Streicher, 2006)
Corrosion and Voids (Iyer, Sinha and Schokker, 2005)
2003)
10.25 Accuracy of NDE in Bridge Assessment (Martin et al., 1998)

10.31 Automated NDE of PT Concrete Structures (Wiggenhauser, Streicher and Friese, 2011)
3.4 Half-Cell Potential
3.4.1 Applications
The half-cell potential method can be applied to concrete structures to detect corrosion in standard steel
reinforcing bars and prestressing strands. This method is used to produce data related to active corrosion
of the steel reinforcing. Half-cell potential was developed and primarily used to evaluate concrete
systems with standard rebar (Naito, Jones and Hodgson, 2010). This NDE method has also been explored
in many applications for corrosion detection in post-tensioned and prestressed applications (Mangual et
al., 2012; Naito, Jones and Hodgson, 2010; Salas et al., 2004; DMJM Harris, 2003; Powers, Sagues and
Virmani, 1999)
3.4.2 Methodology
The half-cell potential method is an established method for corrosion evaluation of mild steel
reinforcement in concrete structures. This method has been standardized as ASTM C876: Standard Test
Method for Half-Cell Potentials of Uncoated Reinforcing Steel in Concrete. When the embedded steel
undergoes corrosion there is a flow of electrical current between the areas of different voltage potential
along the steel. The current travels from the region of corrosion (anode) to the regions of passive steel
(cathode), though the concrete or grout (the electrolyte). The evaluation of steel corrosion in concrete
systems using the half-cell potential method is based on the measurement of a high voltage differential
between the external reference electrode (half-cell) and the embedded steel. The reference electrode
consists of a metal rod immersed in a solution. For common applications in concrete systems the half-cell
electrode is composed of copper rod in a copper sulfate solution (CSE), a silver rod in a silver chloride
solution (SCE), or Mercury/Mercury Chloride (Naito, Jones and Hodgson, 2010). The structural
component of concern is investigated by using the reference electrode to take voltage differential
measurements at numerous predetermined points over the surface. The recorded data can then be used to
identify areas of corrosion based on the measured potential.

Figure 3.14: Reference Electrode Circuitry (ASTM C 876, 2009)
The procedure for applying the half-cell method is presented in detail in ASTM C876 (2009) and is
briefly summarized here. In order to take voltage measurements a direct connection to the reinforcing
steel must be made. An electrical connection is made to connect the steel to the positive terminal on the
voltmeter and the reference electrode to the negative terminal (Figure 3.14). To effectively use this
method the concrete surface must be sufficiently moist to decrease the electrical resistance of the circuit.
The procedure to determine if the concrete is sufficiently moist involves attaching the multi-meter to a
strand and placing the half-cell electrode on the concrete surface somewhere along the strand. If the
reading is a near constant value then the concrete can be deemed sufficiently moist for testing. In the
event that the concrete does not meet these requirements pre-wetting of the concrete is necessary before
corrosion potentials measurements can be taken. The test measurements taken can be presented using an
equipotential contour map which provides graphical delineation of areas where corrosion activity may be
occurring or cumulative frequency distribution which provides an indication of the magnitude of affect
area of the concrete member.

Figure 3.15: Half-cell electrode and multimeter (Naito, Jones and Hodgson, 2010)
The potential difference measurements obtained during the testing depend on the type of reference
electrode used, the corrosion condition of the steel with in the concrete, cover depth, concrete resistivity
and oxygen availability (Elsener et al., 2003). Figure 3.15 shows an example of a reference electrode and
multi-meter used during half-cell testing of prestressed beams. In traditional reinforced concrete systems
the readings obtained from the potential difference measurements are compared to known threshold
values to determine the probability of corrosion of the steel. The following excerpt from ACI Committee
Report 222.2R-01, Corrosion of Prestressing Steels, explains how the measurements obtained using the
half-cell potential method are used identify corrosion of the reinforcement. According to ASTM C 876, a
measured half-cell potential more negative than -350 mV indicates a probability greater than 90% of
active corrosion at the test location. A potential less negative than -200 mV indicated a probability of
active corrosion less than 10%; while potentials between -200 mV and -350 mV indicate that corrosion
activity is uncertain at the test location (ACI Committee 222). It is important to note that these half-cell
potential values were established for normal reinforcement and are not definitive for prestressing steels,
for large concrete covers, or for concretes with certain constituents. It is recommended for prestressing
steels that a map of the potential of the beam be developed and that corrosion activity be identified by
looking at large relative changes in potential over the surface (Naito, Jones and Hodgson, 2010). A
sample half-cell potential map is presented in Figure 3.16. The different colors used in the plot represent
various levels of probable corrosion, with red shading indicative of high probability of corrosion.

Figure 3.16: Half-cell potential map (Naito, Jones and Hodgson, 2010)
3.4.3 Limitations
There are many issues that arise when applying the half-cell potential method externally to post-tensioned
systems. Half-cell potential is a powerful tool for the application of detecting corrosion in normal
reinforcement, but in the case of PT strand is only successful under very favorable conditions (Iyer,
Schokker and Sinha, 2002). In a summary of available NDE methods for PT systems by Azizinamini and
Gull (2012a) , it is stated that this method is probably not applicable to internal or external PT ducts at
this time and it is recommended that robust sensors and sensing systems that can be applied within the
duct be developed.
The major limitation that affects the ability of this method to produce accurate results when the electrode
is applied externally on the concrete surface is the presence of the duct systems required in grouted post-
tensioned systems. Traditional half-cell measurements are based on the electrical and electrolytic
continuity between rebar or PT strands in the concrete, reference electrode on the concrete surface and
voltmeter (Elsener et al., 2003). In the case of metal ducts it was found that the duct shields the strands
from the concrete surface and with plastic ducts this method cannot be used due to the fact that the plastic
duct creates an electrical barrier (Iyer, Sinha and Schokker, 2005; Elsnder et al., 2003). Additionally,
when attempting to take measurements in specimens with metallic ducts these readings can be confused
between corrosion of the strand, mild reinforcement, or duct depending on the electrical connectivity
between these components (Iyer, Sinha and Schokker, 2005). On the other hand in a report by DMJM
Harris (2003), in which half-cell testing was used to measure corrosion activity at the surface of PT
tendons embedded in grout inside metallic ducts, concluded that this method can be used to measure
corrosion activity. The application of this method to PT tendons with metallic ducts still needs to be
further explored and verified, but it appears that there are many potential negative effects caused by the
duct system.
Another limitation of this method for PT systems is that an electrical connection to the rebar or
prestressing strand is required. This requires access to the prestressing strand or reinforcement which may
not always be easily accessible in existing structures and may require invasive drilling. In addition care
must be taken when making the electrical connection during inspection. A bad electrical contact to the
reinforcement from the voltmeter and between the individual bars/strand of reinforcement can cause
errors in the measurements (Iyer, Sinha and Schokker, 2005). Also when applying this method the effect
of outside factors such as moisture content of the specimen, which can have a significant effect on the
voltage potential measurements and can vary by location along the same specimen and from inspection
dates, must be understood.

Based on the current technology it is not recommended to use traditional externally applied half-cell
potential methods for inspection of post-tensioned systems due to the masking effect created by the
presence of the ducts. One way to avoid this issue may be to embed internal half-cell probes into the duct

which would allow half-cell potential measurement to be taken without the masking effecting seen during
external applications. Commercially available half-cell probes are available and can be utilized for this
purpose. Electrical continuity of the strands within each duct would require one connection to each end
anchorage. This could be integrated into both metallic duct and fully isolated plastic duct systems.
Additional benefits include the ability to localize damage detection. Embedded half-cell probes can be
installed during construction at key locations allowing for long term monitoring and the ability to locate
damage along the length of a component. The application of commercially available internally embedded
half-cell sensors should be further explored through laboratory testing to see if this method can be
successfully applied to fully-grouted post-tensioned systems using both metallic and plastic duct systems.
3.4.5 References
Further information on half-cell potential methods can be found in the following references included in
this report
Strands in Concrete Bridge Components Task 3 - Forensic Evaluation and Rating Methodology
(Naito, Jones and Hodgson, 2010)
Balanced Cantilever Concrete Bridges (DMJM Harris, 2003)
5.1.24 Corrosion Evaluation of Post-Tensioned Tendons in Florida Bridges (Powers, Sagues and
Virmani, 1999)
5.2.1 Corrosion of Prestressing Steels (ACI 222.2R-01) (ACI Committee 222, 2001)
Tensioned Bridges (Salas et al., 2004)
5.5.7 ASTM C876 09: Standard Test Method for Corrosion Potentials of Uncoated Reinforcing
Steel in Concrete (ASTM C 876, 2009)
7.2 Corrosion Damage Quantification of Prestressing Strands using Acoustic Emission (Mangual
et al., 2012)
7.15 Half-Cell Potential Measurements Potential Mapping on Reinforced Concrete Structures
(Elsener et al., 2003)
3.5 Impact Echo
3.5.1 Applications
The impact echo (IE) method has proven to be an effective tool for the detection and quantification of
subsurface defects in post-tensioned concrete structures, including cracking (Sansalone and Streett, 1997;
Tokai, Ohkuno and Ohtsu, 2009; Matsuyama, Yamada and Ohtsu, 2010), delamination and voids
(Sansalone and Streett, 1997; Ohtsu and Watanabe, 2002; Yeh and Liu, 2009), and partially grouted post-
tensioning steel ducts (Ata, Mihara and Ohtsu, 2007; Alver and Wiggenhauser, 2010). In addition, the
method can be used to locate embedded features, such as steel reinforcing and utilities, and to measure the
thickness of structural elements (Sansalone and Streett, 1997; Carino, 2001). If the geometry of the survey
region is well defined, the IE method can also be used to estimate mechanical properties for the
component materials, e.g. density and elastic modulus (Sansalone and Streett; Carino, 2001). The IE
method can accommodate a wide range of construction materials and only requires access to a single

surface of the structure. It is noted that data processing and interpretation for the IE method can be
difficult for embedded features/defects with complex geometries (e.g. post-tensioning steel anchorage
regions) due to complex wave interactions from multiple reflective surfaces.
3.5.2 Methodology
The IE method utilizes mechanical stress waves to identify changes in acoustic impedance within a solid
body. A schematic illustration of the procedure is presented Figure 3.17. The stress waves are generated
by mechanical impact of the structure (e.g hammer strike). These stress waves, which include longitudinal
P-waves, transverse S-waves, and guided surface waves (e.g. Rayleigh waves), propagate within the solid
body and are reflected or refracted from boundary surfaces and material interfaces. Interaction of the
reflected waves alters the wave energy content through mode conversion, e.g. p-wave energy converted to
s-wave energy. Figure 3.18 illustrates the wave energy content in a finite element impact echo simulation
(note: the deformed geometry has been scaled to visualize the wave fronts). The reflected waves
eventually set up resonant vibration modes that are measured at the surface using contact sensors (e.g.
displacement transducers or accelerometers). In order to identify dominant frequency content, a Fourier
transformation is performed to convert the time history surface response data into the frequency domain.
With knowledge of the wave propagation velocity for the component materials and the frequency content
for the surface recording, the depth to reflecting surfaces can be calculated from first principals, assuming
linear elastic response. In general, a subsurface feature/defect will act as an internal reflective boundary
that will reduce the travel distance for the stress waves, thereby increasing the characteristic frequency of
the surface recording. Figure 3.19 presents an illustration of this shift in the frequency spectrum that is
caused by a subsurface void.
Figure 3.17: Schematic illustration of the impact echo method (Carino, 2001)
Figure 3.18: Finite element simulation of stress wave propagation in a linear elastic
medium due to impact loading (Carino, 2001)

Figure 3.19: Frequency spectra from impact echo tests: (a) solid slab and (b) slab with a subsurface void
(Carino, 2001)
3.5.3 Limitations
Interpretation of IE data for embedded features/defects with complex geometries is complicated by the
presence of multiple reflective surfaces and wave interactions. As a result, the inspection of post-
tensioning steel anchorage regions may be problematic. In addition, steel reinforcing and other embedded
features in the vicinity of an inspected component (e.g. a post-tensioning steel duct) can generate
unwanted reflections that complicate signal processing and interpretation. Conventional procedures for
IE testing also require multiple test configurations in order to quantify planform geometry for the
subsurface feature/defect and are, therefore, not well suited for surveying large areas. It is noted,
however, that systems are currently being developed to improve test efficiency by employing a distributed
network of non-contact, air-coupled sensors (see, for example, Oh et al. 2012).

The IE method can be utilized for the detection and quantification of subsurface concrete defects (e.g.
cracking, delamination, and the presence of voids) and partially grouted regions of post-tensioning steel
ducts. In addition, the IE method can be used to estimate the depth of embedded features, such as
reinforcing steel and utilities, and to estimate material properties when specimen geometry is well
defined. The IE method is not recommended for subsurface defects and features with complex
geometries, as the number and orientation of reflective surfaces can significantly complicate data
interpretation. Current IE testing procedures are not readily amenable to surveying large areas, but can be
effective in the inspection of critical regions. It is noted that researchers are currently investigating
methods to improve the rapid assessment capabilities of IE testing.
3.5.5 References
Further information on the impact echo method can be found in the following references included in this
report:
Report Volume 1(Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a)
et al., 2010)

Ducts Final Report (Muszynski, Chini and Andary, 2003)
Bridge Post-Tensioning Ducts using Rolling Stress Waves for Continuous Scanning (Tinkey and
Olson, 2006)
6.2 Quantitative Evaluation of Contactless Impact Echo for Non-Destructive Assessment of Void
Detection within Tendon Ducts (Schoefs, Abraham and Popovics, 2012)
6.3 Non-Destructive Testing Methods to Identify Voids in External Post-Tensioned Tendons (Im
et al., 2012)
6.5 Concrete Bridge Condition Assessment with Impact Echo Scanning (Olson, Tinkey and
Miller, 2011)
6.6 Inspection of Voids in External Tendons of Posttensioned Bridges (Im, Hurlebaus and Trejo,
2010)
6.7 Modified SIBIE Procedure for Ungrouted Tendon Ducts Applied to Scanning Impact-Echo
(Alver and Wiggenhauser, 2010)
6.8 On-Site Measurement of Delamination and Surface Crack in Concrete Structure by
Visualized NDT (Matsuyama, Yamada and Ohtsu, 2010)
6.9 Identification of Ungrouted Tendon Duct in Prestressed Concrete by SIBIE (Ohtsu, Yamada
and Nakai, 2009)
6.10 Estimation of Surface-Crack Depth in Concrete by Scanning SIBIE Procedure (Tokai,
Ohkuno and Ohtsu, 2009)
6.11 Imaging of Internal Cracks in Concrete Structures Using the Surface Rendering Technique
(Yeh and Liu, 2009)
6.13 Imaging Concrete Structures Using Air-Coupled Impact-Echo (Zhu and Popovics, 2007)
6.14 Impact-Echo Scanning Evaluation of Grout/Void Conditions Inside Bridge Post-Tensioning
Ducts for Tendon Corrosion Mitigation (Tinkey and Olson, 2007a)
6.15 Impact-Echo Scanning for Grout Void Detection in Post-tensioned Bridge Ducts - Findings
from a Research Project and a Case History (Tinkey and Olson, 2007b)
6.16 Sensitivity Studies of Grout Defects in Posttensioned Bridge Ducts Using Impact Echo
Scanning Method (Tinkey and Olson, 2007c)
6.17 Imaging of Ungrouted Tendon Ducts in Prestressed Concrete by Improved SIBIE (Ata,
Mihara and Ohtsu, 2007)
6.18 Automated NDE of Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridges Using Imaging Echo Methods
(Streicher et al., 2006)
6.19 Impact Echo Scanning for Discontinuity Detection and Imaging in Posttensioned Concrete
Bridges and Other Structures (Tinkey, Olson and Wiggenhauser, 2005)
6.24 Guidance on the use of NDE on Voided Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridge Beams using
Impact Echo (Clark et al., 2003)
Aubagnac, Abraham, 2002)
6.27 Stack Imaging of Spectral Amplitudes Based on Impact-Echo for Flaw Detection (Ohtsu and
Watanabe, 2002)

6.28 Applications of Impact-Echo for Flaw Detection (Wouters and Poston, 2001)
Error! Reference source not found. Error! Reference source not found. (Sansalone and
reett, 1997)
6.31 Detecting Voids in Grouted Tendon Ducts of Post-Tensioned Concrete Structures using the
Impact Echo Method (Jaeger, Sansalone, Poston, 1996)
9.2 Estimation of Existing Prestress Level on Bonded Strand Using Impact-Echo Test (Kim, Lee
and Cho, 2012)
10.2 Comparison of NDT Methods for Assessment of a Concrete Bridge Deck (Oh et al., 2013)
2003)
10.24 The Impact-Echo Method: An Overview (Carino, 2001)
10.31 Automated NDE of PT Concrete Structures (Wiggenhauser, Streicher and Friese, 2011)
3.6 Infrared Thermography
3.6.1 Applications
Infrared thermography (IT) has been successfully used for the detection and measurement of surface and
subsurface defects in reinforced concrete structures, including cracking (Zenzinger, 2007) and
delamination (Maser and Roddis, 1990; Del Grande and Durbin, 1995; Durbin, Del Grande and Schaich,
1996, Bolleni, 2009; Vaghefi et al. 2011). IT accommodates a wide range of materials and only requires
access to a single surface. It is noted, however, that IT requires experimental or numerical simulation
data to calibrate depth measurements for a particular test configuration.
3.6.2 Methodology
IT produces a 2-D thermal image of the surveyed surface that can identify surface and subsurface defects,
as well as embedded features, through variations in emitted infrared radiation. The procedure can utilize
active and/or passive heat sources (e.g. electromagnetic or solar radiation) to generate thermal flows in
the structure. A heat sensor (e.g. infrared thermographic radiometer) is used to detect variations in surface
temperature within the surveyed region that are caused by spatial variations in material heat transfer
properties and heat transfer boundary conditions. For example, heat flow through a solid concrete
structure is controlled by thermal conduction, while heat flow through a subsurface void is controlled by
cavity radiation and convection. The rate of heat transport for these three mechanisms can vary
significantly depending on material properties, structure geometry, and heat transfer boundary conditions.
As a result, the presence of a subsurface void alters the temperature profile in the concrete directly above
the void, including the surface temperature. It is this contrast in surface temperature between voided and
solid regions that facilitates visualization of subsurface defects. Since variations in material properties
between concrete and embedded elements (e.g. reinforcing steel) generate similar contrasts in surface
temperature, a similar approach can be used for the identification and measurement of embedded features.
An illustration of this approach is presented in Figure 3.20, which shows a thermal image of a concrete
block with four subsurface voids at known depths. The variation in surface temperature provides
quantitative data regarding the planform area of the voids. It is noted that IT utilizing active heating
provides enhanced control over heating and cooling rates, and therefore temperature profiles in the
structure, compared to passive heating approaches. The active heating approach for IT can be calibrated
to target defects and/or features at specific depths.

Figure 3.20: Thermal image of a concrete block with subsurface voids (void depth shown)
(Washer, Fenwick and Nelson, 2013)
Physical parameters that influence thermal imaging of reinforced concrete structures include incident heat
flux and absorptivity, material thermal conductivity and volumetric heat capacity, structure geometry, and
ambient conditions (temperature, incident solar radiation, and air flow).
3.6.3 Limitations
IT provides a 2-D planform visualization of subsurface features and defects. However, the depth and
thickness of the subsurface object is not easily determined without supporting experimental or numerical
calibration data. In addition, due to the presence of the duct and other reinforcement in the section,
existing IT technologies are generally ineffective in identifying or quantifying grout and strand conditions
for embedded post-tensioning steel ducts.

IT is well suited for scanning large regions of a structure for delaminations and voids and can also be used
to locate embedded features (e.g. reinforcing steel and utilities). It is noted that supporting experimental
or numerical simulation data is needed to calibrate depth measurements. IT is not recommended for the
inspection of grouted post-tensioning steel ducts or embedded features with complex geometries (e.g.
post-tensioning steel anchorage regions).
3.6.5 References
Further information on IT can be found in the following references included in this report:
et al., 2010)
Penetrating Radar (Pollock et al., 2008)
Ducts Final Report (Muszynski, Chini and Andary, 2003)

5.4.4 Demonstration of Dual-Band Infrared Thermal Imaging for Bridge Inspection (Durbin, Del
Grande and Schaich, 1996)
10.1 Guidelines for the Thermographic Inspection of Concrete Bridge Components in Shaded
Conditions (Washer, Fenwick and Nelson, 2013)
10.2 Comparison of NDT Methods for Assessment of a Concrete Bridge Deck (Oh et al., 2013)
10.6 Application of Thermal IR Imagery for Concrete Bridge Inspection (Vaghefi et al., 2011)
10.8 Environmental Effects on Subsurface Defect Detection in Concrete Structures Using
Infrared Thermography (Bolleni, 2009)
10.11 Thermographic Crack Detection by Eddy Current Excitation (Zenzinger et al., 2007)
10.28 Using Emissivity-Corrected Thermal Maps to Locate Deep Structural Defects in Concrete
Bridge Decks (Del Grande and Durbin, 1995)
10.29 Imaging of Reinforced Concrete: State-of-the-Art Review (Pla Rucki et al., 1995)
10.30 Principles of Thermography and Radar for Bridge Deck Assessment (Maser and Roddis,
1990)
3.7 Magnetic Flux Leakage
3.7.1 Applications
Magnetic flux leakage (MFL) is an established magnetic based method that is used to assess the condition
of reinforcement in concrete structures. This method can be used to detect location of reinforcing bars
and for the detection of corrosion and loss of steel cross section in cables (Ciolko and Tabatabai, 1999).
In post-tensioned systems this method can be applied to detect wire strand fracture and thinning in
internal ducts and external ducts, as well as stays and ropes (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a). This method
has also been investigated for use with EIT systems to determine the location of a defect along the strand
(Elsener and Buchler, 2011).
3.7.2 Methodology
The magnetic flux leakage method is based on the principle that steel is a ferromagnetic material through
which magnetic flux lines can develop. Defects in the steel can be measured as variations in an induced
magnetic field (Ghorbanpoor et al., 2000). When a magnetic field comes near a steel material in concrete,
the magnetic flux lines pass through the steel bar or strand due to the fact that the steel offers a path of
least resistance as a result of its high magnetic permeability compared to the surrounding concrete and air.
When discontinuities or defects, typically caused by corrosion or fracture of the strand or rebar, are
present the low resistance path becomes blocked and the remaining steel may become saturated, forcing
some flux to flow through the air (Figure 3.21). Changes in the components of the flux can be detected
by sensors and can then be analyzed to determine the severity of the flaw (DaSilva et al., 2009). In the
application of MFL systems Hall-effect sensors are typically used to detect flux leakage.

Figure 3.21: Magnetic flux leakage due to defect (DaSilva et al., 2009)
Magnetic flux leakage can be implemented using two different methods; the active and the residual
method. In the active method the sensors are placed between the poles of the magnet. The MFL device
containing the magnet and sensors is passed over the specimen under inspection in order to collect
magnetic flux data. The active method is best suited when there are large areas of corrosion present. The
measured magnetic flux can be affected by a number of different variables including; the location of the
magnet and the magnetic field, concrete cover, the type of duct used (steel versus plastic), distance
between the ducts, number of strands in the ducts, level of corrosion, transverse reinforcement in the
vicinity of the corroded area, level of tension force in the steel strands and the distance between the sensor
and the corrosion point (DaSilva et al., 2009). The second way MFL can be applied is the residual
magnetic flux leakage method. When applying the residual method the specimen under investigation is
first magnetized until the steel becomes magnetically saturated. Once saturated a MFL device is passed
along the specimen to read the magnetic field. The residual method is primarily used to detect small
areas of corrosion where the active method is no longer applicable (DaSilva et al., 2009). Both the active
and residual magnetic flux method are established methods that can indicate local wire breaks (or member
thinning) in near surface tendons (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a)
A typical MFL system used in prestressed and post-tensioned applications is comprised of a magnetic
field source, magnetic field detection sensors, structural supporting frame, mechanical control device,
electrical control device and circuits, wireless communication devices, software and notebook computer
(Ghorbanpoor et al., 2000). MFL devices can be constructed as hand held devices or beam-rider devices
depending on the inspection needs of the system under investigation. An example of a device constructed
to test post-tensioned bridge systems as presented in Azizinamini and Gull (2012a), can be seen in Figure
3.22, where the following parts are marked before assembly. (1) Aluminum housing, (2) Position
indicator (Proximity sensor to identify spatial location), (3) Magnetic yoke consisting of rectangular
blocks of neodymium magnets altering with wedges of highly permeable, high saturation, magnet iron,
(4) Array of Hall-effect sensors to measure the magnitude of the vertical component of magnetic flux
(placed upside to show sensor) and (5) sensor electronic and signal conditioning board.

Figure 3.22: MFL system for post-tensioned bridge inspection (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a)
The data collected as the MFL device passes over a concrete specimen is used to produce graphs that
display the relative magnetic field amplitude versus the traveled time. Corrosion of the strand results in
erratic readings in the measured flux which can be detected from the graphs. Figure 3.23 and Figure 3.24
show an example of a MFL graph produced from a tendon with no corrosion compared to a MFL graph
produced by a corroded tendon. When analyzing the graphs smooth lines between successive peaks
indicate areas where no corrosion is present, while the presence of corrosion changes the magnetic field
resulting in lines between peaks that are no longer smooth (Jones et al., 2010). In addition to visual
techniques of interpreting the measurements, data analysis software can also be used to implement the
following techniques for the corrosion identification; the differencing technique, the correlation
technique, the two-dimensional profile technique, and the three-dimensional magnetic field disturbance
technique (Ghorbanpoor et. al., 2000).
Figure 3.23: MFL graph indicating no corrosion (Jones et al., 2010)
Figure 3.24: MFL graph indicating corrosion (Jones et al., 2010)

Magnetic flux leakage systems have been developed specifically for use in prestressed structures. The
MFL method has been tested for its ability to detect corrosion and wire fracture of prestressing strands in
both prestressed (Jones et al., 2010; DaSilva et al., 2009; Ghorbanpoor et al., 2000); and post-tensioned
systems (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a; Mietz and Fisher, 2007; DMJM Harris, 2003). In general, the
conclusions of these studies found MFL to be a promising method for corrosion detection of prestressing
tendons. Testing on girders from a demolished PT bridge found that using MFL measurement techniques,

areas with several wire rupture could clearly be detected (Mietz and Fisher, 2007). Laboratory
experiments where 19 strands were broken at the middle and placed inside corrugated and galvanized
pipe found that under ideal conditions MFL can locate the damaged areas even in the presence of other
reinforcement (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a). Although many of the tests of the MFL system have
shown positive results testing done in a report by DMJM Harris (2003) to assess the conditions of top
slab PT tendons found that the method was unable to identify losses of tendon area under truly blind
conditions. In addition, it was found that MFL was unable to locate tendons with induced flaws in the
trumpets. The failure of the method to identify these defects was attributed to the fact that the equipment
being used did not have a strong enough magnetic to saturate the tendons and consequently produce the
flux leakage (DMJM Harris, 2003).
3.7.3 Limitations
One of the major limitations of the magnetic flux leakage method when applied to PT systems is that it is
less effective for inspection of internal PT tendons due to the presence of other reinforcement and
increased embedment depth. Currently it is only typically used in the field for inspection of external PT
tendons. In field evaluations the following challenges are encountered: the masking effect of the duct,
disruption of the MFL signal due to the presence of additional layers of reinforcement, and limited access
to areas such as the anchorage zone (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a). Another limitation of this method is
that the anchorage region is difficult to inspect. In many cases the tendons at these locations can be
embedded in thick layers of concrete making it difficult to achieve complete magnetic flux saturations
without increasing the strength of the magnetics used. Additionally the trumpet regions are difficult to
inspect due to high congestion of reinforcement steel (spiral and stirrups) and the end anchor plates which
make the signal difficult to interpret (DMJM Harris, 2003). Finally, the results produced by this method
can be hard to interpret and may require some expertise in order to get accurate results (Azizinamini and
Gull, 2012a).

Magnetic flux leakage can be used to determine strand corrosion and wire breaks in post-tensioned
tendons in some applications. This method can be potentially used with both steel and plastic ducts
systems. Although claims have been made that MFL can be used on both internal and external tendon
ducts at this time it has only been demonstrated to work well for applications of external ducts. The ideal
application of this method given the current technology is for identifying significant corrosion or wire
breaks in external plastic ducts. This method currently has limited application in the field for internal
post-tensioned tendons when applied using traditional methods. The potential application of MFL to
determine the location of defects in combination with internal EIT tendons is presented in Elsener and
Buchler (2011). The use of a SQUID array technology for magnetic inspection of prestressed concrete
girders is also being developed (Krause and Kreutzbruck, 2002; Krause et al., 2002). This type of system
would be more suited for periodic observation of tendons in order to record small changes, due to the
sensitivity to the SQUID sensors (Krause and Kreutzbruck, 2002). The development of the MFL method
for detecting strand corrosion may have success in future applications as the technology improves.
3.7.5 References
Further information on the magnetic flux leakage method can be found in the following references
included in this report:

et al., 2010)
5.1.5 Nondestructive Method to Detect Corrosion of Steel Elements in Concrete (DaSilva et al.,
2009)
System (Ghorbanpoor et al., 2000)
Bridges (Elsener and Buchler, 2011)
7.5 Evaluation of NDT Methods for Detection of Prestressing Steel Damage at Post-Tensioned
Concrete Structures (Mietz and Fischer, 2007)
7.18 Recent Developments in SQUID NDE (Krause and Kreutzbruck, 2002)
7.19 SQUID Array for Magnetic Inspection of Prestressed Concrete Bridges (Krause et al., 2002)
3.8 Radiography
3.8.1 Applications
Radiography has been used to detect grout voids, strand corrosion, and strand fracture in the tendons of
PT concrete bridges (Saravanan et al. 1996; Mariscotti et al. 2008 Pimentel and Mariscotti, 2010). In
addition, this method has been utilized for the verification of re-grouting operations, the location and
sizing of steel reinforcing bars and embedded utilities, and the visualization of unknown construction
details (Brown and St. Leger, 2003). Radiography accommodates a wide range of construction materials
(including plastic and metal ducts), embedded features with complex geometries, and both internal and
external post-tensioning configurations (Saravanan et al. 1996; Pimentel and Mariscotti, 2010). Access to
the front and back surfaces of the scanned region is required.
The recent development of portable high intensity MeV X-ray generators (Figure 3.25) now enable the
inspection of concrete sections up to 150 cm (5 ft) thick (Ueaska et al. 2013; Sentinel, 2014). Unlike
gamma ray-producing isotope sources, these portable X-ray machines only emit radiation during testing,
thereby providing better control over work site safety. The use of high intensity X-rays has also reduced
the required transmission time so that radiographic images with sufficient detail for defect/damage
detection can be generated in a matter of seconds. For example, Ueaska et al. (2013) were able to
generate radiographic images of a 400mm thick PT bridge section with transmission times of one second
using a newly developed 3.95MeV portable X-ray generator.
3.8.2 Methodology
Radiography utilizes the electromagnetic waves emitted from a radiation source (either an X-ray
generator or a radio isotope gamma-ray source) to penetrate the test object, exposing a photostimulable
detector on the opposing surface. Since the atomic structure of the surveyed material influences photon
attenuation and scattering phenomena, spatial variation in material composition leads to spatial variation
in radiation intensity reaching the detector (as illustrated in Figure 3.26). In modern digital radiographic
testing, these detector readings are digitized and converted to pixel intensity values, through which spatial
variations can be visualized on a computer monitor as color contrast. In NDE applications, this spatial
variation in pixel intensity is used to identify and measure defects or structural damage, and to visualize
embedded features for repair/retrofit operations. As a practical illustration, Figure 3.27 presents

radiographs of fully grouted and voided post-tensioning tendons, where the voided duct region is
discernible in the image (shown as a darker region due to higher incident radiation).
The ability of radiographic imaging to accommodate complex geometries and multi-layer material
interfaces (which present problems for other nondestructive test methods), and to provide full-field
subsurface visualization make it a powerful tool for structural condition assessment. However, its use in
concrete bridge inspection has historically been limited by the penetrating power of field deployable
radiation sources, as well as safety and logistical concerns associated with the use and transport of
radioactive materials. Recent advances in radiographic inspection equipment, such as the development of
portable high intensity MeV X-ray generators (discussed in the previous section); now enable the
inspection of concrete sections up to 150 cm (5 ft) thick with transmission times on the order of seconds
(Ueaska et al. 2013; Sentinel, 2014). Unlike gamma ray-producing isotope sources, these portable X-ray
machines only emit radiation during testing, thereby providing better control over work site safety. In
addition, the development of digital detectors and advanced image reconstruction algorithms for concrete
materials that reduce scatter-induced blurring (e.g. (Priyada, Ramar and Shivaramu, 2013)) have
improved imaging capabilities, and have enhanced data preservation and manipulation. As an illustration,
Figure 3.28 presents a radiograph of a post-tensioning anchorage region showing individual steel strands,
the reinforcing steel spiral (encircling the duct), and the tendon duct.
Figure 3.25: Portable 7.5MeV X-ray Betatron (www.Sentinelndt.com)
Radiation
Source
Variation
in Thickness Subsurface Void
Specimen
Detector
Regions Exposed to Higher Incident Radiation
Figure 3.26: Schematic illustration of radiographic testing (adapted from Rao, 2007)

(a) (b)
Figure 3.27: Radiographic images of post-tensioned concrete: (a) fully grouted post-tensioning steel duct,
(b) voided post-tensioning steel duct (Brown and St. Leger, 2003)
Figure 3.28: Radiograph of the anchorage region in a post-tensioned concrete bridge showing individual
strands, the reinforcing steel spiral (encircling the duct), and the tendon duct (Washer, 2003)
3.8.3 Limitations
Due to the procedures use of radioactive materials in certain applications, radiography may require
special preparations and planning to ensure public safety. It is noted that certain site conditions may
prohibit this type of testing, but instrumentation such as X-Ray generators exist where radioactive
material is not used. In addition, conventional methods for radiographic imaging do not provide depth of
field information for the surveyed structure, although the development of portable X-ray generators has
initiated research interest in adapting advanced 3-D imaging techniques, e.g. computed tomography (CT),
to structural inspection. The use of radiography also requires access to opposing sides of the surveyed
object.

Radiography is an imaging tool that can be used to detect and quantify subsurface features/defects in PT
concrete bridges. The testing procedure is able to handle complex geometries and multi-layer material
interfaces, which can present problems for other NDE methods and therefore can be a viable tool when a
more in-depth inspection of the strand anchorage and coupler regions is required. With further
development and verification, radiography could potentially identify corrosion on strands and grout voids.
Newly developed portable high intensity MeV X-ray machines, which can survey concrete bridge
sections up to 5ft thick with transmission times on the order of seconds, have improved the efficiency,
practicality, and imaging capabilities of radiographic testing (Ueaska et al. 2013). In addition, advanced

digital image analysis methods (e.g. Priyada, Ramar and Shivaramu, 2013) have improved defect/damage
detection capabilities.
3.8.5 References
Further information on the radiography can be found in the following references included in this report:
5.4.2 Improving Bridge Inspections (Washer, 2003)
6.1 Application of Gamma Ray Scattering Technique for Non-Destructive Evaluation of Voids in
Concrete (Priyada, Ramar and Shivaramu, 2013)
and Hurlebaus, 2012)
2010)
6.12 Ultrasonic Imaging Methods for Investigation of Post-tensioned Concrete Structures: A
Study of Interfaces at Artificial Grouting and Its Verification (Krause et al., 2008)
6.25 Use of the MegascanTM Imaging Process in Inspection Systems for Post-Tensioned Bridges
and Other Major Structures (Brown and St Leger, 2003)
Aubagnac and Abraham, 2002)
7.14 Location of Prestressing Steel Fractures in Concrete (Scheel and Hillemeir, 2003)
10.3 Use of Neutron Radiography and Tomography to Visualize the Autonomous Crack Sealing
Efficiency in Cementitious Materials (Van Tittelboom et al., 2013)
10.4 Commissioning of Portable 950 keV/3.95 MeV X-band Linac X-Ray Sources for On-Site
Transmission Testing (Ueaska et al., 2013)
10.5 Non-Destructive Radiographic Evaluation and Repairs to Pre-Stressed Structure Following
Partial Collapse (Reis and Dilek, 2012)
10.7 Gamma-Ray Inspection of Post Tensioning Cables in a Concrete Bridge (Pimentel and
Mariscotti, 2010)
10.9 Gamma-Ray Imaging for Void and Corrosion Assessment in PT Girders (Mariscotti et al.,
2008)
2003)
10.27 Non-Destructive Examination of Corroded Concrete Structures using Radiography
(Saravanan et al., 1996)
10.29 Imaging of Reinforced Concrete: State-of-the-Art Review (Pla Rucki et al., 1995)
3.9 Signal Processing for Defect Detection
3.9.1 Applications
The focus of this work is on data driven defect detection methods. In this context, NDE technologies that
are considered produce streams of data from an unknown state of the structure, and the objective is to
identify the existence, location and severity of defect by comparing this data to that of a healthy baseline.

The challenges are twofold. The first challenge is producing features from the collected data that are
sensitive to the defect but are not as sensitive or sensitive at all to other inevitable variations (changes in
environmental conditions, other benign changes, etc.) or measurement noise. The second challenge is in
monitoring this feature, detecting its change in a statistically meaningful way, and associating a particular
change to a particular defect.
A class of signal processing methods that are used to achieve this objective are statistical pattern
recognition (SPD) techniques. These methods have recently emerged as a promising alternative to system
identification for structural damage assessment. Their essence is to use well-known concepts in statistics
for boundary definition of different pattern classes, such as those for damaged and undamaged structures
(Jain et al., 2000).
3.9.2 Methodology and Applications

Statistical pattern recognition techniques have long been applied in many domains in science and
engineering. Examples of these applications include speech recognition (Ho and Baird, 1997), identifying
logical information from image documents (Jelinek, 1976; Schurmann et al., 1992), and reading DNA
sequences in bioinformatics (Liew, Yan and Yang, 2005). Their ability to process large volumes of
information produced by continuous and/or multichannel sensing is very beneficial, and in addition, these
techniques are adaptable to most fields of applied science as efficient mathematical tools. The range of
application of these techniques continues to expand to many new areas of natural and social sciences and
engineering (Yao and Pakzad, 2012).
The SPR paradigm for defect detection, proposed in Farrar et al. 1999, consists of four tasks: (1)
operational evaluation; (2) data acquisition; (3) feature selection and data compression; and (4) statistical
model development. This paradigm essentially focuses on the interdependence between structural data
collection and statistical data analysis procedures and their application. The feature extraction methods for
many of SPR applications in structural defect detection are based on AR/ARX/ARMA
(Autoregressive/Autoregressive with exogenous input/Autoregressive with moving average Brockwell
and Davis, 2009; Brockwell and Davis, 2002) modeling. This provides a powerful tool to process the data
collected by any NDE method, and produce decisions as to whether the data points out to a defect or
confirms that the test structure is healthy.
3.9.2.1 Estimation of Damage Feature
The objective of this step is to estimates parameters from the input/output data that are sensitive to
structural defect. Autoregressive time series with exogenous terms (ARX) can be used to detect these

defects. The general form of this model is y() = =1 ( ) + =0 ( ) + (),
where () and () are the measured response and excitation at time index , respectively, and
() is the model residual. In this equation and are the orders of autoregressive and exogenous
terms, respectively. The parameters vector = [1 1(+1) ] includes + + 1 terms, which are
essentially estimated parameters for the system transfer function: a structural defect will cause a change in
estimated autoregressive parameters.
3.9.2.2 Measure of Distance:
Once a set of feature parameters are estimated, they should be compared with their baseline values from
the healthy/undamaged state. The simplest way of comparing these values is by studying their difference
( ), which proves to be an inefficient measure of distance, unstable, and in
cases, not sensitive enough to structural defect. Two distant measures that can be used are: the
Mahalanobis distance of the AR coefficients and the Cosh distance of AR model spectra, between the

ARX models of the unknown state and the baseline/healthy state (Yao and Pakzad, 2012). Simulation
results show that a change in structural properties (change in stiffness and geometry) leads to changes in
these distance feature values.
3.9.2.3 Mahalanobis distance of AR coefficients for the ARX models
It has been proved that AR coefficient estimates from data are asymptotically normally distributed. From
the deviation statistics, a normal Gaussian statistical population in p-variants is usually described by a p-
dimensional frequency distribution:
1 1
(1 , 2 , , ) = 1 exp (2 ( ) 1 ( )). (1)

(2) | 2 |
where is the mean, and is the sample covariance matrix.

Mahalanobis distance is defined as twice the term inside the exponential brackets. The estimator of the
Mahalanobis distance between a potential outlier vector and the baseline sample set can be obtained as
1 ( ).
= ( ) (2)
is the estimated sample covariance matrix from baseline. When the incoming coefficient vector
deviates from the original distribution, the distance value will increase.
3.9.2.4 Cosh spectral distance of AR model spectra
Corresponding spectra plots can be constructed given an AR model:

() 1 1
() = 2
= 2 (3)
|( )| |=0 |
Cosh spectral distance estimates can be used as a frequency domain alternative to Mahalanobis distance
of AR coefficients:

1 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(, ) = [ log + log 2]. (4)
2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
=1
( ) is the power spectral density to be examined, and ( ) is the average of the spectra estimates
from baseline signal collection. When the AR coefficients of the ARX model change as a result of a
defect, the Cosh distance value will increase.
3.9.2.5 Threshold Construction, Classification
Once an appropriate and damage-sensitive distance of the features from the unknown-state structure
compared with the baseline structure is calculated, it should be compared with a threshold to determine
whether damage has occurred or not. Statistical hypothesis testing (Koch, 1999) is the recognized
standard approach for threshold determination. It assumes that the features follow a certain probability
distribution, and the threshold is set at a point beyond which there is a very small chance for an event to
occur. This approach is theoretically optimal as long as the assumed feature distribution is valid.
Hypothesis testing does well for fault identification in machinery, as the excitation force is well known
and the damage types are well-defined. Although this approach is valid and should always be utilized
first, for civil engineering applications, however, there are more uncertainties. When the probability

distribution of damage features are too complex to be accurately represented by analytical distribution
functions, threshold constructed using hypothesis testing will yield poor results in damage identification
and an alternative approach is needed.
A data driven threshold determination scheme can be used, utilizing cross-validation and resampling
techniques (Good, 1999), and applied to the Mahalanobis distance and Cosh spectral distance features
introduced earlier. The data-driven method in combination with these distance features yields an effective
threshold for damage classification. The measure of distance features can be paired with the
autocorrelation function to improve the damage detection performance of time-series based methods. This
approach is described here for the Mahalanobis distance.
3.9.2.6 Threshold calculated from resampling: the cross-one-out method
The cross-one-out resampling technique can be adopted for threshold construction. First a segment is
cut from the baseline signal at a random time point and reserved for testing, and sample segments of the
same size are cut with a preset overlap from the remaining signal. The Mahalanobis distance between the
AR portion of model coefficients of the left-out segment and those of the sample set is computed and
stored. This process is repeated for a large number of times and the value beyond which 5% of the tests
occur is used as threshold in subsequent analysis. This approach is essentially an estimation of the feature
distribution by recomputing the statistic many times by leaving out a certain portion of observation, and
can be viewed as a combination of jackknife and cross-validation techniques (Shao and Tu, 1995).
3.9.3 References
Further information on signal processing for damage detection and sensor networks can be found in the
following references included in this report:
5.1.5 Nondestructive Method to Detect Corrosion of Steel Elements in Concrete (DaSilva et al.,
2009)
Olson, 2006)
System (Ghorbanpoor et al., 2000)
11.1 Automatic Delamination Detection of Concrete Bridge Decks Using Impact Signals (Zhang,
Harichandran and Ramuhalli, 2012))
11.2 Autoregressive Statistical Pattern Recognition Algorithms for Damage Detection in Civil
Structures (Yao and Pakzad, 2012)
11.3 Procedures for Fatigue Crack Growth Monitoring and Fatigue Life Prediction Using
Acoustic Emission Data and Neural Networks (Barsoum et al., 2011)
11.4 Time Series: Theory and Methods (2nd Edition) (Brockwell and Davis, 2009)
11.5 Discrete Wavelet Transform to Improve Guided-Wave-Based Health Monitoring of
Tendons and Cables (Rizzo and di Scalea, 2005)
11.6 Pattern Recognition Techniques for the Emerging Field of Bioinformatics: A Review (Liew,
Yan and Yang, 2005)
11.7 Introduction to Time Series and Forecasting (2nd Edition) (Brockwell and Davis, 2002)
11.8 Resampling Methods: A Practical Guide to Data Analysis (Good, 1999)
11.9 Parameter Estimation and Hypothesis Testing in Linear Models (Koch, 1999)
11.10 Large-Scale Simulation Studies in Image Pattern Recognition (Ho and Baird, 1997)
11.11 The Jackknife and Bootstrap (Shao and Tu, 1995)
11.12 Document Analysis- From Pixels to Contents (Schurmann et al., 1992)

11.13 Continuous Speech Recognition by Statistical Methods (Jelinek, 1976)
3.10 Time Domain Reflectometry
3.10.1 Applications
Time domain reflectometry (TDR) is an electrical measurement technique that was originally developed
as a method to locate and quantify defects in transmission lines. Recently TDR has been used in a
number of applications outside of investigating the condition of electrical cables including; monitoring of
water level in a dam, early detection of rock movement, soil moisture content and identifying defects
along post-tension ducts (Okanla et al., 1997). With regard to post-tensioned concrete structures time-
domain reflectometry methods have been used in laboratory experiments to identify grout voids within
the duct (Li et al., 2005; Chajes et al., 2003; Okanla et al.,1997) and to identify strand corrosion along
grouted tendons (Hunsperger et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2002). This method has the potential to determine
the location and relative size of a defect in the strand or grout (Liu et al., 2002). Time domain
reflectometry has been investigated for application in post-tensioned systems using internal or external
sensors, therefore it could be used on existing systems through the use of external sensors or internally
integrated into new construction using internal sensors (Li et al., 2005).
3.10.2 Methodology
The basic principle of the time domain reflectometry method involves sending high frequency electrical
pulses through a sensing cable. When an impedance discontinuity is encountered along the length of the
cable a partial reflection of the pulse is generated. These partial pulse reflections can then observed using
TDR cable test equipment. A basic functional block diagram for a typical time domain reflectometry
system is presented in Figure 3.28. In the case of post-tensioning systems the presence of physical
defects in the steel tendon, or the grout around the tendon, will cause a change in the electromagnetic
properties of the line (Chajes et. at, 2003). These changes in electromagnetic properties can be detected
by TDR identifying locations of corrosion and grout voids along the ducts. The application of the TDR
method for void detection and corrosion identification require a slightly different methodology regarding
the application of the transmission line. In general when using TDR for corrosion identification the steel
strand is used to establish a two-conductor transmission line and when identifying grout voids a separate
two conductor chord is used. This concept will be explained more thoroughly throughout this section.
Figure 3.28: Functional block diagram for typical time domain reflectometer (Liu et al., 2002)
When applying time domain reflectometry as a NDE method for corrosion detection, a sensor wire
(typically a coaxial cable) is run parallel with the steel strand to create an asymmetric two-conductor
transmission line (Figure 3.29) (Liu et al., 2002). A detailed explanation of the two-wire transmission
line model can be found in Chajes et al. (2003), but will be briefly summarized. In order to analyze the
wave propagation in the transmission line Maxwells equation with the proper imposed boundary
conditions needs to be solved. The analysis can be simplified by using a distributed parameter model to
study the wave propagation in the transmission line. Since the steel strand is used as the transmission line
the distributed properties in this case are calculated from the geometric and material properties of the
tendon. For this method the four distributed properties of interest are the capacitance, inductance,

resistance and conductance. From these parameters the impedance of strand can be calculated. It is
important to note that the impedance measurements depend on the radius of the strand and the dielectric
constant of the surrounding material. Any physical defects along the steel strand will therefore cause a
change in the impedance readings signifying tendon corrosion. In structures where there are multiple
strands present at the monitoring location this model needs to be altered in order to be applied. In
situations where multiple strands are closely spaced and electrically connected then they can be treated as
a single strand with a larger effective radius. (Chajes et al., 2003)
Figure 3.29: Twin-conductor transmission line (Liu et al., 2002)

For the application of time domain reflectometry to strand corrosion detection the damage sites within the
tendon need to be modeled as electrical discontinuities in the transmission line (Liu et al., 2002).
Laboratory experiments were conducted by Liu et al. (2002), to study the ability of TDR to detect the
presence and severity of pitting corrosion. Pitting corrosion can cause a large amount of localized
damage resulting in a significant loss to the cross-sectional area of the tendon. Theoretically, the
significant loss of cross sectional area along the tendon should cause a sudden increase in the localized
impedance signifying the presence of pitting corrosion. Additionally, the reflection amplitude created
when the wave encounters the site of pitting corrosion can provide information on the severity of the
damage. The location of the damage site along the tendon can also be obtained from the transit time of
the reflection wave. Figure 3.30 shows an example of a time domain reflectometry return where 50% of
the rebar was removed to simulate pitting corrosion at the center of bare rebar (not grouted). The pitting
corrosion is identified by the positive reflection indicated by point C. Based on this research the study
concluded that the steel/rebar and sensor wire can be modeled and evaluated analytically as a
transmission line and TDR can detect the location of damage site on a steel strand and reinforcing bar and
provide indications to the severity of the damaged region (Liu et al., 2002)
Figure 3.30: Time domain reflectometry return of 3m rebar sample with 50% pitting corrosion in middle
(Liu et al., 2002)

When applying the time domain reflectometry method for grout void detection the strand is typically not
used as part of the transmission line. In applications where only void detection monitoring is required
experiments have shown that standard transmission lines such as a 300 twin-lead television cable and
two-wire lamp zip chord can be used for internal void detection (Li et al., 2005). The twin conductor cord
is run inside the duct, but does not need to be run parallel to the strand as was the case with the addition
sensor wire used for corrosion detection. This is due to the fact that the cord itself contains two parallel
sensor wires. The detection of grout voids using time domain reflectometry is based on the theory that
the presence of a grout void will dramatically change the dielectric constant of the medium through which
the transmission line passes (in this application the grout), therefore affecting the characteristic impedance
of the line (Chajes et al., 2003). The cause the change in the dielectric constant is due to the presence of
air or water in the voids which have different electrical properties then the grout. Typically, the
characteristic impedance at locations of voids will increase because of the decrease in the dielectric
properties caused by the void (Liu et al., 2002).
Laboratory experiments were conducted by Chajes et al. (2003) and Li et al. (2005) to investigate the
ability of the TDR method to detect voids in post-tensioning ducts. In these experiments a positive step
pulse is generated and sent down the transmission line. When a void is located near the transmission line
a reflection is generated by the void and recorded as a signal bump by the oscilloscope (Li et al., 2005).
An example of a reflected voltage wave signal can be seen in Figure 3.31. In this figure the horizontal
axis represents the time at which the voltage change is recorded and the vertical axis represents the
voltage. In this particular experiment a 200 mV pulse was generated and sent down the transmission line
(marked in the figure as step pulse). The first pulse reflection is caused by the impedance mismatch
between the transmission line and the 50 coaxial cable used and indicated as the bump labeled
oscilloscope-transmission line connection. The second pulse reflection is caused by a 5.6 cm void in the
grout indicated in the figure as Void (diameter = 5.6 cm). The unreflected portion of the pulse continues
along the transmission until it reaches the end of the specimen indicated by the end. The known signal
wave velocity on the transmission line can also be used to determine the location of the void along the
length of the tendon. The time scale, shown on the horizontal axis, can be converted to a distance so that
the location of the defect (in this case a void) can be determined (Li et al., 2005).
Figure 3.31: Reflected TDR voltage wave signal (Li et al., 2005)
Based on the experimental work performed on grout void detection with TDR the following conclusions
can be made. Voids can be detected using a single wire in conjunction with an existing tendon or through
the use of commercially available transmission line (TV cable or lamp cord). Voids can be detected using
transmission lines internal and external to the tendon, however, the location of the lines need to be
optimized to provide the best resolution. If appropriate internal senor wire geometry is selected for

corrosion detection it can also be used to detect grout voids in the vicinity of the cable. The application of
external sensors is more difficult due to reduced reflected signal strength and the creation of noise
reflections from other structural components. It is also recommended for external sensors that different
transmission line geometries and larger pulse voltage be used (Li et al., 2005). The effectiveness of TDR
for void detection was demonstrated through test specimens with built-in voids. Factors affecting void
detection such as void size, void content and corrosion were identified (Chajes et al., 2003).
It should be noted that there are other forms of time domain reflectometry outside of electrical time
domain reflectometry described in this section that are being explored for the use of NDE monitoring in
civil structures. Optical time domain reflectometry (OTDR) is also being explored as a possible
technique. The basic principles of OTDR are described by Chang and Liu (2003). The OTDR technique
is based on intensity measurements of distributed sensors. Measurements are taken based on the time of
flight of light signals, if strain is induced at any point along the length of the fiber a change of intensity is
reflected back. The OTDR records the time it take for the light signal to travel back from the location
where the strain was encountered and then converts this time to a distance. Similar to TDR these
measurements are used to identify the location at which the anomaly occurred (Chang and Liu, 2003).
This technology is under development.
3.10.3 Limitations
When utilizing time domain reflectometry one limitation that arises is the sensitivity to the proximity of
the defect to the sensor wire. In the case of detecting strand corrosion the measurement sensitivity is
related to the distance between the cable and sensor wire. The characteristic impedance depends on this
distance, therefore the closer the two conductors the more sensitive the measurement will be (Liu et al.,
2002). For the application of detecting grout voids the sensitivity is dependent on the location of the
defect with respect to the transmission line. Voids far away from the strand/wire transmission line might
be more difficult to detect because of their negligible effect on the line impedance (Chajes et al., 2003).
The sensitivity of the method to defect size is also a concern when using TDR. In the case of grout voids
the reflection magnitude is related to void size, the larger the grout void the larger the reflection
magnitude (Chajes et al., 2003). Experimental results for strand corrosion identification have indicated
the same relationship between defect size and reflection magnitude; the magnitude of the reflection
depends on the severity of the damage (Liu et al., 2002). This indicates that there is a limit to the size of
defect that can be identified using this method, which means small grout voids or surface corrosion may
be difficult or impossible to detect.
Another limitation of this method is that there is a lack of testing and verification of this method in field
applications. The lack of field application may be due to the following issues presented in Hunsperger et
al. (2003). Existing structures do not embody features designed for up to date TDR implementation.
External detection cannot avoid the presence of concrete layers which cause strong attenuation to the
signals, obstructing TDR measurements. Large pulse generators must be used in order to enhance the
visibility of voids in corrosion sites in the field. Additional further research is needed to find more
practical sensor geometries of transmission lines that can meet the requirements of field practice
(Hunsperger et al., 2003). Another concern with regards to field application is the implementation of the
sensor wire for corrosion detection in the field. The wire should remain parallel to the strand for
monitoring purposes but in many field applications the post-tensioning wire is draped at various locations
along its length. This may make it difficult to receive consistent measurements along a strand.
Weather, temperature and moisture content also effects the readings obtained using this method, so these
factors should be noted and taken into consideration during the inspection (Li et al., 2005). In addition
the sensitivity of the measurements tends to decrease when external sensors are used (Liu et al., 2002).
The accuracy and applicability of this method using internal or external sensors should be explored

further and verified in the field or in testing mock up that more similarly mimic field conditions, such as
grouted tendons embedded in concrete with in the presence of a rebar network.

Time domain reflectometry can potentially be used to identify grout voids and strand corrosion in post-
tensioned concrete systems. When integrated into new construction this method can be applied to both
internal and external ducts. TDR can be used for both quality control to help eliminate the presence of
grout voids and long term monitoring of grout and strand condition within the tendon ducts allowing for
early detection of defects. Being able to detect and correct defects at an early stage can help increase the
life span of post-tensioned bridge systems. Based on the reviewed literature this method shows promise
for the application of grout void detection when using sensors embedded into the duct system. Currently
there is no commercially available TDR system for use in post-tensioned inspection. The development of
such a system should be explored and developed in order to make this a viable inspection method for use
with PT systems.
3.10.5 References
Further information on the time domain reflectometry method can be found in the following references
included in this report:
5.1.1 Improved Inspection Techniques for Steel Prestressing/Post-tensioning Strand Final Report
Volume 1(Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a)
10.13. Time-Domain Reflectometry to Detect Voids in Posttensioning Ducts (Li et al., 2005)
10.16. Recent Research in Nondestructive Evaluation of Civil Infrastructures (Chang and Liu, 2003)
10.17 Detecting Corrosion in Existing Structures Using Time Domain Reflectometry (Hunsperger et
al., 2003)
10.19. Time Domain Reflectometry for Void Detection in Grouted Posttensioned Bridges (Chajes et
al., 2003)
10.23. Corrosion Detection of Steel Cables Using Time Domain Reflectometry (Liu et al., 2002)
10.26. Detecting Faults in Posttensioning Ducts by Electrical Time-Domain Reflectometry (Okanla et
al., 1997)
3.11 Ultrasonic Testing
3.11.1 Applications
Ultrasonic testing (UT) of post-tensioned concrete structures can be subdivided into two approaches: (1)
ultrasonic guided wave testing (GWT) and (2) ultrasonic imaging. Ultrasonic GWT has been investigated
in a laboratory scale to measure prestress force (Rizzo, 2006; Chaki and Bourse, 2009), and to detect wire
breaks and cross-sectional loss in anchorage zones due to corrosion (Beard, Lowe and Cawley, 2003;
Bartoli et al. 2009). The GWT procedure not only identifies the presence of defects in post-tensioning
steel, but can also be used to locate defects (Bartoli et al., 2009). It is noted that the GWT procedure
requires access to ends of post-tensioning steel tendons and therefore is viable only for new construction.
The procedure can accommodate both steel and plastic duct material.
Ultrasonic imaging utilizes an array of surface-mounted transducers to visualize subsurface conditions.
The procedure requires access to a single surface, and has been used to locate and quantify subsurface
defects and features, such as voids, delaminations, and partially grouted post-tensioning steel ducts
(Schickert, Krause and Muller, 2003; Krause et al., 2008). Similar to GWT, the procedure can
accommodate both steel and plastic duct material.

3.11.2 Methodology
Ultrasonic GWT of post-tensioned concrete structures involves the generation of ultrasonic sound waves
in the post-tensioning steel. As illustrated in Figure 3.32, these ultrasonic waves are generated at the
exposed ends of the steel tendons using an electronic device that can produce high voltage electrical
pulses. The propagating waves, which are confined and guided by the geometric boundaries of the
tendon, are reflected and refracted by local cross-sectional changes (e.g. broken wires or mass loss due to
corrosion). As a result, measurement of the frequency content and amplitude of the reflected waves
(using a transducer mounted to the tendon end) provides information regarding defect size, orientation,
and location. GWT utilizes relatively low-frequency waves (5-250 kHz) that have a long wavelength
with respect to the tendon diameter in order to reduce attenuation for long-range inspection.
Ultrasonic imaging uses an array of surface-mounted transducers to generate and receive ultrasonic shear
waves in the surveyed region of the structure. As illustrated in Figure 3.33, multiple intersecting shear
wave paths can be generated across the transducer array. The reflected wave content is processed using
the synthetic aperture focusing technique (SAFT), which shifts the individual transducer signals in time to
superpose on a coherent wave reflector, i.e. an embedded feature or defect. SAFT is able to locate wave
reflecting targets but is unable to distinguish further characteristics (e.g. interface type). This deficiency
has led to the development of phase modified SAFT. By using the phase information of the received
wave pulses, phase modified SAFT can distinguish between material interfaces, e.g. concrete-steel or
concrete-air. Figure 3.34 presents conventional and phase modified SAFT images for a post-tensioned
concrete beam using a shear wave transducer array.
Figure 3.32: Pulse-echo test configuration for the inspection of post-tensioning steel using guided
ultrasonic waves (Beard, Lowe and Cawley, 2003)

Figure 3.33: Illustration of ultrasonic imaging: equipment (top) and test configuration (bottom) for a shear
wave array (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a)
Figure 3.34: Illustration of a conventional SAFT image (top) and a phase modified SAFT image (bottom)
collected from a post-tensioned concrete beam. The color in the phase modified image indicates the
phase of the reflected wave (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a)
3.11.3 Limitations
Ultrasonic GWT requires that the ends of the post-tensioning steel tendons are exposed and accessible.
Testing, analysis, and data interpretation requires experienced personnel. Conventional ultrasonic imaging
procedures using SAFT are well suited for the location of embedded features and defects, but do not
provide information regarding the type of material interface. As a result, they are unable to characterize
grout conditions in post-tensioning steel ducts. Procedures that utilize phase modified SAFT, however,
are able to distinguish between material interfaces and can be used to locate and quantify grouting defects
in post-tensioning steel ducts. Ultrasonic methods are not readily adaptable to the inspection of
geometrically complex details such as post-tensioning anchorage and strand coupler regions, where signal
interpretation is complicated by wave interactions.

Ultrasonic GWT is well suited for monitoring the condition of post-tensioning steel strands in concrete
bridges. In order to accommodate GWT, post-tensioned bridge designs should provide anchorage details
that leave the ends of the tendons exposed and accessible. Ultrasonic imaging utilizing phase modified
SAFT provides a robust visualization tool that can be used to locate and measure subsurface features and
defects, including grout conditions in post-tensioning steel ducts.
3.11.5 References
Further information on ultrasonic testing can be found in the following references included in this report:
et al., 2010)
Ducts Final Report (Muszynski, Chini amd Andary, 2003)
Olson, 2006)
and Hurlebaus, 2012)
2010)
6.12 Ultrasonic Imaging Methods for Investigation of Post-tensioned Concrete Structures: A
Study of Interfaces at Artificial Grouting and Its Verification (Krause et al., 2008)
6.18 Automated NDE of Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridges Using Imaging Echo Methods
(Streicher et al., 2006)
6.22 Ultrasonic Imaging of Concrete Elements Using Reconstruction by Synthetic Aperture
Focusing Technique (Schickert, Krause and Muller, 2003)
6.23 Ultrasonic Guided Waves for Inspection of Grouted Tendons and Bolts (Beard, Lowe and
Cawley, 2003)
6.29 Ultrasonic Tomography of Grouted Duct Post-Tensioned Reinforced Concrete Bridge
Beams (Martin et al., 2001)
9.4 Non-Destructive Evaluation of the Stress Levels in Prestressed Steel Strands using
Acoustoelastic Effect (Chaki and Bourse, 2009)
Bridges (Bartoli et al., 2009)
9.8 Ultrasonic Wave Propagation in Progressively Loaded Multi-Wire Strands (Rizzo, 2006)

10.10 Evaluation of Radar and Complementary Echo Methods for NDT of Concrete Elements
(Maierhofer et al., 2008)
Bridges (Kohl and Streicher, 2006)
10.15 Progress in Ultrasonic Imaging of Concrete (Schickert, 2005)
2003)
10.18 Ultrasonic C-scan Imaging: Preliminary Evaluation for Corrosion and Void Detection in
Posttensioned Tendons (Iyer, Schokker and Sinha, 2003)
10.21 Non-Contact Ultrasonic Imagining for Post-Tensioned Bridges to Investigate Corrosion
and Void Status
3.12 Visual Inspection
3.12.1 Applications
Visual inspection techniques are among the oldest and most commonly used forms of NDE in bridge
inspection today. Visual inspection is used in some capacity in almost all types of bridge inspections and
can be used to identify cracking, spalling, fretting, surface corrosion, exfoliation, pitting and inter-
granular corrosion (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a). In post-tensioned systems, due to the encapsulated
construction details used, visual inspection with the naked eye is limited to cases where significant
damage is present. This damage can include but is not limited to splitting of external PT ducts and
external corrosion of anchorage blocks. Typically PT details require invasive drilling and the use of
borescopes to provide localized information on tendon corrosion and grout condition.
3.12.2 Methodology
Visual inspection typically involves accessing a structural component based on the exterior appearance.
Post-tensioned systems can be more difficult to inspect visually because often corrosion of the strands
does not result in noticeable external changes until the structure is severely damaged. In grouted post-
tensioned systems the tendon and grout condition cannot be examined visually without performing
invasive drilling since they are encapsulated by the duct. Typically, a hole is drilled at various locations
along the tendon duct and a borescope is inserted in order to obtain images of the internal condition of the
tendon. Based on these images grout voids and strand corrosion can be identified. Figure 3.35 shows
images or a partially grouted duct obtained using a borescope. As illustrated the quality of the images
allow for identification of strand condition when voids are present. This method of visual inspection for
grouted post-tensioned ducts tends to be easier to perform on external ducts since they duct itself is more
easily accessible. In the case of internal PT ducts the location of the duct and potential voids must be
known to ensure that the drilling process does not cause damage to the tendon.

Figure 3.35: Photos a and b show duct partially grouted with strand exposure. Photo c
shows voided duct with strands fully exposed. Photo d shows partially grouted duct, no
strands exposed. (DMJM Harris, 2003)
3.12.3 Limitations
Visual inspection of post-tensioned systems can be difficult because there is limited access to the tendon.
Visual inspection of external components is often not possible because typically signs of distress are not
externally visible until the strands are severely damaged. Inspection involving borescope requires
invasive drilling which can cause damage to the tendon if care is not taken during this process.
Additionally, only localized information on the grout condition and tendon corrosion can be obtained at
each drill site. This inspection process tends to be time consuming and requires that the location of
tendons be known. It is not practical to inspect the full length of a tendon with just the use of visual
inspection.

Visual inspection is a relatively inexpensive method that is able to provide accurate localized inspection
information. For these reasons it is recommended that borescope inspections be used in conjunction with
other NDE methods. Once defective areas along a tendon have been identified by other NDE methods
that can more rapidly inspect the entire tendon length, borescope inspection can be used at the identified
locations to verify and determine the severity of the damage.
3.12.5 References
For further information on visual inspection the following references identified below can be examined.
Details on each reference can be found in the identified section of this report.

Concrete Bridges- Final Report Volume II (Azizinamini and Gull, 2012a)
et al., 2010)
(Naito, Jones and Hodgson, 2010)
Maintenance of Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges (Volume 9) (Corven Engineering, 2002)
5.1.21 Mid-Bay Bridge Post-Tensioning Evaluation (Corven Engineering, 2001)
5.2.1 Corrosion of Prestressing Steels (ACI 222.2R-01) (ACI Committee, 2001)
2010)
7.7 Corrosion of the Strand-Anchorage System in Post-Tensioned Grouted Assemblies (Wang,
Sagues and Powers, 2005)
7.14 Location of Prestressing Steel Fractures in Concrete (Scheel and Hillemeir, 2003)

4 Summary of NDE methods and tools
Readily available nondestructive evaluation methods applied to post-tensioned systems were investigated
based on the most current published literature. The current applications, methodology, limitations and
potential applications for the following methods were explored in chapter 3 of this report; Visual
Inspection, Ground Penetrating Radar, Half-Cell Potential, Electrically Isolated Tendons, Time Domain
Reflectometry, Magnetic Flux Leakage, Impact Echo, Acoustic Emission, Radiography, Infrared
Thermography and Ultrasonic Testing. Based on the information gathered from the literature review it
was identified that the accuracy and applicability of many of the techniques are affected by the duct type
(metal or plastic), duct location (internal or external), and the surrounding components (i.e. reinforcing
bars) with in the post-tensioned system. A summary of the NDE methods is presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Summary of NDE Methods

Application in PT Limitations Current Uses in PT Recommendations
Method
Systems Bridge Inspections
Mainly used for the Cannot detect Not used for The ability to accurately
detection of wire existing damage monitoring of grouted detect a break in a fully grouted
fracture occurrence Produces large tendons PT tendon has not been
Acoustic Emission
through continuous amounts of data that can adequately demonstrated and

monitoring be difficult to interpret therefore is not currently
Fractures in recommended for long term
grouted tendons are monitoring
more difficult to detect
then in ungrouted or
partially grouted
specimens
Detection of Requires plastic Not used in the US The method appears to be
Electrically Isolated Tendons
breaches in the duct and special PT systems viable for detection of a breach
corrosion protection isolation hardware for Applications exist in in the corrosion protection
system anchorages. Switzerland (required system of the duct during
Provides enhanced If electrical for most PT systems) service life.
levels of corrosion isolation is not achieved and Italy for quality This approach appears to be
protection of the during construction control and long term viable and should be
tendon future NDE monitoring monitoring of the PT investigated further for the US
Allows for quality cannot be performed corrosion protection market
control and long systems
term monitoring
External detection of Difficult to identify Widely used to This method provides a
metallic duct duct/tendon in areas locate metal ducts well-established tool for
Ground Penetrating Radar
location with high reinforcement during inspections location of metallic ducts and
Potential use in congestion reinforcement
detecting grout voids Cannot inspect GPR has also shown
in plastic ducts conditions within metal promise for locating plastic
Potential use in ducts ducts in laboratory testing.
external detection of Accuracy is This method provides the
plastic ducts reduced with increase in possibly for identification of
embedment depth. voids in plastic ducts. This
approach should be investigated
further.

Method
Detection of regions Ineffective for External applications Due to the shielding

of high potential, plastic or steel duct not typically used for provided by the duct this
Half-Cell Potential
indicative of active tendon systems when the inspection of PT method is not viable for external
corrosion of applied externally due tendons assessment of corrosion
tendons. to the masking effect of Half-cell probes internally
the ducts embedded into the tendons are
commercially available and
should be investigated as a
viable method
Detection of Grout Difficult to use in Not typically used This method has the
Voids areas with congested for tendon inspection potential to be used as a quality
Strand Location rebar control tool to ensure proper
Impact Echo
Not well suited for grouting of the tendon in known

inspecting large areas problem areas and is currently
unless automated best suited for metal ducts.
systems are used. It is not currently
recommended as a tool for
strand location.
Grout Void Ineffective for steel Not typically used Based on the current
Thermography
Detection duct systems for tendon inspection technology and lack of

Strand Location Depth and
Infrared
successful applications in PT
thickness measurements systems this method is not
require experimental or currently viable for grout void
numerical calibration or strand location assessment.
data.
Strand Corrosion More difficult to Primarily used for This method is viable for
Wire Fracture use when the duct is external ducts. the assessment of external
Magnetic Flux
embedded in concrete Field readings for tendons.

Leakage
Presence of rebar internal ducts have been Due to the ability for this
can affect the accuracy found to be less method to detect corrosion of
Ducts can create a accurate. the strand it should be further
masking effect investigated for applicability to
internal tendons.
Strand Corrosion Requires access to Not typically used May be suited for detection
Grout Voids both sides of the for tendon inspection strand corrosion and grout
Strand Location specimen voids. If verified, it would be
Gamma ray suited for the inspection of
devices use radioactive tendon anchorage regions and
Radiography
materials strand couplers where complex

X-ray and Gamma geometries and multi-layer
ray require safety material interfaces present
precautions during problems for other NDE
transmission. methods.
Portable high intensity X-
ray machines have improved the
efficiency and imaging
capabilities of radiography

Method
Grout Voids Method is sensitive Not typically used or This method appears
Strand Corrosion to the size of the defect currently installed in PT promising and should be
Best results are bridge systems investigated further for internal
Time Domain Reflectometry
obtained with internal integration in PT systems.

sensors which need to The ability to detect both
be integrated into the corrosion and grout voids while
duct providing information on the
Content in voids location of the defect should be
can affect the accuracy verified
Pulse generator Ability to detect moisture
required can be levels in grout should be
expensive. explored further
No commercially
available system for PT
inspection
Strand Corrosion Ends of PT tendons Not commonly GWT is a viable method for
Grout Voids need to be accessible for used for tendon identifying strand breaks.
PT Tendon Location GWT inspection. Phase modified SAFT is a
Signal GWT has been reliable method for detecting
Ultrasonic Testing
interpretation difficult used for condition grout voids in PT tendons, but

for complex geometries assessment of steel methods cannot handle complex
strand and prestress geometries such as the tendon
monitoring anchorage regions.
Ultrasonic imaging This approach appears to be
has been used for viable and should be
grout void investigated further for the US
detection in PT market
tendons.
Strand Corrosion Access to the Currently one of This method provides
Grout Voids interior of the duct the most typically accurate information on the
requires invasive used methods condition of the tendon. Due to
Visual Inspection
drilling Borescopes are the fact that this method

Each access point widely used to requires invasive drilling and
to the tendon only inspect internal allows only a small portion of
allows for a small conditions of the tendon to be inspected it is
amount of the tendon to tendons best suited as a tool to verify
be inspected localized damage identified by
Location of the other methods.
tendon must be known.
4.1 Future Work

As part of the next task of this project a comprehensive study of PT systems, components and details
(subtask 11.2) and bridge superstructure, components and details (subtask 11.3) will be conducted. The
purpose of this study is to determine if any of these details can be altered to better accommodate NDE
testing. This will include but is not limited to modification of congested reinforcement areas, location of
diaphragms and other detailing concepts that will improve the access and inspection of the bridge regions
sensitive to damage. Based on the investigation of the techniques that are currently available for field and

the academic applications of these techniques in research applications NDE methods that can be
integrated into PT systems appear to show the most promise for both quality control and long term
monitoring. The following NDE methods which can be internally integrated into PT systems will be
explored in the subsequent tasks. This includes electrically isolated tendons, time domain reflectometry,
ultrasonic, and internal half-cell measurements.
The primary goal of the future subtasks is to identify PT system component details and bridge
superstructure details that restrict the ability to effectively evaluate the post-tensioned tendons. Practical
solutions on how to alter the PT system components and bridge superstructure for each of the methods
selected will be developed. The ultimate goal is to find a combination of NDE, PT system details and
bridge superstructure details that can be implemented into future systems to increase the accuracy and
ease of inspection for post-tensioned systems.

5 Agency Sponsored Studies
5.1 Department of Transportation Reports

Report Volume 1
Author(s): Atorod Azizinamini and Jawad Gull
Publication: FDOT Contract No. BDK80 977-13
Publication Date: June 2012
Abstract/Summary: Post-tensioned bridges require a detailed inspection of their post-tensioning systems
since damage in these systems in not evident and can result in costly repairs/replacements, loss of
integrity and reduction in safety of the bridge. Different nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques can
be used for the inspection of post-tensioning systems however; there is no systematic way by which a
particular NDE technology may be selected for a particular job.
This project presents elements and foundation for development of a systematic, job specific approach for
the selection of NDE technology for inspection of the post-tensioning systems.
In order to achieve this goal, factors affecting the performance of NDE techniques used for the condition
assessment of the post-tensioning systems are identified. NDE techniques are then grouped according to
their underlying phenomenological basis to put forth the working principles, and pros and cons that can
be used for the development of ranking system.
It has been found that major difference in grouting practice before and after 2000 affects the selection of
NDE technique for the inspection of post-tensioning systems. Other factors affecting the performance of
the NDE techniques are the duct system, geometrically difficult zones, and the types of defects. Separate
sets of NDE technique are recommended for the internal/external ducts positioned along the traffic and
geometrically difficult zones. A job specific Ranking Index is proposed for the selection of NDE that
takes into account the not only above mentioned factors but also the cost of conducting NDE. Based on
the project findings a roadmap to develop comprehensive methodology to effectively asses the condition
of post-tensioned bridge systems is presented.
Concrete Bridges- Final Report Volume II
Author(s): Atorod Azizinamini and Jawad Gull
Publication: FDOT Contract No. BDK80 977-13
Abstract/Summary: Post-tensioned bridges require a detailed inspection of their post-tensioning systems
since damage in these systems in not evident and can result in costly repairs/replacements, loss of
integrity and reduction in safety of the bridge. Different nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques can
be used for the inspection of post-tensioning systems however; there is no systematic way by which a
particular NDE technology may be selected for a particular job.
This project presents elements and foundation for development of a systematic, job specific approach for
the selection of NDE technology for inspection of the post-tensioning systems.
In order to achieve this goal, factors affecting the performance of NDE techniques used for the condition
assessment of the post-tensioning systems are identified. NDE techniques are then grouped according to

their underlying phenomenological basis to put forth the working principles, and pros and cons that can
be used for the development of ranking system.\
It has been found that major difference in grouting practice before and after 2000 affects the selection of
NDE technique for the inspection of post-tensioning systems. Other factors affecting the performance of
the NDE techniques are the duct system, geometrically difficult zones, and the types of defects. Separate
sets of NDE technique are recommended for the internal/external ducts positioned along the traffic and
geometrically difficult zones. A job specific Ranking Index is proposed for the selection of NDE that
takes into account the not only above mentioned factors but also the cost of conducting NDE. Based on
the project findings a roadmap to develop comprehensive methodology to effectively asses the condition
of post-tensioned bridge systems is presented.
Strands in Concrete Bridge Components Task 2 Assessment of Candidate NDT Methods
Author(s): Lawrence Jones, Stephen Pessiki, Clay Naito, and Ian Hodgson
Publication: Pennsylvania Department of Transportation
Publication Date: 2010
Abstract/Summary: Catastrophic failures of non-composite prestressed precast concrete adjacent-box
beam bridges have occurred in several states due to corrosion of the prestressing steel. These failures
have highlighted the need to improve methods used to detect corrosion damage and subsequently load
rate the damaged members. In light of this, PennDot initiated a research program aimed at improving
inspection techniques through evaluation of the off-the-shelf non-destructive testing (NDT) technologies
and correlation of surface conditions with non-visible strand corrosion. Funding for the project was
provided by the departments of transportation of Pennsylvania (the lead agency), New York, and Illinois.
Currently, inspection of concrete box girder sections relies on visual methods which correlate longitudinal
and transverse cracking, spalling and exposed strands with the rated level of performance of the member.
While the visual method provides a qualitative estimate of the amount of damage, the specific location
along a strand and the amount of damage to the strands is not clearly defined. As a result, the assessment
of the condition of the bridge could in some cases results in an un-conservative or overly-conservative
estimate of remaining strength. Furthermore, without a high level of accuracy in locating damage to the
strands, remediation and rehabilitation is difficult to accomplish. To improve on the current inspection
techniques the visual inspection requirements are revisited through an extensive destructive evaluation
study. In addition, NDT methods are evaluated and compared with actual damage present in a group of
40-50 year old box beams removed from service. The goal of this project is to determine if visual
inspection techniques or currently available NDT technologies will allow for accurate identification of
non-visible corrosion of prestressing strands.
To perform this evaluation, seven non-composite adjacent prestressed box beam segments were procured.
The beams were recovered from three decommissioned bridges in the state of Pennsylvania. The beams
selected were chosen to have variety of different construction details and levels of damage to provide a
spectrum of corrosion conditions.
Six NDT experts evaluated the beams prior to destructive evaluation. Each team compiled their data and
reported their findings for comparison with the in-house destructive evaluation. This report presents the
background of each NDT method used and discusses the accuracy and feasibility of using the method for
field inspection of prestressed concrete bridge components. Based on the results of the study it was found
that Magnetic Flux Leakage and Remnant Magnetism evaluation methods are potentially viable for the
detection of non-visible corrosion of prestressing strands. Ground penetrating radar techniques may also
be viable with improvements in the resolution of the hardware. The results produced by Line Scanning

Thermography, Electromagnetic Corrosion Detection, Galvanostatic Pulse Corrosion and Ultrasonic
Shear Wave Testing do not provide better accuracy than visual observation techniques.
The accuracy and reliability of two methods were examined more thoroughly. Magnetic Flux Leakage
and Remnant Magnetism were re-evaluated using a series of manufactured test slabs. The results of this
study indicated that both methods are capable of detecting section loss in strands with good accuracy.
Author(s): Clay Naito, Larry Jones and Ian Hodgson
Publication: Pennsylvania Department of Transportation
Abstract/Summary: Catastrophic failures of non-composite prestressed precast concrete adjacent-box
beam bridges have occurred in several states due to corrosion of the prestressing steel. These failures
have highlighted the need to improve methods used to detect corrosion damage and subsequently load
rate the damaged members. In light of this, PennDot initiated a research program aimed at improving
inspection techniques through evaluation of the off-the-shelf non-destructive testing (NDT) technologies
and correlation of surface conditions with non-visible strand corrosion. Funding for the project was
provided by the departments of transportation of Pennsylvania (the lead agency), New York, and Illinois.
Currently, inspection of concrete box girder sections relies on visual methods which correlate longitudinal
and transverse cracking, spalling and exposed strands with the rated level of performance of the member.
While the visual method provides a qualitative estimate of the amount of damage, the specific location
along a strand and the amount of damage to the strands is not clearly defined. As a result, the assessment
of the condition of the bridge could in some cases results in an un-conservative or overly-conservative
estimate of remaining strength. Furthermore, without a high level of accuracy in locating damage to the
strands, remediation and rehabilitation is difficult to accomplish. To improve on the current inspection
techniques the visual inspection requirements are revisited through an extensive destructive evaluation
study. In addition, NDT methods are evaluated and compared with actual damage present in a group of
40-50 year old box beams removed from service. The goal of this project is to determine if visual
inspection techniques or currently available NDT technologies will allow for accurate identification of
non-visible corrosion of prestressing strands.
This report presents the results of the visual inspection, material testing, half-cell potential mapping, and
the destructive evaluation of the beams. The research results indicate that fabrication techniques used for
box beam construction in the 1950-1960 time period allowed for large variations in construction
tolerance. Half cell methods were shown to not provide an accurate or reliable method of identifying
corrosion of prestressing strands. Longitudinal cracking was shown to provide an accurate and reliable
means of identifying corrosion of prestressing strands. Probabilities of corrosion on strands adjacent to
longitudinal cracks are determined and discussed. Additionally, a new recommendation for inspecting
beams and its impact on operating and inventory rating is provided.
5.1.5 Nondestructive Method to Detect Corrosion of Steel Elements in Concrete

Author(s): Marcelo DaSilva, Saeed Javidi, AaronYakel, and Atorod Azizinamini
Publication: National Bridge Research Organization & Nebraska Department of Roads
Publication Date: April 2009
Abstract: This report provides an outline of a novel approach, methodology, and equipment needed to
detect corrosion of any steel element that is embedded in the concrete bridges. Further, within this project,

a complete non-destructive system is developed that can detect the presence and extent of corrosion in
any steel elements in concrete bridges.
Possible applications include:
a) Detecting corrosion of reinforcing bars in concrete deck
b) Detecting corrosion of prestressing strands in prestressed girders
c) Detecting corrosion of prestressing strands in post tensioned concrete bridges and placed in steel or
plastic duct
d) Evaluating the condition of bridge deck with respect to corrosion
The method is specifically developed for post tension concrete bridges, which is the most challenging
condition. Application to other conditions will be an easy transition. The method is referred to as non-
destructive since it can detect the presence of corrosion without drilling holes or similar approaches for
visual inspection. It is in that sense a blind technique, where condition of the embedded steel is assessed
similar to taking x-ray or having an MRI on human body. The foundation of the method is based on a
simple concept in physics called The Hall effect. The principle is based on creating a magnetic field
around the embedded steel element and studying the resulting magnetic field changes using Hall-effect
sensors. The idea is that the magnetic field will change in the presence of corrosion. The development of
the concept and non-destructive equipment started with a very primitive device and evolved into a system
that can be applied to field conditions. A series of laboratory tests were carried out to develop the
methodology and the non-destructive device itself. An extensive amount of numerical analyses were
carried out to comprehend the meaning of different signal types that were being obtained from the non-
destructive device. Finally, limited field studies were carried out to develop a comprehensive
methodology adoptable to field conditions. Corrosion of steel reinforcing bars or strands in concrete
bridges present a great challenge for inspection and safety evaluation of these structures. The non-
destructive equipment and associated methodology developed in this project allows effective and rapid
assessment of bridges for the presence of corrosion.
5.1.6 Effect of Voids in Grouted, Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridge Construction: Volume 1

Electrochemical Testing and Reliability Assessment
Author(s): David Trejo, Mary Beth D. Hueste, Paolo Gardoni, Radhakrishna G. Pillai, Kenneth
Reinschmidt, Seok Been Im, Suresh Kataria, Stefan Hurlebaus, Michael Gamble and Thanh Tat Ngo
Publication: Texas Department of Transportation (Report No. FHWA/TX-09/0-4588-1 Vol.1)
Publication Date: September 2009
Abstract/Summary: Post-tensioned (PT) bridges are major structures that carry significant
traffic. PT bridges are economical for spanning long distances. In Texas, there are several
signature PT bridges. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, several state highway agencies
identified challenges with the PT structures, mainly corrosion of the PT strands. The Texas
Department of Transportation (TxDOT) performed some comprehensive inspections of its
PT bridges. A consultants report recommended that all ducts be re-grouted. However, the
environment in Texas is very different than the environments in which the corrosion of the
PT strands were observed. The objective of this research was to evaluate the corrosion
activity of strands for PT structures and to correlate this corrosion activity with general
environmental and void conditions. To achieve this objective, time-variant probabilistic
models were developed to predict the tension capacity of PT strands subjected to different
environmental and void conditions. Using these probabilistic models, time-variant structural
reliability models were developed. The probability of failure of a simplified PT structure
subjected to HS20 and HL93 loading conditions was assessed. Both flexural failure and
serviceability were assessed. Results indicate that the presence of water and chlorides can

lead to significant corrosion rates and failure is dependent on this corrosion activity and the
number of strands exposed to these conditions. Volume 1 of this report presents these results.
To assist TxDOT with developing a plan to mitigate this corrosion, studies were performed
to assess repair grout materials, inspection methods, and repair methods. In addition, a
general methodology is presented on optimizing repairs. These topics are presented in
Volume 2 of this report. An Inspection and Repair Manual was also developed from this
research and is presented in a separate report. Results indicate that TxDOT should prevent
water and chlorides from infiltrating the tendons; this can be achieved in part by repairing
drain lines and ducts and protecting anchor heads, as these conditions can lead to early
failure of PT bridges. Recommendations on inspections, repairs, and materials are provided;
however, further research on the potential formation of galvanic coupling of strands
embedded in both existing and new repair grouts needs to be assessed.
Penetrating Radar
Author(s): David G. Pollock, Kenneth J. Dupuis, Benjamin Lacour, and Karl R. Olsen
Publication: Washington State Department of Transportation (Report No. WA-RD 717.1)
Publication Date: December 2008
Abstract/Summary: Thermal imaging and ground-penetrating radar was conducted on concrete specimens
with simulated air voids. For the thermal imaging inspections, six concrete specimens were constructed
during the month of June 2007 to simulate the walls of post-tensioned box girder bridges. The objective
was to detect simulated air voids within grouted post-tensioning ducts, thus locating areas where the post-
tensioning steel strands are vulnerable to corrosion. The most important deduction taken from these
inspections was that PT-ducts and simulated voids were more detectable in the 20 cm (8 in.) thick
specimens than in the 30 cm (12 in.) thick specimens. While inspections of the 20 cm (8 in.) thick
specimens revealed the majority of their simulated voids, only one thicker specimen inspection (12c)
indicated the presence of simulated voids (four voids in two ducts). Also, PT-ducts were much clearer and
visible in the thermal images of the thinner specimens.
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) inspection was conducted on fourteen concrete specimens between
August and October 2007. Based on the GPR surveys conducted in this study, it is apparent that the
detection of post-tensioning strands and simulated voids within grouted ducts embedded in concrete is
possible with a 1.5 GHz GPR system. The layout of the top layer of steel reinforcement in each concrete
specimen was evident in the GPR images, but the bottom layer of reinforcement was not clearly detected
since it was effectively hidden beneath the top layer of rebar. Although none of the post-tensioning
strands and simulated air voids within the grouted steel ducts was detectable, simulated voids within
plastic ducts were generally detectable in GPR images. The high dielectric constant of the steel ducts did
not allow the microwaves to transmit through the surface of the duct and reach the simulated voids.
However, the general location of the duct, its orientation and its depth in the concrete were accurately
determined using GPR. Thus it can be inferred that the void orientation is critical for detection in GPR
images.
5.1.8 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges Load Rating Post-Tensioned Concrete
Segmental Bridges (Volume 10A)
Author(s): Corven Engineering
Publication: Florida Department of Transportation

Publication Date: October 8, 2004
Abstract/Summary: Condition Inspection and Maintenance of Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges addresses
the specifics of ensuring the long-term durability of tendons in existing and newly constructed bridges.
The types of inspections and testing procedures available for condition assessments are reviewed, and a
protocol of remedies are presented for various symptoms found.
Concrete Beam Bridges (Volume 10B)

Ducts Final Report
Author(s): Larry C. Muszynski, Abdol R. Chini, and Elie G. Andary
Publication: Florida DOT (Report No. DOT HS 809 412)
Publication Date: May 30, 2003
Abstract/Summary: The use of post-tensioning in bridges provides durability and structural benefits to the
system while expediting the construction process. However, there is considerable interest to determine
whether a tendon duct is properly filled with grout or not. Implementing non-destructive testing can be
vital to the integrity of the structure because loss of post-tensioning can result in catastrophic failure.
Objectives: The purpose of this work was to develop and validate a non-destructive testing and evaluation
(NDT&E) method that can be used in the field to detect internal concrete conditions such as voids and
cracks in grouted tendon ducts during bonded post-tensioned applications.
Methods: These are three techniques that were evaluated in this research effort: Impact Echo (IE),
Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW), and Ultrasonic Tomography Imaging (UTI).
Results: Based on the results for all three tests, we suggest that the IE scanning should be used to evaluate
the internal condition of the grouted duct. Impactechograms may also be used as a way to present the
results since the plot provides more information in IE frequency data. The image results from UTI
showed locations of both ducts clearly in all three cases. Unfortunately, the images did not show details
inside the ducts.
Conclusion: Scanning Impact Eacho, IE, tests showed the most promise for assessing internal grout
conditions of the steel duct. For a plastic duct, it was more difficult to identify grout conditions due to
partial debonding conditions between the plastic duct and concrete wall.
5.1.11 Test and Assessment of NDT Methods for Post-Tensioning Systems in Segmental Balanced
Cantilever Concrete Bridges
Author(s): DMJM Harris
Publication: Florida Department of Transportation Central Structures Office

Publication Date: February 2003
Abstract/Summary: The failure of several post-tensioning tendons in the Niles Channel and Mid-Bay
bridges in Florida due to poor workmanship and inadequate grouting has raised questions about the
integrity of post-tensioning tendons in existing concrete segmental bridges. The need to assess the
condition of post-tensioning tendons in existing Florida bridges has prompted the Florida Department of
Transportation to fund a study, with collaboration from the FHWA, on the accuracy of several Non-
Destructive Testing (NDT) methods in a real case scenario. The program involves the use of selected
NDT methods to assess the status of the top slab post-tensioning tendons of Ramp D located in the
interchange at the Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport. This precast balanced cantilever
concrete box girder bridge is being demolished as part of the airport expansion thus permitting the
verification of the NDT findings via dissection of the concrete segments. The NDT methods to be
examined are: Impulse Radar, Impact-Echo, Magnetic Flux Leakage and High-Powered X-Ray
Imagining. The tests were performed in late March 2002 by three independent sub-consultants with
overall project management provided by DMJM+HARRIS. This report will provide a description of the
procedures used by the sub-consultants to utilize these NDT methods to evaluate an existing concrete
bridge, and will present conclusions on the accuracy of the NDT findings. The accuracy of thee NDT
findings have been evaluated by core drilling in the deck and visually inspecting the
tendons.
The assessment of the NDT methods provided the following conclusions:
Endoscope Inspection
The use of the endoscope to evaluate the condition of top slab tendons was found, in this testing program,
to be a reliable testing method. Testing, at a given point in the deck, was done in an average of 10 minutes
and required a four-person crew. The endoscope inspection should be preceded by more economical NDT
testing methods that locate areas where tendon flaws (void, corrosion, loss of section, etc) are most likely
to exist. Also, it is critical for drilling to be done with much care in order to avoid damaging the tendons
at the time of inspection. The use of special concrete drills capable to detect the steel duct and stop before
damaging it is recommended. And finally, after inspection, drilled holes should be appropriately patched
to avoid any future maintenance and durability problems.
Impulse Radar Testing Method

The impulse radar testing method provided quick and accurate location of the tendons. The method
requires small size equipment that can be operated by a two-person crew. A test at a given point can be
done in less than one minute. Although the location of the tendons at the segment joints was performed
accurately based on the contract drawings information, the location of these tendons between segment
joints could not be ascertained based on this information only. At these locations Impulse Radar was 80%
reliable in locating the tendons. The method can provide not only the horizontal location of the tendon but
also the depth into the concrete, which can be of tremendous value in the interpretation of the Impact
Echo results.
Impact-Echo Testing Method
The Impact-Echo testing method was found to be a reliable method to identify grout voids in tendon ducts
provided that a combination of techniques including impulse radar and rebar locators are used. In
addition, invasive endoscopy tests are required to correlate the interpretation of the signals with the
existing conditions (deck 3-D geometry, nearby tendons and mild steel, etc.). The reliability of the
method (defined as detecting large voids) was found to be higher than 60% in this testing program.
Locating the testing point and performing the test can be done in less than 3 minutes with very small
equipment operated by a two-person crew. The method is effective in providing a clear indication of a
sudden discontinuity in material properties and distinguishing whether this discontinuity represents a void

or a stiffer material (the tendon). However, the size of the void, (an essential factor in assessing its
importance and possible consequences), is difficult to ascertain.
Magnetic Flux Leakage Method

The testing performed using the MFL method was, for practical purposes, found inadequate to identify
losses of tendon area. The method failed to locate the tendons with the induced flaws in anchor trumpets.
The reason being that the equipment used, did not have magnets strong enough to magnetically saturate
the tendons and consequently, produce the flux to leak. The method, as this stage, does not provide the
necessary confidence in the method (in its current condition) for practical applications. The MFL method
is fast in terms of data acquisition. However, it requires careful and expert interpretation of the test record.
A major drawback of this method is that it requires a very accurate depiction of the tendon path at the
roadway surface, which, in turn, requires the extensive use of another testing methods such as Impulse
Radar.
High Energy Linear Accelerator

This procedure was found to have the potential to be a very effective method for locating flaws in tendons
deeply embedded in the concrete. It provided a relatively clear view of the elements inside the concrete.
To be most effective, the interpretation of the film should be performed by an expert in both concrete
bridges and x-rays. At this moment, the method is very expensive, very cumbersome to use, and requires
a large amount of heavy equipment and a large crew size. In addition, the scatter of the x-ray beam
requires that a large radius around the testing area to be evacuated to avoid health issues. In the future, if
more compact equipment is developed for use in bridges, this method could be a valuable tool for the
inspection of post-tensioned bridges.
Based on the results of the study, the authors recommend the following steps for the inspection of tendon
in existing balanced cantilever concrete box girder bridges:
Step 1 Examination of existing records and information, such as Contract Plans, Shop Drawings, As-
built Plans and previous inspection reports.
Step 2 Perform a detailed visual inspection of the bridge. The recommendations stated in the Florida
Department of Transportation document titled Post Tensioned Bridges Walk Through Inspections, can
be used for this purpose.
Step 3 Depending on the results of the visual inspection the following scenarios are possible: a) If the
visual inspection does not reveal deficiencies that may affect the integrity of the post-tensioning system,
no further action is needed. On the other hand, if the bridge has been in service for a number of years (say
10) and an in-depth inspection is warranted, then prepare a plan for inspecting the bridge using a
combination of NDT testing (Impulse Radar and Impact-Echo) and invasive techniques (Endoscopy
Inspection). The testing should be done on a representative sample of the tendons, at most 10%, 2002.
The tendons to be tested and the test location on the tendons should be based on their structural
importance. b) If the visual inspection reveals significant deficiencies such as water leakage at segment
joints, efflorescence, concrete cracking or spalling; prepare an inspection plan combining impact echo an
endoscopy inspection. In this case, however, the areas with significant deficiencies should be inspected in
detail and, if deemed necessary, all tendons should be inspected. Other areas should be inspected
following the 5% rule stated above.
Step 4 - If an inspection combining NDT testing techniques and invasive techniques is deemed necessary,
then proceed as follows: a) Use a combination of as-built plans, impulse radar and rebar locators to locate
the embedded steel components including both reinforcing steel and post-tensioning tendons. Mark the
location of the embedded steel on the concrete surface. b) Artificially divide the tendons in sections

(approximately five feet long each) and select a sample based on an statistically-based method like those
employed in quality control programs. c) Investigate the selected sample for tendon voids using the
Impact- Echo method. Calibrate the signal interpretation using the knowledge of embedded steel
components and deck 3-D geometry with drilling and endoscopy. Using the calibrated signal
interpretation complete the inspection of the selected samples. If the inspection does not reveal significant
deficiencies and a high percentage of the test locations (say 95%) indicate no relevant voids, take no
further actions. If other conditions exist, verify void relevance and strand integrity by drilling and
inspecting with a flexible shaft endoscope. d) If the flexible shaft endoscope inspection find significant
voids and strand corrosion, then expand the sample size. e) At each drilled hole determine the volume of
the void by using a vacuum or a pressure device. If this volume is large then repair the void using vacuum
grouting. f) Upon completion of the inspection clean the hole and repair the drilled hole with a fluid
epoxy for the repair of old structures (like FDOT Type E).
5.1.12 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges Post-Tensioning in Florida Bridges
(Volume 1)
Publication Date: February 15, 2002
Abstract/Summary: Post-Tensioning in Florida Bridges presents a history of post-tensioning in Florida
along with the different types of post-tensioned bridges typically built in Florida. This volume also
reviews the critical nature of different types of post-tensioning tendons and details a new five-part
strategy for improving the durability of post-tensioned bridges.
5.1.13 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges Design and Construction Inspection of
Precast Segmental Balanced Cantilever Bridges (Volume 2)
Publication Date: September 1, 2002
Abstract/Summary: Design and Construction Inspection of various types of post-tensioned bridges applies
the five-part strategy of Volume 1 to bridges in Florida. Items such as materials for enhanced post-
tensioning systems, plan sheet requirements, grouting, and detailing practices for watertight bridges and
multi-layered anchor protection are presented in detail. The various types of inspection necessary to
accomplish the purposes of the five-part strategy are presented from the perspective of CEI along with
detailed checklists of critical items or activities.
5.1.14 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges Design and Construction Inspection of
Precast Segmental Span-By-Span Bridges (Volume 3)

5.1.15 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges- Design and Construction Inspection of
Precast Concrete Spliced I-Grider Bridges (Volume 4)
5.1.16 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges - Design and Construction Inspection of
Cast-In-Place Segmental Balanced Cantilever Bridges (Volume 5)
5.1.17 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges - Design and Construction Inspection of
Bridges Cast-In-Place on Falsework (Volume 6)
5.1.18 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges Design and Construction of Post-
Tensioned Substructures

5.1.19 New Directions for Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges Design and Construction of
Transverse Post-Tensioning of Superstructures (Volume 8)
Maintenance of Florida Post-Tensioned Bridges (Volume 9)
Publication Date: March 22, 2002
5.1.21 Mid-Bay Bridge Post-Tensioning Evaluation

Publication: Florida Department of Transportation District 3
Abstract/Summary: The Mid-Bay Bridge, Florida Bridge No. 570091, is a precast segmental bridge
crossing Choctawhatchee Bay in Okaloosa County, Florida. The bridge carries FL 293 between US 98
near Sandestin and SR 20 east of Niceville. A location map of the bridge is given in Figure 1.1.
On August 28, 2000, during a routine inspection of the Mid-Bay Bridge, a post-tensioning tendon in Span
28 was observed to be significantly distressed. The polyethylene sheathing surrounding the tendon was
cracked, exposing the tendons high strength prestressing strands and surrounding cementitious grout.
Several of the strands of the post-tensioning tendon were fractured.
Concern raised from this observation led to an immediate walk-through inspection to verify if

other post-tensioning tendons were exhibiting similar signs of distress. A post-tensioning tendon in Span
57 was found to have failed completely at the north end of the tendon, as evidenced by pull out from the
expansion joint diaphragm.
As a result of these preliminary findings, a more complete inspection, testing and analysis program was
developed to identify the source and extent of corrosion in the post-tensioning
tendons and to develop necessary remedial action. This report presents the findings of these
inspections, tests and analyses, as well as the repairs performed.
5.1.22 Initial Development of Methods for Assessing Condition of Post-Tensioned Tendons of

Segmental Bridges
Author(s): A.A Sagues, S.C Kranc and R.H. Hoehne
Publication: Florida Department of Transportation (Contract No. BC374)
Publication Date: May 17, 2000
Abstract/Summary: Examination of post tensioned tendons of the Niles Channel Bridge during Spring,
1999 indicated severe corrosion damage and strand separation near the anchorage points on two tendons.
This investigation was conducted to determine the suitability of non destructive mechanical and electrical
testing of tendons to detect strand failure.
Mechanical testing consisted of measuring the vibrational response of tendons to mechanical excitation,
and using the results to estimate the tendon tension and stiffness. Comparisons among these values were
used to identify indicators of possible distress. One of the indicators (relative difference in tension at
opposite ends of the tendon) was strongest for a tendon previously known to have broken strands. Other
indicators (low tension, low stiffness) may serve as additional or alternative indicators of distress.
Accordingly, a list of tendons exhibiting exceptional tension conditions has been formulated.
Specialized procedures for vibration data acquisition were developed to permit characterization of an
entire large bridge in a short time (days). Data processing and equation solution procedures tailored to this
analysis were developed and implemented. A baseline of vibrational behavior for all tendons in the Niles
Channel bridge was developed so that comparative measurements may be conducted over the remaining
service life of the bridge. The results also revealed global trends of tension as a function of position in the
bridge. For example, the tendons in the Atlantic side of the bridge were found to have typically lower
tension (by about 5%) than those in the Gulf side.
Electrical testing consisted of measuring the electrical resistance of the tendon as a function of distance
from the anchoring plate and determining whether the initial extrapolated value at zero distance and the
slope conformed to those expected for an ideally sound tendon. This procedure is slower than the
vibrational tests and has been conducted on a limited number of control tendons and others identified as
suspects by the vibrational test. The preliminary tests showed a strong indication of distress by this
method only in the one tendon known to have failed strands.
The procedures evaluated to date appear to be suitable for quick screening of the structure (vibrational)
followed by more detailed analysis of suspects (electrical). Examination of the results available to date
yielded consistent indications of distress only for the one tendon known to have failed strands. Electrical
testing of the remaining suspects and periodic vibrational testing of the entire bridge is recommended.
Due to substantial evidence and previous history, it is recommended that all tendon segments adjacent to
open expansion joints be subject to more intense scrutiny, including direct examination of the tendons.

Conditions leading to strand corrosion in the Niles Channel bridge need to be assessed, with special
attention to the source and accumulation mechanisms of chloride ions, and to the factors that may affect
corrosion performance after any remedial action is taken.
5.1.23 Tensile Test Results of Post Tensioning Cables from the Midbay Bridge
Author(s): Thomas E. Beitelman
Publication: Florida Department of Transportation Structures Research Center
Abstract/Summary: The Midbay bridge, located on State Road 293 between State Road 20 and U.S. 98 in
Niceville, Florida is a concrete segmental box bridge with approximately 140 spans. The bridge uses a
total of six external post-tensioning cables as the primary live load resistance system, with three of the six
cables on either side of the boxes. Each cable is composed of 19 0.6 diameter steel cables that are
stressed to 31,000 pounds each at the time of construction. The cables are held in place between steel
anchors and surrounded by a protective sleeve. The primary anchorage system consists of end steel blocks
with post-tensioning wedges, while the secondary anchorage system relies on a grout that is pumped into
the casing surrounding the strands.
An inspection of the post-tensioning system during the year 2000 revealed that a significant number of
these cables were exhibiting signs of corrosion and possibly, improper grout. The corrosion has been
speculated to have been caused by trapped moisture in voids where grout should have existed. Inspection
using a borescope inserted into a hole drilled through the anchorage assembly revealed that several wires
in various individual strands have ruptured and others have had some level of corrosion.
5.1.24 Corrosion Evaluation of Post-Tensioned Tendons in Florida Bridges

Author(s): Rodney G. Powers, Alberto A. Sagues and Yash Paul Virmani
Publication: Florida Department of Transportation (Report No. FL/DOT/SMO/04-475)
Abstract/Summary: Severe corrosion distress and failures in post-tensioned tendons has been found in two
major bridges in the State of Florida. Corrosion distress and complete tendon failure has been identified in
horizontally oriented tendons that support pre-cast bridge superstructure box segments. In virtually all
instances, the observed corrosion has been associated with the presence of grout voids and visual
evidence of grout bleed water having been present for indeterminate periods of time. With few
exceptions, corrosion induced strand failures have occurred in the immediate vicinity of the anchorage.
The anchorage systems in both bridges utilize a proprietary multi-plane anchorage (housing) comprised of
ductile cast iron and forged steel wedge plate. The presence of these metals coupled with high strength
strands gives rise to concerns relative to galvanic corrosion thus prompting this preliminary investigation
focusing on dissimilar metals corrosion. The investigation involves laboratory tests that examine the
corrosion aspects of grout bleed water and re-charge water in contact with dissimilar metals comprising
the tendon and anchorage system. The preliminary results indicate that the high strength post-tensioned
strands are mostly anodic to the anchorage system when exposed to either grout bleed water or recharge
water such as that which may be experienced through leakage. The preliminary findings of the
investigation are presented along with the implications on existing structures and on future design and
materials selection for post-tensioning systems.

5.2 ACI Reports
5.2.1 Corrosion of Prestressing Steels (ACI 222.2R-01)

Author(s): ACI Committee 222
Publication: ACI 222.2R-01
Abstract/Summary: This report reflects the current understanding of corrosion of prestressing steels in
concrete. The report includes chapters that cover the various types of prestressing steel, including some
discussion on metallurgical differences. Deterioration mechanisms are discussed, including hydrogen
embrittlement and stress-corrosion cracking. Methods to protect prestressing steel against corrosion in
new construction are presented, along with a discussion of field performance of prestressed concrete
structures. Finally, field evaluation and remediation techniques are presented.
5.3 NCHRP Reports
Bridge Post-Tensioning Ducts using Rolling Stress Waves for Continuous Scanning
Author(s): Yajai Tinkey and Larry D. Olson
Publication: Final Report for Highway IDEA Project 102
Abstract/Summary: The objective of the research project is to develop reliable nondestructive near-
continuous scanning methods for condition assessment of the internal grout conditions inside bridge
ducts. Different sizes of ducts were included in this study as well as varying sizes of void defects. In
addition, detailed sensitivity studies of nondestructive grout defect detection with Impact Echo Scanning
of 8-four inch diameter ducts with constructed defects were the main research focus. Two specimens were
used in this research project. The first specimen used for this study was a large mock-up slab located at
the BAM facility in Berlin, Germany. The size of the slab is 32.8 x 13.1 ft(10 x 4 m) with a nominal
thickness of 11.8 inches (30 cm). The mock-up slab was constructed in2002 for the purpose of blind
studies of grout defect detection with different non-intrusive methods. Half of the mock-up slab includes
ducts with the diameters ranging from l.57 to 4.72inches (40to120mm). Concrete cover depths above the
ducts varied from 2.75 to 7.5 inches (70 to 190 mm). The other half of the slab includes different types of
internal voids and other simulated defects.
The research also included the first attempt to develop a complete stress wave scanner by adding another
rolling displacement transducer 8 inches (20 cm) in a line from the first rolling transducer. This additional
rolling transducer allows Spectral Analysis of Surface Wave tests for concrete quality/condition/velocity
to be performed at the same time as thickness/flaw detection tests are conducted with the Impact Echo
Scanning test. Improvements in software were implemented to support simultaneous analysis of data from
both tests.
A compete stress wave scanner was used to perform SASW and IE tests on the BAM mock-up slab. The
tests were performed in a line fashion parallel to the direction of the ducts every 5 cm. A total of 200 test
lines were performed to cover the whole slab area. Table I summarizes the grout defect size that can be
detected in ducts of different diameters and concrete covers. Reviews of Table I show that half size and
full size voids can be detected with the IE tests in 4.72 and 3.94 inches in diameter. Only full size voids
can be detected inside ducts with a diameter of 3.15 inches. However, once the concrete cover is 5.5

inches and higher, the IE results become intermittent and unreliable. In summary, it is easier to detect
grout defect in ducts with bigger diameters. In addition, the deeper the duct is inside the concrete, the
harder it is to detect grout defects with the IE tests.
Technical problems occurred during the use of the stress wave scanner with variability in contact
conditions between the second rolling transducer and the test surface in SASV/ tests. Consequently, data
from the second rolling transducer were intermittent. However, good data from the second rolling
transducer were still generally obtained. These data showed an approximate 11% reduction in surface
wave velocity at locations associating with grout void.
Bridges, Final Report Phase I: Technology Review
Author(s): Adrian T. Ciolko and Habib Tabatabai
Publication: NCHRP Web Document 23 (Project 10-53)
Publication Date: March 1999
Abstract/Summary: This report contains the findings of a study performed to determine whether a
practical and economical method for quantitative nondestructive condition evaluation of bonded
prestressing systems in highway bridges exists. The report provides a comprehensive summary of a global
technology review made to identify NDT methods developed in the time period commencing in 1990.
The noted NDT advances of the decade, which possessed some potential for assessing strand condition,
were characterized and evaluated based on technical, accuracy, operational, logistical, safety, and other
factors. The contents of this report will be of interest to bridge maintenance engineers, researchers, and
others concerned with assessing the condition of concrete bridges and the degree of strength and
serviceability impairment created by deteriorating prestressing systems.
The second specimen used in this study is a full scale U-Shaped bridge girder. The length of the girder is
100 ft. However, only the first 20 ft was included in this study. There were four empty steel ducts inside
each wall of the girder (a total of 8 ducts). The diameter of each duct is 4 inches. Several pieces of
Styrofoam were inserted inside the duct. The foam was positioned on the roof of the duct to simulate real
world grout defect. The size of the foam used ranged from as small as 16% duct perimeter lost or 60lo
depth lost to 84% perimeter lost or 94% depth lost (void). The use of 3D surface plotting of the IE
thickness results was helpful with interpretation and visualization of grout defects. A grout defect as small
as 20% perimeter lost or 11% depth lost in 4" duct was detected by the IE tests with the interpretation
using 3D surface plotting. The 3-D visualization with a color scale of the thickness change from normal
(fully grouted duct) to thicker (partial to full void) proved to be an important tool for imaging sound grout
versus partial to full void conditions for both the BAM and U-Shaped girder test specimens. The 3-D
color scales proved to indicate very good precision at indicating the size of the internal voids as reflected
by increasing thickness echo depths with increasing void size as reported herein. Such visualization of
Impact Echo Scanning results allows for much greater sensitivity and economical, near-continuous testing
of real-world bridge ducts.
The last part of the research project focused on the use of the Ultrasonic Pulse Echo test. A commercial
unit (Low Frequency Flaw Detector - A1220) was used to perform the UPE test. The UPE test was able to
detect the thickness of the wall where no ducts exist inside correctly. However, the UPE test was unable
to detect beyond the duct once the ducts are present. This is potentially because of debonding problem
between grout and the metal ducts which had occurred by the time of the UPE testing of the
comparatively old ducts. Thus, no information was gained from UPE tests on the internal grout conditions
in terms of the degree of the voiding in the duct.

5.4 Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
Tensioned Bridges
Author(s): R.M. Salas, A.J. Schokker, J.S. West, J.E. Breen, and M.E. Kreger
Publication: Report No. FHWA/TX-04/0-1405-9
Publication Date: February 2004
Abstract/Summary: The effectiveness of cement grout in galvanized or polyethylene ducts, the most
widely used corrosion protection system for multistrand bonded post-tensioned concrete tendons, has
been under debate due to several reported examples of significant tendon corrosion damage. While
experience in the USA has been generally good, some foreign experience has been less than satisfactory.
This report is the last technical report from a comprehensive research program started in 1993 under
TxDOT Project 0-1405. The objectives were to examine the use of post-tensioning in bridge
substructures, identify durability concerns and existing technology, develop and carry out an experimental
testing program, and conclude with durability design guidelines.
Four experimental programs were developed: improved and high-performance grout studies, to develop
grout with desirable fresh properties to provide good corrosion protection to the prestressing strands; a
long-term macrocell corrosion test series, to investigate corrosion protection for internal tendons in
precast segmental construction; a long-term beam corrosion test series, to examine the effects of post-
tensioning on corrosion protection as affected by crack width; and, a long-term column corrosion test
series, to examine corrosion protection in vertical elements.
This report includes the final results after completion of exposure testing, performing comprehensive
autopsies and updating the durability design guidelines to reduce the corrosion risk of the post-tensioning
system.
After autopsies were performed, overall findings indicate negative durability effects due to the use of
mixed reinforcement, small concrete covers, galvanized steel ducts, and industry standard or heat-shrink
galvanized duct splices. The width of cracks was shown to have a direct negative effect on specimen
performance. Grout voids were found to be detrimental to the durability of both galvanized ducts and
strand. Relying on epoxy and galvanized bar coatings was also found inappropriate because of local
attack. On the other hand, very positive effects were found with the use of high performance concrete,
high-performance grouts, high post-tensioning levels, plastic ducts, and sound epoxy filling at the joints.
5.4.2 Improving Bridge Inspections

Author(s): Glenn A. Washer
Publication: FHWA Public Roads Vol. 67 No. 3
Publication Date: Nov/Dec 2003
Abstract/Summary: N/A
System
Author(s): A. Ghorbanpoor, R. Borchelt, M. Edwards, and E. Abdel Salam
Publication: Report No. FHWA-RD-00-026

Publication Date: May 2000
Abstract/Summary: This report describes all aspects of a study to develop a nondestructive evaluation
(NDE) system based on the concept of magnetic flux leakage (MFL) to detect corrosion and fracture of
prestressing steel in pretensioned and post-tensioned
concrete bridge members. The basic methodology is based on introducing a direct-current magnetic field
in close proximity of the prestressing or post-tensioning steel and monitoring the variations of the field
due to loss of cross-sectional area of steel from corrosion or fracture.
The mechanical and electrical components of the MFL system include a lightweight structural frame that
supports the source of the required magnetic field and an array of sensors for measuring the magnetic
field variation. The frame also supports a series of mechanical and electrical components that facilitate the
operation of the system. Two strong permanent magnets provide the required magnetic field. A set of 10
Hall-effect sensors in the system measure the variations in the magnetic field due to the presence of flaws
in prestressing or post-tensioning steel. Software is developed to acquire and analyze the MFL data as
well as to control all hardware, including the mechanical and electrical components of the system. The
system is designed and fabricated to offer ease of use during the field operation. The operation of the
system includes attaching the structural frame of the system to a test beam and conducting the test by
controlling the frame and its components by a notebook computer from a remote site via wireless
communication.
Although most of the effort made during this study was associated with the development of the MFL
system, limited laboratory and field investigations were conducted to assess the capabilities and
limitations of the system. During both the laboratory and field investigations, it was demonstrated that the
installation and operation of the MFL system were successful. System installation on a test beam may be
accomplished easily and in a time period not longer than a few minutes. During the laboratory study, steel
prestressing strands with partial localized cross-sectional area losses from 7% to 71% were used as test
specimens. Also, prestressing strands with real corrosion were used for the same purpose. It was found
that the smallest flaw in a strand that could be detected had a 7% reduction in the cross-sectional area.
This capability was demonstrated for the strands that were placed at a distance of up to 128 nun (5 in)
from the magnet and sensor assembly of the system. A field demonstration was conducted that showed
that the installation and operation of the MFL system were successful.
It is recommended that additional laboratory and field investigations beyond this study be conducted with
the use of the new MFL system in order to fully evaluate its capabilities and limitations. This would also
facilitate the establishment of a more comprehensive database that can enhance the data interpretation
capability and the overall reliability of the system.
5.4.4 Demonstration of Dual-Band Infrared Thermal Imaging for Bridge Inspection

Author(s): Philip F. Durbin, Nancy K. Del Grande and Paul C. Schaich
Publication: FHWA Nondestructive Evaluation Research and Development Program
Abstract/Summary: Developing and implementing methods of effective bridge rehabilitation is a major
issue for the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). The nation spends $5 billion annually to replace,
rehabilitate or construct new bridges. According to the National Bridge Inventory, over 100,OOO U.S.
bridges are structurally deficient. About 40,000 of these bridges have advanced deck deterioration. The
most common cause of serious deck deterioration is delamination Delaminations result when steel
reinforcements within the bridge deck corrode, creating gaps that separate the concrete into layers. A

reliable inspection technology, capable of identifying delaminations, would represent a powerful new tool
in bridge maintenance.
To date, most bridge inspections rely on human interpretation of surface visual features or chain dragging.
These methods are slow, disruptive, unreliable and raise serious safety concern. Infixed thermal imaging
detects subsurface delaminations and surface clutter, which is introduced by foreign material on the
roadway. Typically, foreign material which is not always evident on a video tape image, produces a
unique IR reflectance background unlike the thermal response of a subsurface delamination.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) uses dual-band infrared (DBIR) thermal imaging to
identify and remove nonthermal IR reflectance backgrounds from foreign material on the roadway.
DBXR methods improve the performance of IR thermal imaging by a factor of ten, compared to single-
band infrared (SBXR) methods. DBIR thermal imaging allows precise temperature measurement to
reliably locate bridge deck delaminations and remove wavelength-dependent emissivity variations due to
foreign material on the roadway.
We conducted a two-phase study to develop and demonstrate DBIR imaging for bridge deck inspection.
The first phase demonstrated the DBIR method on a surrogate bridge deck containing synthetic
delaminations. The second phase demonstrated the DBIR method at the Grass Valley Creek Bridges near
Redding CA. We designed and fielded a mobile DBIR bridge inspection laboratory and drove this self-
contained unit at limited highway speeds over 0.4 lane miles of bridge deck We demonstrated the power
of DBIR thermal image by removing the bridge deck clutter, which had unique spatial, spectral, thermal,
thermal inertia, emissivity and temporal responses, unlike the IR responses which characterize bridge
deck delaminations.
The LLNL precise thermal imaging method provides an enabling technology for rapid, reliable, bridge
deck inspections while minimizing fane closures. The LLNL method can indicate the fractional area of
the bridge that is delaminated as well as locate and characterize the damaged regions. This technique is
expected to help prioritize bridges for repair and then to direct the repairs to specific locations.
5.5 ASTM Standards
5.5.1 ASTM A 36 -12: Standard Specification for Carbon Structural Steel

Scope: This specification covers carbon steel shapes, plates, and bars of structural quality for use in
riveted, bolted, or welded construction of bridges and buildings, and for general structural purposes
5.5.2 ASTM A 53 -12: Standard Specification for Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc-
Coated, Welded and Seamless
Scope: This specification covers seamless and welded black and hot-dipped galvanized steel pipe in NPS to NPS 26
[DN 6 to DN 650] (Note 1), inclusive, with nominal wall thickness (Note 2) as given in Table X2.2 and Table X2.3.
It shall be permissible to furnish pipe having other dimensions provided that such pipe complies with all other
requirements of this specification. Supplementary requirements of an optional nature are provided and shall apply
only when specified by the purchaser.
5.5.3 ASTM A 240 -13: Standard Specification for Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless
Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip for Pressure Vessels and for General Applications
Scope: This specification covers chromium, chromium-nickel, and chromium-manganese-nickel stainless
steel plate, sheet, and strip for pressure vessels and for general applications.

5.5.4 ASTM A 416 -12: Standard Specification for Steel Strand, Uncoated Seven-Wire for
Prestressed Concrete
Scope: This specification covers two types and two grades of seven-wire, uncoated steel strand for use
prestressed concrete construction. The two types of strand are low-relaxation and stress-relieved (normal-
relaxation). Low-relaxation strand is to be regarded as the standard type. Stress-relieved (normal-
relaxation) strand will not be furnished unless specifically ordered. Grade 250 [1725] and Grade 270
[1860] have minimum tensile strengths of 250 ksi [1725 MPa] and 270 ksi [1860MPa], respectively,
based on the nominal area of the strand.
5.5.5 ASTM A 653 -13: Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) or Zinc-
Iron Alloy-Coated (Galvannealed) by the Hot-Dip Process
Scope: This specification covers steel sheet, zinc-coated (galvanized) or zinc-iron alloy-coated
(galvannealed) by the hotdip process in coils and cut lengths.
5.5.6 ASTM A 722 -12: Standard Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bars for
Prestressing Concrete
Scope: This specification covers uncoated high-strength steel bars intended for use in pretensioned and
post-tensioned prestressed concrete construction or in prestressed ground anchors. Bars are of a minimum
ultimate tensile strength level of 1035 MPa (150 000 psi).
5.5.7 ASTM C876 09: Standard Test Method for Corrosion Potentials of Uncoated Reinforcing
Steel in Concrete
Scope: This test method covers the estimation of the electrical corrosion potential of uncoated reinforcing
steel in field and laboratory concrete, for the purpose of determining the corrosion activity of the
reinforcing steel.
5.5.8 ASTM D 1693 -13: Standard Test Method for Environmental Stress-Cracking of Ethylene
Plastics
Scope: This test method covers the determination of the susceptibility of ethylene plastics, as defined in
TerminologyD883, to environmental stress-cracking when subjected to the conditions herein specified.
Under certain conditions of stress and in the presence of environments such as soaps, wetting agents, oils,
or detergents, ethylene plastics may exhibit mechanical failure by cracking.
5.5.9 ASTM D4101-14: Standard Specification for Polypropylene Injection and Extrusion
Materials
Scope: This specification covers polypropylene materials suitable for injection molding and extrusion.
Polymers consist of homopolymer, copolymers, and elastomer compounded with or without the addition
of impact modifiers (ethylene-propylene rubber, polyisobutylene rubber, and butyl rubber), colorants,
stabilizers, lubricants, or reinforcements.
5.5.10 ASTM F 405 13: Standard Specification for Corrugated Polyethylene (PE) Pipe and
Fittings
Scope: This specification covers requirements and test methods for materials, marking dimensions,
workmanship, elongation, brittleness, pipe stiffness, and perforations for corrugated polyethylene (PE)
pipe and fittings in nominal sizes of 3 to 6 in., inclusive.

5.6 Other
5.6.1 Post-tensioned Multistrand Anchorage Capacity Deterioration Due to Corrosion: John Day
Lock Project
Author(s): Robert Ebeling, Richard Haskins, David Scofield, John Hite and Ralph Strom
Publication: U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development
Abstract/Summary: A Research Work Unit (WU) has been initiated in the Navigation Systems Research
Program to investigate post-tensioned multistrand anchors. A significant number of COE projects have
installed multistrand high-capacity post-tensioned foundation anchors over the last three decades. These
anchors are embedded and access is limited to the top anchor head for inspection purposes. Due to the
evolution of corrosion protection criteria for ground anchors, the early installed anchors may have
inadequate corrosion protection that does not meet current corrosion protection standards. The older
anchors are approaching the end of their design life and are showing various degrees of deterioration,
corrosion, and broken strands. Current load capacity and remaining life of the anchors are unknown. One
procedure used to test post-tensioned tendons involves lift-off tests, which are both dangerous and
expensive. The applicability of lift-off testing to most existing ground anchorage is severely restricted to
the very few existing ground anchors that were not grouted for corrosion protection along the free length
of the anchor and which also have special provisions for the connection of the jacking equipment to the
anchor head. This severely restricts the practical use of lift-off testing of existing ground anchorage as a
viable testing procedure. Additionally, testing deteriorated anchors has been avoided in the past because
of greater danger of breaking anchors. To meet reliability analysis required for major rehabilitation
studies, estimates of load capacity, rate of decrease, and remaining life are required.
5.6.2 Guide Specification for Grouted Post-Tensioning

Author(s): PTI/ASBI
Publication: PTI/ASBI M50.3-12
Abstract/Summary: The purpose of this document is to establish a unified, nationally recognized
specification for grouted post-tensioning. It is meant to apply to buildings, bridges, storage structures, and
other structures using grouted post-tensioning tendons except as follows: Stay cables and rock anchors
which are already covered by other PTI documents.

Bridges
Author(s): Bernhard Elsener and Markus Buchler
Publication: Swiss Association of Road and Transportation Experts (VSS)
Publication Date: July 2011
Abstract/Summary: Tendons contribute decisively to the serviceability, safety and durability of pre
stressed concrete structures. Despite a generally good long-term behaviour, some corrosion problems and
rare collapses are documented; thus industry, designers and owners were looking for a more durable
solution. Electrically isolated tendons with plastic ducts for internal grouted post-tensioning were
developed about 20 years ago. The progress achieved in the meantime and the implementation of this new
approach into the framework of fib recommendation is also based on previous research reports and the
first Swiss guideline Measures to ensure the durability of post-tensioning tendons in bridges.

Since 1995 an increasing number of bridges, flyovers and viaducts have been constructed with electrically
isolated tendons (EIT) according to the fib protection level 3 (PL3). Quality control and long-term
monitoring is performed with electrical resistance measurements between tendon and reinforcement.
Experience with practical application showed some difficulties in reaching the acceptance value specified
in the guideline, further the time of measurement of 28 days was found not to be adequate for practice.
Together with the revision of the Swiss guideline the present research project was undertaken.
The research report establishes the scientific and technical background for the revision of the guideline,
especially with regard to the limit of the electrical resistance specified and its evolution with time after
grouting. The project shows that the anchor head might not be a priori a systematic defect in the
electrical isolation, problems can arise in application on site. Larger defects or short-circuits in the
electrical isolation can be located with magnetic flux measurements from the concrete surface.
Finally the research report documents some typical application of electrically isolated tendons on bridges
and viaducts in Switzerland. Thanks to the international collaboration in the framework of COST 534 a
large number of results from prefabricated segments of viaducts of the new high-speed lines of the Italian
railways are available. Both type of structures show the importance of a careful quality control system,
including the design process, material specification and training of the workers on site. The most
important conclusion for practice is that also tendons that did not reach the 28-day acceptance criteria can
be considered as better protected against corrosion and can be included in the long-term monitoring
strategy.

Author(s): Swiss Federal Roads Authority ASTRA
Publication: ASTRA 12 0010
Abstract/Summary:
Objective
The Codes SIA 262:2003 and SIA 262/1:2003 contain the fundamental information for prestressing
systems. The present Guideline shall serve as additional reference for the Code SIA 262/1.
Since the introduction of prestressing systems, much data has been accumulated, especially in areas
pertaining to construction, testing and monitoring. This data is presented in this present Guideline as
specifications and supplements to the above mentioned codes.
Code Basis
The Code SIA 262:2003 forms the basis. The most significant details on durability issue can be found in
the following clauses of the code:
Basic Principles Durability
Construction Material Prestressing systems Durability
Structural Analysis and Dimensioning Verification of Structural Safety Fatigue
Construction Processing of prestressing steel and prestressing tendons
Construction Prestressing
Scope

The present Guideline is applicable for bonded post-tensioning tendons and is applicable to all
Government financed (full or in part) road construction projects, as well as in other construction projects
within the responsibility of SBB Ltd.
Application and Revision of Guideline
The present Guideline Measures to ensure durability of post-tensioning tendons in structures is

applicable from 1st September 2007. The list of revisions can be found in page 49.

6 Grout Condition
6.1 Application of Gamma Ray Scattering Technique for Non-Destructive Evaluation

of Voids in Concrete
Author(s): P. Priyada, R. Ramar and Shivaramu
Publication: Applied Radiation and Isotopes
Abstract/Summary: This paper describes application of the gamma ray scattering technique for NDE of
concrete voids. A novel nonlinear extrapolation method is employed to correct for self-absorption and
multiple scattered intensities. The attenuation data obtained from transmission method is employed for
reconstruction of scattered images and the results show a good agreement in size and position of the voids
with good spatial resolution. Intercomparison of the results of scattering and transmission techniques
shows a good agreement in the position of the voids.
6.2 Quantitative Evaluation of Contactless Impact Echo for Non-Destructive

Assessment of Void Detection within Tendon Ducts
Author(s): Franck Schoefs, Odile Abraham and John S. Popovics
Publication: Construction and Building Materials
Abstract/Summary: Owners of pre-stressed concrete structures must realize preventive maintenance in
order to maintain structural safety and limit economic losses. Detection voids in tendon ducts, where
corrosion could occur, is key in this effort. This paper focuses on the quantification of the performance of
the impact echo method (IEM), applied using a new laser interferometer contactless robot, for duct void
detection in a reinforced concrete wall. We show first the influence of the wall stiffness on IEM
(resonance) frequency. We use a probabilistic modeling to evaluate the IEM. We illustrate a way for
accounting on-site uncertainties of NDT measurements.
6.3 Non-Destructive Testing Methods to Identify Voids in External Post-Tensioned

Tendons
Author(s): Seok Been Im and Stefan Hurlebaus
Publication: KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering
Abstract/Summary: A considerable number of Post-Tensioned (PT) bridges have been constructed
because PT systems enable them to carry significant traffic loads and have an aesthetical structure.
However, strand corrosion has been a long-standing issue because it may lead to the failure of tendons
and the deterioration of structural performance. The corrosion typically occurs in voided locations with
exposed strands; thus, the inspection of voids in external PT tendons is important and necessary in order
to protect strands before corrosion occurs. Based on literature review, several Non-Destructive Testing
(NDT) methods are compared for effectiveness of identifying voids in external PT tendons, and the
Impact Echo (IE), ultrasonic, and sounding inspection methods are then selected and assessed using
small-scale and mock-up specimens. From the experimental results, the wave-based inspection methods,
IE and ultrasonic methods, are difficult to apply in the field because the imperfect bonds between ducts

and grouts obstruct the transmission of waves. However, the sounding inspection method is not affected
by the discontinuities and successfully identifies voids in test specimens. Thus, the sounding inspection
can be an effective tool for identifying voids because of its easy application in the field.
6.4 Detecting Voids in Grouted Tendon Ducts of Post-Tensioned Concrete

Structures Using Three Different Methods
Author(s): Xianyan Zhou, Zhifeng Wang and Dahai Zhang
Publication: CICE Conference Proceedings
Abstract/Summary: An increasing amount of post-tensioned concrete structures are used widely in China,
and the grout condition inside tendon ducts attracts peoples attentions. In order to assess internal grout
quality of grouted tendon ducts in post-tensioned concrete structures accurately, and guarantee the
lifetime of prestressed concrete structures, three different nondestructive testing (NDT) methods, Impact-
Echo Scanning (IES), Ultrasonic Transmission Method (UTM), and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR),
have been employed to investigate the grouting defects qualitatively and quantitatively. A series of indoor
model testing, in which different types of soft foams were placed in tendon ducts to simulate the flaws
during in-situ construction, were carried out. Results show that the IES method can do a better job in
situation where the walls of the ducts are metal rather than plastic. In contrast, and GPR technology may
achieve a better performance in detecting voids within plastic ducts.
6.5 Concrete Bridge Condition Assessment with Impact Echo Scanning

Author(s): Larry D. Olson, Yajai Tinkey, and Patrick Miller
Publication: ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication No. 218
Abstract/Summary: The paper discusses the use of the Impact Echo Scanning nondestructive evaluation
(NDE) technique for quality assurance and condition assessment of the grouting of posttensioned bridge
ducts and concrete bridge decks. Both research and case history results are presented. Impact Echo
Scanning was first done for detecting void/grout conditions in post-tensioned ducts. Recent research and
development of a Bridge Deck Scanner using the Impact Echo Scanning technique is compared with
Ground Penetrating Radar and Acoustic Chain Drag Sounding to identify concrete delaminations due to
rebar corrosion. The research on both Impact Echo Scanning applications was sponsored by the US
National Cooperative Highway Research Innovations Deserving Exploratory Analysis program. The use
of the Bridge Deck Scanner to evaluate concrete deck conditions in terms of void/honeycomb and
thickness is also discussed.
6.6 Inspection of Voids in External Tendons of Posttensioned Bridges

Author(s): Seok Been Im, Stefan Hurlebaus, and David Trejo
Publication: Journal of the Transportation Research Board
Abstract/Summary: Segmental posttensioned bridges are major structures that carry significant
traffic. Recent investigations of these bridges identified voids in their ducts. The exposed strands at these
void locations can undergo corrosion. The corrosion of strands may lead to the failure of tendons. As
such, an effective inspection process for identifying these voids is needed. From a literature review,
several nondestructive testing methods are compared for applicability to void inspection in external
tendons. The impact echo, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and sounding inspection methods are then selected

and assessed for further preliminary testing. The sounding inspection method is further assessed for its
effectiveness in identifying voids in a full-scale, external tendon system. The results indicate that
sounding inspection slightly underestimates the size of the voids. However, the inspected size and
locations of voids have a close correlation with actual voids in ducts. Thus, sounding inspection can be
an effective tool for identifying voids because of its easy application in the field.
6.7 Modified SIBIE Procedure for Ungrouted Tendon Ducts Applied to Scanning
Impact-Echo
Author(s): Ninel Alver and Herbert Wiggenhauser
Abstract/Summary: The impact-echo method has been successfully applied to identify defects inside
concrete. In addition, to detect ungrouted tendon ducts in a large concrete slab, a scanning impact-echo
technique is developed. However, since resonant frequencies in the spectrum responsible for the travel
paths via defects are only taken into account, the method could lead to erroneous results due to
complicated spectra obtained in the tests. Consequently, Stack Imaging of spectral amplitudes Based on
Impact-Echo (SIBIE) procedure has been developed to improve the data interpretation. Conventionally,
SIBIE is applied to a single measurement data and a point information of defects is obtained at the area,
where the impact test is performed. In this study, SIBIE is applied to scanning impact-echo data.
Locations of ungrouted tendon ducts embedded in a large concrete specimen are investigated. In order to
visualize the whole cross-section tested, the SIBIE analysis is modified, introducing an elliptical
integration mode. It is demonstrated that ungrouted tendon ducts are successfully located by the modified
SIBIE analysis, whereas results of the conventional B-scan analysis are not so good as the modified
SIBIE analysis.
6.8 On-Site Measurement of Delamination and Surface Crack in Concrete Structure

by Visualized NDT
Author(s): Kimitoshi Matsuyama, Masahiko Yamada and Masayasu Ohtsu
Abstract/Summary: On-site measurement in concrete piers of a highway structure was conducted by
visualized non-destructive testing (NDT). First, the radar technique was applied to identify delaminated
areas between prestressed concrete (PC) panels covered and original concrete piers. By applying the
impact-echo method, Stack Imaging of spectral amplitudes Based on Impact-Echo (SIBIE) procedure is
developed as an imaging technique, which can visually display a cross-sectional view based on the
impact-echo data. In order to identify voids in delaminated areas and depths of surface cracks, then the
impact-echo tests were conducted. From these results, a superior applicability of the SIBIE procedure to
on-site measurement is demonstrated in existing concrete structures.
6.9 Identification of Ungrouted Tendon Duct in Prestressed Concrete by SIBIE

Author(s): Masayasu Ohtsu, Masahiko Yamada, and Yoko Nakai
Publication: 2009 NDTCE Conference Proceedings
Publication Date: June-July 2009
Abstract/Summary: In the impact-echo method, the presence and the locations of defects in concrete are

estimated from identifying peak frequencies in the frequency spectra, which are responsible for the
resonance due to time-of-flight from the defects. In practical applications, however, spectra obtained
include so many peak frequencies that it is fairly difficult to identify the defects correctly. SIBIE (Stack
Imaging of spectral amplitudes Based on Impact Echo) procedure is developed as an imaging technique
applied to the impact-echo, where defects in concrete are identified visually at the cross-section. In this
study, the SIBIE procedure is applied to identify ungrouted post-tensioning ducts in prestressed concrete.
Concrete slabs containing an ungrouted duct, a partially-grouted duct, and a fully-grouted duct of metal
and polyethylene sheaths were tested. It is demonstrated that the defect can be identified with reasonable
accuracy by SIBIE in all the cases tested.
6.10 Estimation of Surface-Crack Depth in Concrete by Scanning SIBIE Procedure

Author(s): Masanobu Tokai, Taro Ohkubo and Masayasu Ohtsu
Publication: NDTCE09 Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering
Abstract/Summary: For maintenance of concrete structures, the depth of a surface crack is an important
factor to be estimated in inspection. As the nondestructive testing (NDT), the impact-echo method has
been extensively applied to the concrete structures. Wave motions resulting from a short duration
mechanical impact are recorded, and peak frequencies of their spectra are identified. However, frequency
spectra cannot always be interpreted successfully as many peaks are often observed. Thus, an imaging
procedure is developed, which is named as SIBIE (Stack Imaging of spectral amplitudes Based on Impact
Echo). The procedure provides two dimensional (2-D) image of a specimen cross-section.
In the present paper, SIBIE procedure is applied to estimating a surface-crack depth of actual cracks
generated by a bending test. An accelerometer was employed for the detection. Because the cracks were
created in a zigzag manner, a scanning procedure was applied in addition to the conventional one-point
detection. It is demonstrated that curved extension of the surface crack is reasonably estimated by a
scanning procedure. Thus, it is confirmed that the SIBIE analysis is a promising technique for the crack-
depth evaluation in concrete.
6.11 Imaging of Internal Cracks in Concrete Structures Using the Surface Rendering
Technique
Author(s): Po-Liang Yeh and Pei-Ling Liu
Publication: NDT&E International
Abstract/Summary: The impact echo method is effective in the inspection of concrete defects. If the test
area is large and many tests are performed, it is difficult to get a picture of the concrete interior by
examining a series of test spectra. In order to provide the engineers with a more direct way of detecting
the defects in the structure, this study proposes a three-dimensional (3D) imaging method to depict the
internal cracks in concrete structures. To acquire the test data, a mesh is drawn on the surface of the
concrete. Then, impact echo tests are performed at the grids. The recorded signals are processed to obtain
the depth spectra of the concrete. Finally, the surface rendering technique is adopted to construct the 3D
image of the concrete interior. Both numerical simulations and model tests are used to verify the proposed
imaging method. It is seen that surface rendering technique can be used to show the internal cracks in the
concrete specimens successfully.

6.12 Ultrasonic Imaging Methods for Investigation of Post-tensioned Concrete
Structures: A Study of Interfaces at Artificial Grouting and Its Verification
Author(s): Martin Krause, Boris Milmann, Frank Mielentz, Doreen Streicher, Bernhard Redmer, Klaus
Mayer, K.J. Langenberg and Martin Schickert
Publication: Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation
Abstract/Summary: This paper presents the progress of successful location of grouting faults in tendon
ducts with ultrasonic imaging. The examples were obtained in the research group FOR 384 funded by
DFG (German Research Foundation). The co-operation of experimental research and modeling allowed
imaging and identification of grouted and ungrouted areas of tendon ducts (including strands) in a large
test specimen (40 m2). In addition to the criteria for indicating grouting faults in post-tensioned ducts
known until now the phase evaluation of reflected ultrasonic pulses is described. Experiments and
modeling of wave propagation are presented for reflections at metal plates in concrete (thickness range
0.5 mm to 40 mm) and for tendon ducts including strands. The main part of the progress was achieved by
automated measurements using dry contact transducers, 3D-SAFT reconstruction including phase
evaluation and modeling considering wave propagation for typical elastic parameters and exact
experimental site conditions. The results for shear waves as well as for pressure waves are compared in
the frequency range from 50 kHz to 120 kHz.
6.13 Imaging Concrete Structures Using Air-Coupled Impact-Echo

Author(s): Jinying Zhu and John S. Popovics
Publication: ASCE Journal of Engineering Mechanics
Abstract/Summary: In this paper, air-coupled impact-echo is successfully applied for nondestructive
evaluation of concrete. The air-coupled sensor is a small _6.3 mm diameter_ measurement microphone
located several centimeters above the top surface of the concrete being evaluated. Unwanted ambient
acoustic noise is attenuated by a specially designed sound insulation enclosure. Test results show that air-
coupled sensors are effective for impact-echo when appropriate impactors are used. Impact-echo data
obtained by air-coupled sensors are equivalent to those obtained by conventional contact sensors. Test
results from concrete slabs containing artificial delaminations and voids are reported, where an air-
coupled impact-echo scan is conducted over the entire slab area. Defects are located in the generated
twodimensional contour image. The areal size of defects are accurately determined when the
measurement point spacing in the scan is smaller than half of the expected defect size. Test results from
air-coupled impact-echo scans carried out over internal metal and plastic ducts within another concrete
slab are also reported. The goal of the experiment is to investigate the grouting condition inside the ducts.
Impact-echo line scan images differentiate poorly grouted sections from the well-grouted sections within
the metal duct.
6.14 Impact-Echo Scanning Evaluation of Grout/Void Conditions Inside Bridge Post-

Tensioning Ducts for Tendon Corrosion Mitigation
Publication: Concrete Repair Bulletin
Publication Date: May/June 2007
Abstract/Summary: Post-tensioned (PT) systems have been widely used for bridge transportation systems
since the late 1950s. If a good quality control plan is not implemented, however, there is a strong

possibility that during construction the ducts may not be fully grouted. This results in voids in some areas
and the associated lack of cover for PT tendons that increase their risk of corrosion. Thus, over the long-
term, water can enter the tendon ducts in the void areas, resulting in corrosion of the tendon. The collapse
of the Brickton Meadows Footbridge in Hampshire, UK, in 1967 is the first serious case of corrosion of
tendons leading to a major catastrophe. 1 In 1985, the collapse of the Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge, a precast
segmental PT bridge in Wales, was attributed to the corrosion of the internal prestressing tendons at
mortar joints between segments.1,2 Corrosion-related failures of PT tendons have been found in several
major segmental bridges such as the Niles Channel Bridge near Key West, FL, in 1999 and Midway
Bridge near Destin, FL, in 2000.3 In addition to actual failures, corrosion damage was found in many PT
bridge ducts in bridges still in use in Florida and on the East Coast.4 Impact-Echo (IE) scanning research
and consulting results for grout/void in PT ducts are discussed in the following.
6.15 Impact-Echo Scanning for Grout Void Detection in Post-tensioned Bridge Ducts -
Findings from a Research Project and a Case History
Publication: 2007 Structures Congress Proceedings
Abstract/Summary: This paper presents the findings from a research project funded by the NCHRP
IDEA Program. This paper discusses the experimental results from the studies which involved a defect
sensitivity study of an Impact-Echo (IE) Scanner to detect and image discontinuities in post-tensioned
ducts of a mockup U-shaped bridge girder and a mockup slab. Different sizes of ducts were included in
this study as well as varying sizes of void defects. Detailed sensitivity study of nondestructive grout
defect detection with Impact-Echo Scanning of 8-four inch diameter ducts with constructed defects was
the main focus in this study. Comparisons of the IE defect interpretation and the actual design conditions
of the ducts inside the bridge girder/slab are presented. The IE results are presented in a three-dimensional
fashion using thickness surface plots to provide improved visualization and interpretation of the internal
grout to void defect conditions inside the ducts of the girder. The Impact-Echo tests were performed with
a Scanner which greatly facilitates the Impact-Echo test process by allowing for rapid, near continuous
testing and true scanning capabilities to test concrete structures. The paper summarizes the general
background of the Impact-Echo technique and the Impact-Echo Scanner. Descriptions of two mock-up
specimens used in the experiment and the discussion of the results from the Impact- Echo Scanner are
presented herein. Finally, a case study using an Impact Echo Scanner to locate grout voids inside the
Orwell Bridge in UK is included in this paper.
6.16 Sensitivity Studies of Grout Defects in Posttensioned Bridge Ducts Using Impact
Echo Scanning Method
Abstract/Summary: Findings are presented from an NCHRP Innovations Deserving Exploratory Analysis
Program project, Nondestructive Evaluation Method for Determination of Internal Grout Conditions
Inside Bridge Posttensioning Ducts Using Rolling Stress Waves for Continuous Scanning. The study
involved a defect sensitivity study of an impact echo scanner to detect and image discontinuities in
posttensioned ducts of a mock-up U-shaped bridge girder and a mock-up slab. Various sizes of ducts were
included in this study as well as various sizes of void defects. A detailed sensitivity study of
nondestructive grout defect detection with impact echo scanning of eight ducts 4 in. in diameter with
constructed defects was the main focus in the study. Comparisons of the impact echo defect interpretation

and the actual design conditions of the ducts inside the bridge girder or slab are presented. The impact
echo results are presented threedimensionally by using thickness surface plots to provide improved
visualization and interpretation of the internal grout to void defect conditions inside the ducts of the
girder. The impact echo tests were performed with a scanner, which greatly facilitates the impact echo test
process by allowing for rapid, near continuous testing and true scanning capabilities to test concrete
structures. The general background of the impact echo technique and the impact echo scanner is
summarized. Descriptions of two mock-up specimens used in the experiment and the discussion of the
results from the impact echo scanner are presented.
6.17 Imaging of Ungrouted Tendon Ducts in Prestressed Concrete by Improved SIBIE

Author(s): Ninel Ata, Shinichi Mihara and Masayasy Ohtsu
Publication: NDT&E International
Abstract/Summary: The impact-echo method has been extensively applied to nondestructive evaluation of
defects in concrete structures. The presence and the location of defects in concrete are estimated by
identifying peak frequencies in the frequency spectra. To detect ungrouted tendon ducts, the method is
known to be available. However, because post-tensioning prestressed concrete members usually have thin
web portions, spectra obtained could include many peak frequencies. As a result, it is often problematic to
select appropriate peak frequencies associated with the presence of ungrouted ducts. Stack imaging of
spectral amplitudes based on impact-echo (SIBIE) is developed, in order to improve the impact-echo and
to visually identify the locations of such reflectors as voids and defects. In the present paper, SIBIE is
successfully applied to identify ungrouted metal and plastic sheaths at the hunch portion of a prestressed
concrete beam. Two dimensional dynamic BEM analysis is performed to investigate the relations between
peak frequencies and locations of reflectors. At the peak frequencies in the spectra, locations of stress
concentration are correlated with the response modes.
6.18 Automated NDE of Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridges Using Imaging Echo

Methods
Author(s): Doreen Streicher, Daniel Algernon, Jens Wostmann, Matthias Behrens, and H. Wiggenhauser
Publication: Proceedings of the 9th European Conference on NDT
Abstract/Summary: Test problems for NDE of post-tensioned concrete bridges are to determine the
thickness of concrete, to locate metallic tendon ducts and reinforcement bars as well as to determine the
grouting condition in tendon ducts. Impulse-radar, ultrasonic echo and impact-echo are applied in
combination within a scanning system. For applying the imaging echo methods it is necessary to take data
in a two dimensional, rather dense grid (mesh width between 2 cm and 5 cm). Therefore time and
personnel requirements for manual measurements are extensive. In order to enhance the efficiency of the
non-destructive measurements several automated systems were developed at BAM. Applying those
systems, sensors for different methods can be automatically moved in a pre-selected grid width. Using
these systems large measurement areas up to 4 m x 10 m were investigated on several post-tensioned
concrete bridges. Automated measurements were carried out also in areas with limited accessibility (e.g.
box girders). Special data processing and data imaging is used for a more detailed interpretation of the
results. Constituents of the data processing are 3D-reconstruction and fusion of data sets, derived from
measurements with different methods or configurations. The detected reflectors and scatters of the
acoustic and electromagnetic measurements can be visualized in slices and movies. From radar data sets,
measured in perpendicular directions of antenna polarization, images of the perpendicularly arranged bars
of a reinforcement layer can be generated. The results of 3D-reconstructions of ultrasonic echo data allow

to recognize tendon ducts up to a measurement depth of approximately 55 cm. In summary the
combination of the electromagnetic and acoustic methods allows improving and simplifying the
interpretability of data.
6.19 Impact Echo Scanning for Discontinuity Detection and Imaging in Posttensioned
Concrete Bridges and Other Structures
Author(s): Y. Tinkey, L.D. Olson and H. Wiggenhauser
Publication: Materials Evaluation
Publication Date: January 2005
Abstract/Summary: This paper focuses on experimental results from two scanning impact echo systems
on the internal condition of posttensioned ducts. The first system uses an impact echo head attached to an
X/Y scanner and the second system is a rolling impact echo scanning system. The experimental tests
were performed by two different research agencies and comparisons of the blind interpretation and the
actual design conditions of the posttensioned ducts and slab are included herein. Background of the
impact echo technique and its implementation with a rolling scanning transducer are discussed in the
paper. The impact echo technique is generally used to either determine the internal condition of concrete
structures or to measure the thickness of concrete members. The rolling transducer is the impact echo
scanner expedites the test process by allowing for rapid, near continuous testing. The results from the
rolling impact scanning system are presented in a three dimensional fashion to provide better
interpretation of the internal conditions of the ducts.
In these studies, the impact echo results from both research agencies show good agreement in correctly
identifying grouting discontinuities in tendon ducts. Discontinuities of grout in bridge ducts are located
based on an indirect indication of a void due to an apparent impact increase in bridge wall/slab thickness
that actually reflects the lower resonant echo frequency due to the decreased stiffness associated with the
duct void. No direct reflection from the duct with grouting discontinuities was observed in these
experiments.
6.20 Complementary Application of Radar, Impact-Echo and Ultrasonics for Testing

Concrete Structures and Metallic Tendon Ducts
Author(s): Christiane Maierhofer, Martin Krause, Frank Mielentz, Doreen Streicher, Boris Milmann,
Andre Gardei, Christoph Kohl and Herbert Wiggenhauser
Abstract/Summary: Nondestructive testing of concrete structures plays an increasing role in civil
engineering, although until now the full potential of such techniques has not been tapped. For
posttensioned structures, the investigation of tendon ducts is one of the most essential testing problems.
The location of tendon ducts, the determination of concrete cover and, especially, the detection and
quantification of ungrouted areas inside the ducts are the relevant questions. Recent developments and
opportunities of radar, impact-echo, and ultrasonics for the investigation of tendon ducts are presented.
Although the obtained results on positioning and concrete cover determination are sufficient, the location
of ungrouted areas is still a matter of research. Thus, new approaches for this testing problem have to be
considered. Additionally, the combined use of complementary techniques offers a high potential to
increase the reliability of results. Data will be displayed on the combined application of acoustic and
electromagnetic impulse-echo methods and of data fusion related to the investigation of tendon ducts.

6.21 Contribution of Capacitance Probes for Nondestructive Inspection of External
Post-Tensioned Ducts
Author(s): J. Iaquinta
Publication: 16th World Conference on NDT
Abstract/Summary: In bridges, external post-tension habitually comes as cables placed in ducts for which
the residual internal space is (imperfectly) filled with a fluid cement grout. Detecting the problems of
injection is not practicable visually from the outside, and no effective auscultation tools were found yet. A
recent laboratory experiment established that capacitance probes can be employed, but the main difficulty
is to provide a correct interpretation of the measurements in terms of deterioration of the coating, along
with the occurrence of water or grout voids. In order to understand if the presence of the cable itself can
disturb the diagnosis in such proportions that any inspection is destined to failure, the subject was tackled
here from a numerical point of view. It is shown that the capacitance probe is sensitive to the location of
the cable, but that it is still possible to distinguish typical defects present at low depth. This result is
confirmed, from a qualitative point of view, by tests performed with an actual probe.
6.22 Ultrasonic Imaging of Concrete Elements Using Reconstruction by Synthetic

Aperture Focusing Technique
Author(s): Martin Schickert, Martin Krause, and Wolfgang Muller
Publication: ASCE Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Abstract/Summary: Ultrasonic reconstruction by the synthetic aperture focusing technique ~SAFT! has a
great potential to image concrete elements and detect embedded objects. Its algorithm focuses ultrasonic
signals received at many aperture points by coherent superposition, yielding a high-resolution image of
the region of interest. Using this approach, several problems caused by the strongly inhomogeneous
structure of concrete are diminished, where scattering of transmitted pulses leads to disturbing phenomena
such as attenuation and structural noise. This contribution is intended to review the work of the writers on
the application of SAFT reconstruction to concrete testing. First, consequences of scattering of ultrasonic
waves in concrete are qualitatively explained. Then the use of SAFT is discussed in comparison to
traditional A-scan and B-scan techniques. Different reconstruction algorithms and implementations are
presented for one-, two-, and three-dimensional SAFT. Pulse-echo measurement systems are described,
which are able to acquire large sets of data on linear and planar apertures employing single transducer,
transducer array, and scanning laser Doppler vibrometer arrangements. To illustrate the application of the
SAFT techniques, examples from laboratory and field experiments are described comprising imaging of
back walls, tendon ducts containing faults, layers, and reinforcement in concrete elements.
6.23 Ultrasonic Guided Waves for Inspection of Grouted Tendons and Bolts
Author(s): M. D. Beard, M. J. S. Lowe, and P. Cawley
Abstract/Summary: There is currently a need to improve the nondestructive testing techniques that are
used to inspect grouted steel reinforcing tendons, anchors, and rock bolts for corrosion and fracture. A
method of inspection using guided ultrasonic waves has been proposed, which uses a pulse-echo
technique carried out from the free end of the structure. The maximum inspection range is determined by
the amount of attenuation that the wave experiences as a result of leakage into the embedding material

and material losses. However, previous work has identified high frequency modes that have low
attenuation and so increase the inspection range. Research has been carried out with a focus on the
inspection of the posttensioning tendons used to reinforce concrete. The research presented in this paper
uses experimental techniques to measure the attenuation in short lengths of grouted tendons, to evaluate
the reflection coefficient of the modes from different geometry breaks, and to assess the impact of tendon
curvature. The outcome of this research shows that the inspection range for tendons is limited, but the
outlook for the inspection of the larger diameter grouted bolts and rebars that are used in the construction
industry is promising. Considerable success has already been achieved in the testing of epoxy bonded
rock bolts using this method.
6.24 Guidance on the use of NDE on Voided Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridge Beams
using Impact Echo
Author(s): M. Clark, J. Halliday, J. Watson, and M.C. Forde
Publication: 82nd TRB Meeting Proceedings
Abstract/Summary: Guidance is given on the use of Impact Echo (IE) testing, which can be useful in
detecting voids in grout in post-tensioned tendon ducts in prestressed concrete bridge elements. It is well
known that voids in grouted ducts can lead to ingress of water and to corrosion of the tendon wires. Voids
can also reduce the integrity of the post-tensioned member in that fractured wires are not encased in grout
and cannot therefore rebond themselves either side of the fracture. This paper should assist the bridge
maintenance engineer in preparing a survey of posttensioned members to establish the likelihood of there
being voids in the grouted ducts.
6.25 Use of the MegascanTM Imaging Process in Inspection Systems for Post-Tensioned
Bridges and Other Major Structures
Author(s): Kevin Brown and John St Leger
Publication: International Symposium on Nondestructive Testing
Abstract/Summary: The safety of post-tensioned structures is reliant on the integrity of steel tendons
located in ducts within the main structural elements. This paper describes the key role MegaScan TM
Imaging currently plays in the inspection system.
6.26 Comparison of NDT Techniques on a Post-Tensioned Beam Before its Autopsy

Author(s): X. Derobert, C Aubagnac and O. Abraham
Publication: Journal of NDT & E International
Abstract/Summary: Following the complete demolition of a prestressed concrete bridge in southern
France, a suspected weak post-tensioned beam was retained for non-destructive testing (NDT). Ground
penetrating radar, Ferroscan (covermeter), gamma-ray radiography and impact-echo methods have all
been tested and their results then discussed after the autopsy of the beam by means of hydro-demolition.
This paper describes the extent to which NDT surveys are able to respond to the needs of structural
engineers, through the use of complementary NDT approaches. The introduction of a second technique
should provide a more pertinent response while eliminating certain ambiguities either by improving
measurement reliability or by focusing on questionable zones to obtain more precise local measurements.

Afterwards, the problems still not adequately resolved by these techniques are pinpointed. This step
concludes with the set of needs heretofore unmet by such techniques.
6.27 Stack Imaging of Spectral Amplitudes Based on Impact-Echo for Flaw Detection
Author(s): Masayasu Ohstu and Takeshi Watanabe
Publication: NDE&T International
Abstract/Summary: The impact-echo method recently has drawn a remarkable amount of attention for
nondestructive evaluation of defects in concrete structures. Extracting resonance frequencies responsible
for the locations of reflectors, the depth and the presence of defects are estimated. So far, however, the
technique has some limitations for practical applications. This is because there exist unresolved problems
in the application of the impact-echo to concrete structures in service. Consequently, the method is
studied theoretically on the basis of the elastodynamics and the signal analysis. In order to circumvent the
difficulty to identify peak frequencies in the conventional procedure, a new procedure to evaluate defects
in concrete is investigated, applying an imaging procedure. Thus, stack imaging of spectral amplitudes
based on the impact-echo is developed. This procedure is applied to a prestressed concrete beam to
classify a grouted duct and an ungrouted duct. The location and presence of the ungrouted duct can be
visually identified.
6.28 Applications of Impact-Echo for Flaw Detection

Author(s): Jeffrey Wouters and Randall W. Poston
Abstract/Summary: Impact-echo testing has been highly successful in locating and evaluating numerous
types of flaws in concrete and masonry structures. While the requisite knowledge and experience for
successful testing is not overly difficult to obtain, it is not uncommon to encounter improper application
of impact-echo for flaw detection. This paper presents both theory and application of impact-echo for
flaw detection, with an emphasis on actual field application of the method. Examples of application of the
method for flaw detection are also shown. It has been found that a thorough understanding of the actual
testing parameters and variables will result in more accurate and successful flaw detection.
6.29 Ultrasonic Tomography of Grouted Duct Post-Tensioned Reinforced Concrete

Bridge Beams
Author(s): J. Martin, K.J. Broughton, A. Giannopolous, M.S.A Hardy and M.C. Forde
Publication: NDT & E International
Abstract/Summary: Some concern exists over the safety and durability of the 600 post-tensioned bridges
in the UK, and the much larger number worldwide. The objective of the work reported herein was to
identify voiding in the metallic tendon ducts in these bridges. Voiding can give rise to two sets of
problems: (a) possible ingress of chlorides, which would cause corrosion; and (b) a lack of redistribution
of stress within the beam. It was against this background that it was important to first of all identify the
extent of voiding in post-tensioned bridges.
The new technique of ultrasonic tomography was used for the trials reported in this paper. Two test
beams were examined: a 10 m long beam at the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), Crowthorne, UK

and a short test beam constructed at Stanger Science and Environment, Elstree, UK. The ducts in the
TRL beam were 40 mm in diameter. This is smaller than would normally be encountered in a post-
tensioned bridge beam. A more usual duct diameter would be 100-110 mm with a cover of around
125mm. The second test beam at Stanger Science and Environment, Elstree contained 100-mm diameter
ducts.
The time-of-flight tomography data obtained demonstrated that it is a potentially highly successful
method of investigating post-tensioned concrete beams. The method is somewhat time consuming and so
should be used in conjunction with a simpler testing method, e.g. sonic impact-echo, which identifies
areas of interest. The smaller the ducts to be investigated, the smaller the required distances between
testing stations. this therefore significantly increases the testing time.
6.30 : Nondestructive Evaluation of Concrete and Masonry

Author(s): Mary Sansalone and William Streett
Publication:
6.31 Detecting Voids in Grouted Tendon Ducts of Post-Tensioned Concrete

Structures using the Impact Echo Method
Author(s): Barbara J. Jaeger, Mary J. Sansalone, Randall W. Poston
Publication: ACI Structural Journal
Publication Date: July/August 1996
Abstract/Summary: An ongoing research program at Cornell University is aimed at developing the
theoretical basis and practical applications for impact-echo, a nondestructive testing technique based on
the use of transient stress waves. This paper discusses a recently completed phase of the program that
involved detecting voids in grouted tendon ducts in post-tensioned concrete structures. Results from
numerical finite element studies, controlled-flaw laboratory studies, and a field study are presented.
Three-dimensional dynamic finite element analyses were performed to examine the response of fully
grouted, partially grouted, and ungrouted tendon ducts to transient stress waves. Laboratory specimens
were built and tested to verify the numerical results. Numerical and laboratory studies demonstrated that
the impact-echo method could be used successfully to detect both complete and partial voids in grouted
tendon ducts. Afield study was then conducted on an existing post-tensioned bridge. Fully grouted,
partially grouted, and ungrouted tendon ducts located in actual bridge girders were examined. The results
of the impact-echo tests were confirmed by invasive testing; the ducts were opened up and visually
inspected. The impact-echo results correctly located fully grouted, partially grouted, and ungrouted
tendon ducts.

7 Strand Corrosion
7.1 Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Reinforced Concrete under Accelerated

Corrosion
Author(s): M. Di Benedetti, G. Loretoa, F. Mattab, and A. Nannia
Publication Date: August 2012
Abstract/Summary: The development of techniques capable of evaluating the deterioration of reinforced
concrete (RC) structures is instrumental to the advancement of structural health monitoring (SHM)
techniques and service life estimate methodologies for constructed facilities. One of the main causes
leading to degradation is the corrosion of steel reinforcement. This process can be modeled
phenomenologically, while laboratory tests aimed at studying durability responses are typically
accelerated to provide usable results within a realistic period of time. A number of nondestructive
methods have been recently studied. Acoustic emission (AE) is emerging as a nondestructive tool to
detect the onset and progression of deterioration mechanisms associated with concrete cracking. In this
paper, an accelerated corrosion and continuous AE monitoring test setup is presented, providing relevant
information on the characteristics of the corrosion circuit, continuous measurement procedure, selection
of AE sensors and AE parameter setting for data acquisition. The effectiveness of AE in detecting and
characterizing the initiation of the corrosion process is discussed on the basis of results from small-scale,
pre-cracked RC
7.2 Corrosion Damage Quantification of Prestressing Strands using Acoustic

Emission
Author(s): Jes Mangual, Mohamed ElBatanouny, Paul Ziehl, and Fabio Matta
Publication Date: November 2012
Abstract/Summary: Steel degradation due to corrosion in prestressed concrete bridges has been of major
concern as it presents a threat to the integrity of structures adjacent to marine environments or where de-
icing salts are regularly used. To assess the potential for monitoring of the corrosion process an
accelerated corrosion testing program has been conducted. A series of specimens with dimensions 114
mm x 114 mm x 508 mm (4.5 in. x 4.5 in. x 20 in.) were subjected to constant potential application
through the embedded steel strand while continuously monitoring with acoustic emission (AE).
Depassivation of the strand was detected by monitoring the fluctuations in applied anodic current. Half-
cell potential measurements assessed the probability of corrosion and all results obtained were compared
to acoustic emission data. The mass loss of the corroded strands was correlated to acoustic emission
intensity analysis to quantify the degree of damage. Results show that acoustic emission is as sensitive as
half-cell potential for detecting the presence of corrosion and may be used to effectively locate corroded
areas. The intensity analysis proved useful for categorizing the level of damage; making it a strong
candidate for structural prognosis.
7.3 Detection of Corrosion of Post-Tensioned Strands in Grouted Assemblies

Author(s): Luciana V. Taveira, B.V. Joseph, A.A. Sagues and J Lopez-Sabando
Publication: NACE International Corrosion 2008

Publication Date: November 2008
Abstract/Summary: The feasibility and sensitivity of electrochemical noise (EN), electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and linear polarization resistance (LPR) for detection of corrosion in post-
tensioning (PT) components was investigated. The use of the electrical resistance (ER) technique, as well
EIS and LPR, to detect air space corrosion at the grout voids was also explored. The results showed that
high sensitivity noise measurements (in the V range) are feasible for the strand-anchorage systems. The
potential and galvanic current trends for the assemblies suggest the presence of activation-passivation
cycles linked to each water ingress event. The EN method was adequate to identify only one modality
of corrosion, and failed to detect other potentially important forms of corrosion despite the presence of
significant macrocell current. In contrast, the EIS and LPR methods more reliably detected ongoing
corrosion. The ER method could sensitively detect the deterioration of grouted and bare steel strands
exposed to a high humidity environment as in the air space of a grout void. The air space corrosion
experiments showed that an aggressive environment may evolve in the grout void, resulting in
appreciable corrosion rates.
7.4 Monitoring of Electrically Isolated Post-Tensioning Tendons

Author(s): B. Elsener
Publication: Taylor & Francis Group, London
Abstract: Electrically Isolated Tendons (EIT) have been introduced as one possible solution to reach the
highest protection level (PL3) in the framework of fib recommendation for grouted post-tensioned
tendons. This approach allows to check the integrity of the plastic duct during and after construction and
to monitor the corrosion protection of the high-strength steel during the whole service life with electrical
impedance measurements. The paper presents results on PC structures with EIT regarding quality control,
long term monitoring and location of defects. Practical experience in Switzerland over the last six years
was included in the revision of the Swiss Guideline Measures to ensure the durability of post-tensioning
tendons in bridges.
7.5 Evaluation of NDT Methods for Detection of Prestressing Steel Damage at Post-
Tensioned Concrete Structures
Author(s): J. Mietz and J. Fischer
Publication: Materials and Corrosion
Abstract/Summary: For an assessment of the risk potential of existing structures, where in the case of
prestressing steel damage the load-bearing capacity could be significantly affected, non-destructive
testing techniques which enable reliable evaluation of the condition of the prestressing steels are of
utmost importance. During the demolition of a post-tensioned concrete bridge in Berlin where damage of
prestressing wires due to hydrogen-induced stress corrosion cracking were found in former investigations,
parts of the girders of the bridge superstructure could be taken out. After non-destructive investigations by
means of two testing techniques based on magnetic leakage flux measurement and one technique based
on electromagnetic resonance measurement, subsequent removal of the concrete cover up to the ducts,
opening the ducts and evaluation of the prestressing steels allowed a verification of the results obtained by
the NDT methods. From the results it can be concluded that areas with fractures of several wires can be
detected by the two techniques based on magnetic leakage flux measurement.

7.6 Enhanced Durability, Quality Control and Monitoring of Electrically Isolated
Tendons
Author(s): M. Della Vedova and B. Elsener
Publication: Proceedings of the 2nd International fib Congress
Abstract/Summary: Post-tensioning tendons contribute decisively to the serviceability, safety and
durability of prestressed concrete (PC) bridges. In order to reach the goals of durability (optimum
corrosion protection) and of monitoring requested by the Italian Railway [1] and the Swiss Federal Roads
and Railway Authorities, the new system of electrically isolated tendons according to the Swiss Guideline
[2] has been adopted. In Switzerland about 80 bridges of different length have been constructed since
1995 with thick-walled corrugated plastic ducts and electrically isolated anchorages [3, 4]. Similar
systems have been massively applied for the first time in Italy for the design and construction of several
bridges and viaducts of the new highspeed lines [5, 6]. In Italy, traditional choice for railway bridges is
the use of simply supported spans and about 90% of the viaducts of the new lines are realized with partial
or total precasting of PC decks; this allowed to carry out test programs on the construction site and
extensive quality control during construction a point that has been recognized to be more difficult on
continuous span bridges as those usually constructed in Switzerland. The requirements, test methods and
acceptance criteria in agreement with international regulations [7], have been applied. Electrically isolated
tendons have been introduced as one possible solution to reach the highest protection level (PL3) in the
framework of fib recommendations [8, 9]. Using electrically isolated tendons allows to check the
electrical isolation of the tendons and the integrity of the plastic duct during and after construction [4, 10]
and to monitor the corrosion protection of the tendons during service life with impedance measurements
[10, 11].
7.7 Corrosion of the Strand-Anchorage System in Post-Tensioned Grouted

Assemblies
Author(s): Hongbin Wang, A.A. Sagues, R.G. Powers
Abstract/Summary: Commercial ductile iron post-tension anchorage assemblies containing unstressed
high strength strand, two types of grout and simulated grout voids were subject to simulated water
intrusion events with fresh and salty (0.01N NaCl) water. Galvanic current, strand-anchor conductance
and potentials were monitored to identify corrosion location and magnitude. Potentials of the galvanic
systems at different locations along the assemblies were recorded. The results from showed that external
water intrusion can be a major source of corrosion tendon failure. Conditions for strand steel
depassivation can develop even if only modest carbonation of the grout occurs. Fresh water could initiate
corrosion if the native chloride content of the grout exceeded a relatively small amount (e.g. 500 ppm).
Currently allowable chloride limits may need revision. Galvanic coupling between strand steel and
anchorage iron could significantly aggravate corrosion of the strands. Significant corrosion of strands in
the void space was observed, especially in a grout that supported high internal relative humidity.
Projections of the combined effects of the deterioration mechanisms identified were consistent with the
observation of tendon failures in the field after as little as 7 years.
7.8 Long-Term Monitoring of Electrically Isolated Post-Tensioning Tendons

Author(s): Bernhard Elsener

Publication: Structural Concrete
Abstract/Summary: Electrically isolated tendons with plastic ducts for internal grouted post-tensioning
were developed about 15 years ago. This new generation of tendons offers enhanced corrosion protection
of the steel strands and the possibility to monitor the corrosion protection by simple non-destructive
measurements (electrical impedance). This paper reports practical experience on quality control and
long-term monitoring of two flyovers with electrically isolated tendons in Switzerland. The results of
impedance measurements are rationalized on the basis of a simple model of a capacitance C ( of the
polymer duct) in parallel to a resistance R (leak, defects) that both have a clear physical meaning and
depend on the length of the tendon. The penetration of (chloride-containing) water at defects of the duct
will lead to a decrease of the resistance R of that tendon. Thus for the first time the corrosion protection
of the structurally important post-tensioned tendons can be monitored during the whole service life of the
structure.
7.9 Electrical Isolation as Enhanced Protection for Posttensioning Tendons in

Concrete Structures (PL3)
Publication: First Workshop of COST 534: NDT Assessment and New Systems in Prestressed Concrete
Structures
Publication Date: October 2004
measurements (electrical impedance). This is the reason that the fib draft "Durability specifics for
prestressed concrete structures" proposes this technology for the highest protection level (PL3) for post-
tensioning tendons. The measurement principle and the development of the monitoring technique are
discussed.
7.10 Experience with Electrically Isolated Tendons in Switzerland

Structures
measurements (electrical impedance). In this paper the Swiss experience will be presented and discussed
with respect to long term monitoring, the most frequent failures and the value of the
limiting values of the specific resistance given in the Guideline.
7.11 Protection Against Corrosion and Monitoring of Posttensioning Tendons in

Prestressed Concrete Railway Bridges in Italy
Author(s): M. Della Vedova and L. Evangelista
Structures

Abstract/Summary: The paper describes the state of the art and future trends in Italy with regard to
durability and monitoring of post-tensioning tendons in prestressed concrete bridges and viaducts for
highspeed and ordinary railways. Two major tasks have been considered in the planning and design of
these structures: durability and possibility of monitoring. In order to reach these goals in the frame of
post-tensioning systems for prestressed concrete bridge decks, the thick-walled corrugated plastic ducts
for bonded internal tendons have been applied and electrically isolated anchorages have been adopted, as
first applications of these systems in Italy. The first data on quality control are presented.
7.12 Corrosion Protection and Monitoring of Electrically Isolated Post-Tensioning

Tendons
Author(s): M. Della Vedova, B. Elsener and L. Evangelista
Publication: Proceedings Third European Conference on Structural Control
Abstract/Summary: The paper describes the experience and future trends in Switzerland and Italy with
regard to durability and monitoring of post-tensioning tendons in prestressed concrete bridges and
viaducts and fly-overs already built in Switzerland. Two major tasks have been considered in the planning
and design of these structures: durability and possibility of monitoring. In order to reach these goals in
the frame of post-tensioning systems for prestressed concrete bridge decks, the thick-walled corrugated
plastic ducts for bonded internal tendons have been applied and electrically isolated anchorages have
been adopted, as first applications of these systems in Swiss and Italy.
7.13 Mechanism of Corrosion of Steel Strands in Post Tensioned Grouted Assemblies

Author(s): A.A Sagues, Rodney G. Powers and Hongbin Wang
Abstract/Summary: In this preliminary study, the complexity of the corrosion phenomenon of post-
tensioning strands in grouted anchorage assemblies was examined and both physicochemical and
electrochemical key technical issues were identified. Measurements of oxygen reduction efficiency in
high pH electrolytes were conducted to obtain polarization parameters to be used in modeling. The time
evolution of electrical resistivity of 5 low-bleed commercial grouts was measured also for model input. A
mathematical model for a simple grout-strand system was proposed and dimensionless equations were
formulated, to solve the combined polarization and oxygen transport problem. Within the range of
validity of the model assumptions, initial computations indicated that oxygen availability was a key factor
in determining corrosion severity while grout resistivity was secondary. Predicted corrosion rates were in
general agreement with field and laboratory observations. Issues for subsequent model
development were identified.
7.14 Location of Prestressing Steel Fractures in Concrete

Author(s): H. Scheel and B. Hillemeir
Publication: Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Abstract/Summary: The remanent magnetism method allows the identification of potentially unsafe
conditions in pretensioned and posttensioned concrete structures by locating fractures in the prestressing

steel. This nondestructive method identifies fractures of single wires, even when they are bundled with
intact wires. The magnetic field of tendons is measured at the concrete surface, once they have been
premagnetized with an electromagnet. Fractures produce characteristic magnetic leakage fields, which
can be measured with appropriate sensors at the concrete surface. The parameters associated with
fractured wires have been quantitatively identified in the laboratory and have been confirmed in the field.
The knowledge of these parameters allows us to draw conclusions about the reduction of a crosssectional
area or the number of fractured wires in a tendon. The method has been successfully applied outside of
the laboratory on full size bonded and unbonded posttensioned structures.
7.15 Half-Cell Potential Measurements Potential Mapping on Reinforced Concrete

Structures
Author(s): B. Elsener, C.Andrade, J. Gulikers, R. Polder and M. Raupach
Publication: Materials and Structures
Abstract/Summary: This RILEM Technical Recommendation intends to provide the background, a
description of the application and guidelines for the interpretation of half-cell potential measurements on
reinforced concrete structures. It covers both: point measurements (mostly used during inspection, thus in
the project phase of a restoration) and potential mapping.
7.16 Ultrasonic Imaging A Novel Way to Investigate Corrosion Status in Post-

Tensioned Concrete Members
Author(s): Shivprakash Iyer, Andrea J. Schokker, Sunil K. Sinha
Publication: Journal of the Indian Institute of Science
Publication Date: September-December 2002
Abstract/Summary: The problem of durability in reinforced concrete structures is most prevalent in
chloride-induced corrosion of reinforcing steel. Traditional corrosion monitoring techniques such as half-
cell potential and corrosion rate measurements often fail when used in this type of structure and standard
nondestructive testing methods such as impact-echo have also encountered problems. This study
introduces a new method called C-scan imaging to evaluate grouted post-tensioned tendons. Preliminary
investigations on lab specimens show promise for the technique.


7.18 Recent Developments in SQUID NDE
Author(s): H.J Krause and M.V. Kreutzbruck
Publication: Physica C
Abstract/Summary: By presenting brief summaries of recent application highlights, an overview of NDE
methods using SQUIDs is given. Bridge inspection with a SQUID array integrated with a yoke magnet
excitation was shown by scanning along the pre-stressed steel of bridges and verified by opening the
bridge deck. As the construction of the megaliner Airbus aircraft progresses, testing procedures for
extremely thick-walled structures are needed. Defects at a depth of up to 40 mm were measured in a
bolted three-layer aluminum sample with a total thickness of 62 mm. For the investigation of aircraft
wheels, a remote eddy current (EC) excitation scheme yields better depth selectivity. Defects with an
inside penetration of only 10% could be detected. SQUID magnetometers are well suited for pulsed EC
techniques which cover a broader depth range than standard single frequency EC. An inversion procedure
is presented providing a tomographic-like conductivity image of stacked aluminum samples. A recent
SQUID application is nondestructive testing of niobium sheets used for superconducting cavities of
particle accelerators. The detection of tantalum inclusions and other impurities which lower the cavity
performance is based on the measurement of local current inhomogeneities caused by EC excitation or
thermal gradients. Alternate techniques using SQUID sensors, such as modulated excitation arrays,
rotating field schemes, sensor multiplexing, magnetic moment detection, and microscopy setups, are
discussed.
7.19 SQUID Array for Magnetic Inspection of Prestressed Concrete Bridges

Author(s): H.J Krause, W.Wolf, W. Glaas, E. Zimmermann, M.I. Faley, G. Sawade, R. Mattheus, G.
Neudert, U. Gampe and J. Krieger
Publication: Physica C
Abstract/Summary: For detection of tendon ruptures in prestressed members of bridges, a four-channel
SQUID system was developed. The tendons are magnetized by scanning a yoke electromagnet over the
concrete surface along the hidden member. Four HTS dc-SQUID magnetometers with ramp-type
junctions, optimized for high-field performance, are mounted in an orientation-independent liquid
nitrogen cryostat. The SQUIDs are integrated as a linear array within the yoke and operated in magnetic
fields up to 15 mT, recording the stray field during magnetization as well as the remanent field after
switching off the excitation. Unwanted signals from stirrups of the mild steel reinforcement are
suppressed with two types of techniques: either the comparison of remanent field signals after changing
the magnetization direction of the stirrups, or a best fit of typical stirrup signals to the stray field signal
and their subtraction. Subsequent correlation analysis with the dipolar signal of a typical void yields
rupture signal amplitudes. A finite element program was written to simulate stray field and remanent field
traces of typical steel configurations. Excellent agreement with measured data was found. Results of
measurements on a prestressed highway bridge are presented. Signal amplitudes above the threshold
values were verified as originating from ruptures of the steel tendon by opening the bridge deck.
7.20 Continuous Acoustic Monitoring of Grouted Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridges

Author(s): D.W. Cullington, D. MacNeil, P. Paulson and J. Elliott
Publication: NDT & E International

Abstract/Summary: The paper describes the first UK site installation of a monitoring system that detects
the fracture of wires in post-tensioning tendons by listening with acoustic sensors attached to the surface
of the concrete. Trials have shown the system to work reliably for grouted and ungrouted tendons.
Acoustic events from other sources such as road traffic are discarded using software and hardware filters
at the unattended site. Data from possible wire-fracture events are sent off site for final identification and
positioning. The system is running continuously on site, on a viaduct, with close to 100% up-time. In
open and blind trials on the viaduct, 41 out of 44 wire break or facsimile events were correctly located
and identified and a further two were correctly located. The system can assist in the management of
bridges where the post-tensioning system is at risk from corrosion.

8 Strand Location
8.1 Application of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) as a Diagnostic Technique in

Concrete Bridge
Author(s): Eleni Cheilakou, Panagriotis Theodorakeas, Maria Koui, Serafeim Moustakidis and Christos
Zeris
Publication: http://www.ndt.net/article/defektoskopie2012/papers/107_p.pdf
Abstract/Summary: The inspection of reinforced and pre-stressed concrete bridges is a critical task and
fundamental element continuing overall safety. Since the service life of those structures is mainly
dependent on the normal age-related degradation and integrity loss of the embedded metallic
reinforcement bars and tendon ducts, a detailed knowledge of the internal structural state of is essential
for the prevention of further damage and the improved planning of maintenance and rehabilitation. Smart
methods for assessing the structural integrity of such concrete bridges are therefore essential to ensure the
safety of the structure, as well as to reduce the huge manufacturing costs and out of service time of the
structure due to maintenance. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a well-established and among the
leading diagnostic technologies in the field of NDT&E especially prepared for these purposes. In the
last few decays, GPR has evolved as a powerful tool for the non destructive investigation of concrete
bridges, as it is one of the fastest and most cost-effective non invasive methods, available to provide
efficient information about the true position and condition of embedded reinforcement bars and tendons
ducts. The present research work evaluates the potential of GPR for the inspection of pre-stressed
concrete bridges and its usefulness to provide non visible information of the interior structural condition
required for strengthening and rehabilitation purposes. For that purpose, different concrete blocks with
embedded steel reinforcement bars and plastic ducts were investigated by means of GPR in order to locate
the internal structural elements and verify the original drawings. A 3D survey was also performed with
the aim to produce a 3D map of the interior concrete structure. The results obtained showed the
effectiveness and reliability of GPR technique for concrete bridge investigations.
8.2 Rebar Detection Using GPR: An Emerging Non Destructive QC Approach

Author(s): D.C. Bala, R.D. Garg, and S.S. Jain
Publication: International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications
Abstract/Summary: Civil infrastructure especially the rigid pavements have been increasingly covering a
huge part of the infrastructure around us with the demand of rapid urbanization. The quality and condition
assessment of it after its construction is an important issue with the engineers. The need for defect
diagnosis and verification of their various design parameters is vital and important for quality control and
decision making steps because of various economic, quality and safety reasons. In India, the pavement
evaluation is done solely by conventional destructive methods involving a lengthy procedure of core
drilling, sampling and laboratory testing which, due to the same reason, is time consuming, costly and
traffic disturbing in nature. An innovative non-destructive high resolution subsurface imaging technique
(ground penetrating radar GPR) has been used to monitor the RCC (reinforced cement concrete)
pavements parameters at IIT Roorkee, India, to overcome the existing difficulties. It has substantially
reduced manpower requirement, time, money and traffic disturbances. In this paper a successful attempt
has been made nondestructively using 1000 MHz antenna based GPR to verify the presence and array size

of rebars used in RCC roads along with its depth, concrete thickness and the masking effects of rebars on
deep features.
8.3 Results of Reconstructed and Fused NDT Data Measured in the Laboratory and
On-Site Bridges
Author(s): Chrisoph Kohl and Doreen Streicher
Publication: Cement and Concrete Composites
Abstract/Summary: Non-destructive testing (NDT) of concrete structures plays an increasing role in civil
engineering. This paper presents the results of measurements carried out in the laboratory at BAM and
on-site at several bridges using reconstructed and fused radar and ultrasonic echo data sets. In this context
different scanning systems, developed for the on-site application of NDT-methods (e.g. reinforced
concrete bridges) are introduced. The main object was the demonstration of the improved effectiveness of
radar and ultrasonic pulse echo technique due to the automated measurements and the application of new
software for the data processing and data visualization. The results of these measurements show the high
potential of reconstruction and data fusion for the improvement and simplification of the interpretability
of large data sets measured with impulse-echo methods.
8.4 Ground Penetrating Radar for Concrete Evaluation Studies

Author(s): Michael D. Gehrig, Derek V. Morris and John T. Bryant
Publication: http://www.foundationperformance.org/pastpresentations/gehrig_paper_march2004.pdf
Abstract/Summary: Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a geophysical imaging technique used for
subsurface exploration and monitoring. It is widely used within the forensic, engineering, geological,
mining and archeological communities. GPR provides an ideal technique for concrete evaluation in that it
has the highest resolution of any subsurface imaging, non-invasive method and is far safer than other
method such as x-ray technology. Recent improvements in hardware, and in particular, software
processing have contributed to the rapidly expanding popularity and usability of this technique.
Concrete evaluation studies utilizing GPR include the inspection of various foundation floor systems such
as structurally suspended slabs, post tensioned or conventionally reinforced slab-on-grade foundation
systems, retaining walls, decks, tunnels, balconies and garages. Typically, the objectives of these studies
are to accurately locate and/or delineate rebar, tension cables, grade beams, conduits, voids and slab
thickness. Several case studies will be presented where such objectives have been achieved.
8.5 Complementary Application of Radar, Impact-Echo and Ultrasonics for Testing

Concrete Structures and Metallic Tendon Ducts
Author(s): Christiane Maierhofer, Martin Krause, Frank Mielentz, Doreen Streicher, Boris Milmann,
Andre Gardei, Christoph Kohl and Herbert Wiggenhauser
Abstract/Summary: Nondestructive testing of concrete structures plays an increasing role in civil
engineering, although until now the full potential of such techniques has not been tapped. For
posttensioned structures, the investigation of tendon ducts is one of the most essential testing problems.
The location of tendon ducts, the determination of concrete cover and, especially, the detection and

quantification of ungrouted areas inside the ducts are the relevant questions. Recent developments and
opportunities of radar, impact-echo, and ultrasonics for the investigation of tendon ducts are presented.
Although the obtained results on positioning and concrete cover determination are sufficient, the location
of ungrouted areas is still a matter of research. Thus, new approaches for this testing problem have to be
considered. Additionally, the combined use of complementary techniques offers a high potential to
increase the reliability of results. Data will be displayed on the combined application of acoustic and
electromagnetic impulse-echo methods and of data fusion related to the investigation of tendon ducts.
8.6 Nondestructive Evaluation of Concrete Infrastructure with Ground Penetrating

Radar
Author(s): Christiane Maierhofer
Publication: Journal of Material in Civil Engineering
Abstract/Summary: In recent years the use of ground penetrating radar GPR at frequencies from 500 MHz
to 2.5 GHz has yielded very good results for inspection of concrete structures. The possibility of
performing nondestructive measurements quickly and with convenient recording of the measurement
results is particularly beneficial. The technique is well-suited for locating tendon ducts at depths down to
50 cm, detecting voids and detachments, and measuring thickness of structures that are only accessible
from one side. This paper presents the basics of GPR, its limits, and the results of laboratory
investigations and case studies. It also shows that GPR can be used for regular inspection, searching for
the cause of damage, and quality assessment of civil engineering structures.

8.8 Condition Assessment of Transportation Infrastructure Using Ground-

Penetrating Radar
Author(s): Kenneth R. Maser
Publication: Journal of Infrastructure Systems
Abstract/Summary: Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) technology has been applied to the evaluation of
pavements, bridge decks, abutments, piers, and other constructed facilities to assess as-built conditions
and to evaluate damage and deterioration that develops over time. Two basic types of GPR equipment

systems are used depending on the type of antenna employed: either ground-coupled antennas or air-
coupled horn antennas. Ground-coupled equipment is most suitable for deeper penetrations and for object
detection, and where survey speed is not critical. Horn antenna equipment is most suited for driving speed
measurements, and where quantitative high resolution results are required. To evaluate the data, two types
of data processing are employed: (1) qualitative assessments and manual calculations from graphically
displayed data, which is most suited to site specific evaluations; and (2) automated processing of the raw
radar waveforms, which is most suited to production surveys such as pavements and bridge decks. In
some applications, such as the measurement of pavement thickness and depth of reinforcement, research
studies have verified the GPR findings. In other applications, such as the detection of voids under
concrete, the technique can only be reliably used on a site-specific basis, and further development and
verification is required before GPR can be considered more generally applicable. New technologies are
currently under development that offer the potential to enhance the range of applicability of the GPR
technique.
8.9 Automated NDE of PT Concrete Structures

Author(s): H. Wiggenhauser, D. Streicher and M. Friese
Publication: International Symposium of Nondestructive Testing in Civil Engineering (NDT-CE)
Abstract/Summary: Non-destructive testing (NDT) of post-tensioned concrete structures is both
challenging and complex. Locating areas in tendons without corrosion protection (un-grouted) is
technically difficult. Typically, Bridges are large structures, any testing of the complete surface with point
test methods can only be done with automated systems. At present there are acoustic and electromagnetic
methods which cover a large area of application and which can be used complementarily. But in most
cases, only one method is applied to solve a distinct problem. In this contribution, results will be
presented based on the investigation of internal structure of post-tensioned concrete bridges with three
different NDT methods. Measurements with radar, ultrasonic echo and impact-echo were carried out on
three bridges in Germany and Austria. Furthermore different scanning systems, developed at BAM, were
applied. The main object was the demonstration of the improved effectiveness of radar, impact-echo and
ultrasonic echo due to the automated measurements and the application of new software for the data
processing and data visualization. A new ultrasonic device with real-time imaging capabilities allows
detailed measurements in smaller areas without special scanning devices.

9 Remaining Prestress
9.1 Detection of Initial Yield and Onset of Failure in Bonded Post-Tensioned

Concrete Beams
Author(s): Salvatore Salamone, Marc J. Veletzos, Francesco Lanza di Scalea, and Jos I. Restrepo
Publication: ASCE Journal of Bridge Engineering
Publication Date: November/December 2012
Abstract/Summary: This paper discusses monitoring of bonded posttensioned (PT) concrete elements
using the acoustic emission technique. In particular, a statistical pattern recognition technique based on a
multivariate outlier analysis is presented to identify initial yielding and the onset of failure. Experimental
tests on large-scale single-tendon bonded PT concrete beams, subjected to multiple load cycles, will be
presented to validate the proposed monitoring system.
9.2 Estimation of Existing Prestress Level on Bonded Strand Using Impact-Echo

Test
Author(s): B.H. Kim, I.K. Lee, and S.J. Cho
Publication: 6th European Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring
Abstract/Summary: This work introduces a non-destructive way to evaluate existing prestress level on
bonded seven-wire strands embedded in a post-tensioned concrete structure. The approach utilizes the
experimental result that the longitudinal stress wave velocity varies with respect to applied stress level on
the strands. A set of prestressed concrete beam specimens with different tensile stress levels have been
prepared, and various impact-echo tests are conducted. It turns out that longitudinal elastic wave velocity
of the strands is nonlinearly increased as the applied tensile stress level increases. To investigate field
applicability and feasibility of the proposed approach, the longitudinal impact-echo tests are conducted
for two prestressed bonded tendons embedded on a nuclear power plant. The estimation results clearly
show that the existing prestress level of the tendon is close to the design value. It seems that the proposed
impact-echo technique is feasible and applicable for the unique identification of existing prestress level on
an individual strand embedded in a real post-tensioned concrete structure.
9.3 Determination of the Residual Prestress Force of In-Service Girders using Non-
Destructive Testing
Author(s): Brian Kukay, Paul J. Barr, Marvin W. Halling and Kevin Womack
Publication: 2010 Structures Congress
Abstract/Summary: There continues to be a need for the accurate determination of the effective
prestress force in precast, prestressed concrete bridge girders. In general, design codes lead to
conservative estimations of in-service prestress forces which in turn can lead to permit and load posting
requirements. The focus of this research is on the development of a nondestructive method to more
accurately determine this effective prestress force.
The research results are based on the testing of eight AASHTO Type II bridge girders that were in service
for approximately 40 years. On average, the non-destructive tests results were within 94% of the results

based on cracking tests; a technique that has more traditionally been used to directly determining residual
prestress force.
The residual prestress force was also compared with values obtained according to current code
procedures. On average, the AASHTO LRFD-04 and 07 detailed methods overestimated the measured
prestress force, by 12% by way of the cracking tests and 17% by way of the non-destructive tests. On
average, the AASHTO Lump Sum Method agreed with measured residual prestress force obtained with
the cracking tests and overestimated the measured values by 6% in comparison to the non-destructive
tests. The details of the testing and proposed methodology are presented in this paper.
9.4 Non-Destructive Evaluation of the Stress Levels in Prestressed Steel Strands

using Acoustoelastic Effect
Author(s): Salim Chaki and Grard Bourse
Publication: NDTCE 2009 Conference Proceedings
Publication Date: June-July 2009
Abstract/Summary: Non destructive monitoring of prestressed civil structures such as bridges, dams,
nuclear power plants, etc. is extremely important to ensure security of users and environment. This
challenging task brings together the non destructive testing (NDT) and civil engineering (CE)
communities. As a part of this relationship, this paper deals with a non destructive procedure for stress
levels evaluation in seven-wire steel strands (T15.7) using acoustoelastic effect. For this purpose,
acoustoelastic calibration tests were performed and a small-model of seven-wire steel strands anchorage
block was built and probed to validate the proposed method. The results show the potential and suitability
of the proposed method for evaluating the service stress levels in the prestressed T15.7 seven-wire steel
strands.
9.5 Health Monitoring to Detect Failure of Prestressing (PS) Cables in Segmental

Box-Girder Bridges
Author(s): Ivan Bartoli, Salvatore Salamone, Robert Phillips, Claudio Nucera, and Francesco Lanza di
Scalea
Publication: UCSD Technical Report CA 09-0938
Abstract/Summary: This project aimed at developing and demonstrating a health monitoring system for
prestressing (PS) tendons in post-tensioned concrete structures, including the popular segmental box-
girder bridges. The technique under investigation was based on ultrasonic guided waves and embedded
sensors. The goal was to provide both detectability of defects in the tendons such as corrosion and broken
wires, and measurability of applied prestress levels. The report first presents the literature review of the
techniques available for health monitoring of concrete structures, particularly cables and PS tendons. The
subsequent sections present the results obtained from both numerical simulations and experiments of
wave propagation in unloaded and loaded seven-wire strands, both free and embedded. Of particular
interest is the identification of certain linear and nonlinear ultrasonic wave properties which were
sensitive to the level of prestress applied to the strands. Those features were exploited, in combination
with acoustic emission technique, to monitor the stress level in strands and to detect and localize defects
during the testing of large scale post-tensioned concrete joints at UCSDs Powell Laboratories. The work
in this project indicates that ultrasonic probing of the PS strands can indeed be effective for the detection
of defects as well as for the monitoring of PS forces in post-tensioned concrete structures. Based on the
findings of this research, strategies for both realtime health monitoring and routine-based inspection of

post-tensioned bridges are outlined. These strategies will need to be validated in a follow-on project
focusing on additional large-scale laboratory tests and field testing of bridges in service.
9.6 A Smart Steel Strand for the Evaluation of Prestress Loss Distribution in Post-
Tensioned Concrete Structures
Author(s): Zhi Zhou, Jianping He, Genda Chen and Jinping Ou
Publication: Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures
Abstract/Summary: Prestress loss adversely affects the behavior of in-service post-tensioned structures in
terms of deflection/camber, cracking, and ultimate capacity. It is thus important to determine the level of
prestressing force at various loading stages from the initial prestressing force transfer to the structure,
through different in-service loads, to the ultimate load of the structure. Prestress loss is difficult to
evaluate due to several intertwined factors such as creep, shrinkage, relaxation, geometric configuration,
distributed friction, and slippage of post-tensioned strands. Till date, there is no cost-effective and reliable
sensor and installation technique for the long-term monitoring and evaluation of prestress loss. In this
study, a smart fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) rebar with an embedded novel optical fiber (OF) is
developed for the distributed strain of post-tensioned strands. The new OF is an integrated global and
local monitoring technology developed by combining the Brillouin optical time domain analysis/
refectory sensor and the optical fiber Bragg grating into one single fiber. The FRP rebar and six steel
wires were bundled together to form a seven-wire steel strand for the posttensioning and monitoring of
concrete structures. The performances of the smart rebar and strand were validated with static tests of a
prestressed steel frame structure and a posttensioned concrete beam. The smart steel strand can accurately
measure the prestress loss at each loading stage, which agrees well with that measured by a pressure
loading cell and predicted by a design code.
9.7 Comparison of Prestress Losses for a Prestress Concrete Bridge Made with
High-Performance Concrete
Author(s): Paul J. Barr, Brian M Kukay, and Marv W. Halling
Publication: Journal of Bridge Engineering
Abstract/Summary: Five prestressed concrete girders made with high-performance concrete were
instrumented using vibrating-wire strain gages. Their behavior was monitored for three years from the
time of casting. The measured change in concrete strain at the centroid of the prestressing strands was
used to evaluate changes in prestress. The total measured prestress loss was as large as 28% of the total
jacking stress. Due to the higher stresses, this loss is larger than would be expected for a girder made with
conventional-strength concrete. The observed values of prestress losses were compared with values
calculated using the recommended AASHTO LRFD and NCHRP 18-07 procedures. The AASHTO
LRFD method overpredicted the average prestress losses for the highly stressed Span 2 girders by 20%
while the NCHRP method underpredicted the average losses by 16%. The NCHRP method was found to
be more inclusive and adaptable to regional construction. The calculated NCHRP Span 2 losses were
found to be within 10% of the average measured losses when the elastic shortening losses were calculated
based on measured data and differential shrinkage was calculated based on continuous beams.
9.8 Ultrasonic Wave Propagation in Progressively Loaded Multi-Wire Strands

Author(s): P. Rizzo
Publication: Journal of Experimental Mechanics

Abstract/Summary: In recent years methods based on guided ultrasonic waves gained increasing attention
for the nondestructive evaluation and the health monitoring of multi-wire strands used in civil structures
as prestressing tendons and stay cables. The study of wave propagation properties in such components has
been challenging due to the load-dependent inter-wire contact and the helical geometry of the peripheral
wires. The present paper addresses an experimental investigation on the ultrasonic wave propagation in
seven-wire strands loaded at different stress levels. Wafer piezoelectric sensors are employed in a through
transmission configuration for the generation and detection of stress waves. The response of the lowest-
order longitudinal mode is studied at different levels of load. Those ultrasonic features, associated with
the transmitted ultrasonic energy, sensitive to the variation of applied load are identified and discussed as
possible means of a load monitoring.
9.9 Application of a New Nondestructive Evaluation Technique to a 25-Year-Old

Prestressed Concrete Girder
Author(s): Atorod Azizinamini, Bruce J. Keeler, John Rohde and Armin B. Mehrabi.
Publication: PCI Journal
Abstract: This paper summarizes the tests conducted on a 25-year-old prestressed concrete girder to
evaluate the available prestress. Two methods, including a newly developed technique, were used to
measure the available prestress in the girder. The focus of this paper is the application of the new
nondestructive technique. The proposed method is based on the stress state around a small cylindrical
hole drilled in the bottom flange of a prestressed girder. This technique overcomes some of the
shortcomings associated with previously developed strain/displacement based prestress evaluation
methods. Using the new method, the predicted effective prestress of the prestressing strands was
compared to that obtained from destructive cracking tests. Results indicate the merit and promise of the
newly developed nondestructive technique. Following the application of the proposed method, the 25-
year-old girder was tested to collapse. The ultimate capacity of the girder was also estimated using a
theoretical analysis. The actual strength and analytical prediction were in close agreement.

10 NDE Methods with Multiple Applications
10.1 Guidelines for the Thermographic Inspection of Concrete Bridge Components in

Shaded Conditions
Author(s): Glenn Washer, Richard Fenwick, and Seth Nelson
Publication: 92nd TRB Meeting Proceedings
Abstract/Summary: Infrared thermography has the potential to detect subsurface delaminations before
spalling develops, and could be used as a tool to enhance the visual inspection of concrete bridges. The
technology has traditionally been applied to bridge decks, which are exposed to radiant heating from the
sun that helps develop the necessary thermal gradients in the concrete. Thermal gradients can also be
developed from the normal diurnal temperature variations that occur. Convective heat transfer occurs to
develop the thermal gradients, although thermal gradients are of much lower magnitude than those
developed through radiant heating from the sun. This paper presents results of a study to develop thermal
imaging for detection of subsurface deterioration in the soffit areas of bridges, which are shaded and
therefore not exposed to radiant heating from the sun. Experimental studies and field testing were
conducted and are described. This paper reports on Guidelines developed for this application of the
technology that address the necessary environmental conditions to enable detection of damage in bridge
soffit areas. Specifically, the paper discusses ambient temperature rates of change necessary to ensure
subsurface damage can be detected in shaded conditions. The paper also discusses the effect of wind
speed on the detectability of subsurface damage in shaded areas of a bridge, and certain camera settings
needed to ensure temperature anomalies associated with subsurface damage can be detected by an
inspector during the inspection process. A field example is provided to illustrates the application of the
technology and highlights the needed camera settings.
10.2 Comparison of NDT Methods for Assessment of a Concrete Bridge Deck

Author(s): Taekeun Oh, Seong-Hoon Kee, Ralf W. Arndt, John S. Popovics, and Jinying Zhu
Publication: Journal of Engineering Mechanics
Abstract/Summary: The field application of three different nondestructive tests (NDTs)air-coupled
impact echo (IE), infrared (IR) thermography, and sounding (chain drag)are evaluated in this paper,
where an actual in-service concrete bridge deck is tested. Two different contactless IE test equipment sets
are deployed as part of an effort to develop new rapid measurement methods. The IE data are presented as
two-dimensional frequency maps, and the IR data are presented as temperature maps over the tested area.
Sounding (chain-drag) result maps are also presented. For verification of the location of near-surface
delamination damage, eight drilled core samples were extracted from the test area. The results obtained
from each of the individual NDT methods show reasonably good agreement with the drilled cores in
terms of locating near-surface delamination. Finally, the NDT methods are compared across general
performance criteria, considering accuracy, testing practicality, and costs. The analysis shows that all of
the evaluated NDT methods are comparable, and the chain-drag method is not more accurate and reliable
for detection of shallow delamination in the deck.

10.3 Use of Neutron Radiography and Tomography to Visualize the Autonomous
Crack Sealing Efficiency in Cementitious Materials
Author(s): Kim Van Tittelboom, Didier Snoeck, Peter Vontobel, Folker H. Wittmann, and Nele De Belie
Publication: Materials and Structures Journal
Abstract/Summary: Penetration of moisture into building materials is at the origin of several damage
mechanisms. In the case of cement-based materials crack formation is a common problem and highly
accelerates the ingress of water and aggressive substances. Crack repair may be needed, however, repair
works are expensive and in some cases cracks are even not accessible. Therefore, in this research we aim
at autonomous crack sealing. Upon crack appearance, damage is sealed autonomously by the release of
encapsulated agents. Visualization of the water uptake by means of neutron radiography for samples with
manually and autonomously sealed cracks showed that in both cases ingress of water into the crack can be
prevented depending on the type of agent. The efficiency of three different agents was examined and it
was shown that the use of polyurethane or a water repellent agent were most promising. Neutron
tomography scans demonstrated that poor results were obtained when encapsulated methyl methacrylate
was used, since one component of the agent hardened inside the capsules before crack appearance. From
the results we can conclude that autonomous sealing of cracks is feasible and that neutron radiography
and tomography are suitable non-destructive test techniques to visualize the autonomous crack sealing
efficiency.
10.4 Commissioning of Portable 950 keV/3.95 MeV X-band Linac X-Ray Sources for
On-Site Transmission Testing
Author(s): Mitsuru Ueaska, Ming Jin1,Wenjing Wu , Katsuhiro Dobashi, Takeshi Fujiwara,
Jyoichi Kusano, Naoki Nakamura, Masashi Yamamoto, Eiji Tanabe, Seiji Ohya, Yukiya Hattori,
and Itaru Miura
Publication: E-Journal of Advanced Maintenance
Abstract/Summary: Development of portable 950keV/3.95MeV X-band (9.3GHz) linac X-ray sources has
been almost successfully completed. Designed X-ray intensities of 0.05, 2 Gy/min at 1m have been
achieved. Those intensities have been established with the portable three/four boxes with 182/386 kg in
total, respectively, for the first time in the world. Equivalent commercial systems using S-band
(2.856GHz) 950keV/3 MeV linac X-ray sources weighs about 1.5/1.7 tons, respectively. We have
optimized the design with respect to the X-ray intensity, compactness and weight. By using the 950 keV
system, we can get transmission views of artificial exterior wall thinning defects of petrochemical pipe of
8 mm thick and 300 mm diameter by 1 sec using the Perkin Elmer X-ray camera in the experimental
room. By using a commercial 300 keV X-ray tube, the same transmission images are obtained by several
minutes by an Imaging Plate (IP). 3.95 MeV system also enables 1 sec transmission test for 400 mm thick
PC (Prestressed Concrete) bridge samples. By using 300 keV X-ray tube, it takes about one hour to get
the similar image by IP. We have already performed the first on-site inspection using the 950 keV system
at a certain chemical plant. The targets of the 950 keV system are chemical plants, petrochemical plants,
impeller of pumps, wastaged pipes and iron bridge while those of the 3.95 MeV system are PC-, RC
(Reinforced Concrete) - bridges. Partial CT technique and new X-ray detectors having better sensitivity
for harder X-rays than 100 keV are under development.

10.5 Non-Destructive Radiographic Evaluation and Repairs to Pre-Stressed
Structure Following Partial Collapse
Author(s): E. M. Reis and U. Dilek
Publication: 2012 ASCE Forensic Engineering Conference Proceedings
Publication Date: October-November 2012
Abstract/Summary: This article presents use of radiographic imaging (X-Ray) in evaluation of existing
reinforcing steel configuration of structures and development of steel retrofit and carbon fiber reinforced
polymer (CFRP) repairs. A collapse of the driving surface in a precast concrete parking deck prompted an
engineering evaluation and survey of the whole deck for damage assessment and repairs to distressed
members. Distress was identified in decking members and perimeter spandrel beams. Repairs to the
decking members involved supporting the distressed decking using supplemental steel brackets installed
through the double-tee stems containing pre-stressing tendons. The precise location of the tendons in the
stems needed to be identified to implement this repair in order not to damage the tendons during drilling.
Radiographic X-ray imaging in this application enabled locating and avoiding the tendons in the stems to
support and strengthen the decking member. The supplemental steel bracket also enabled continued
operation of an existing expansion joint in the area of repair. The same technique was also used to
identify steel reinforcement configuration in the spandrel beams exhibiting cracking at bearing locations
for evaluation of existing steel configuration and implementation of CFRP repairs.
10.6 Application of Thermal IR Imagery for Concrete Bridge Inspection

Author(s): Khatereh Vaghefi, Henrique A. de Melo e Silva, Devin K. Harris and Theresa M. Ahlborn
Publication:
Abstract/Summary: Detecting subsurface cracks and delaminations within concrete bridges has been
always a challenge for bridge inspectors and transportation authorities. This type of subsurface
deterioration can appear either on the bridge deck or girder; however, delaminated areas underneath the
bridge can be more critical as it raises safety issues for passing by traffic. Visual inspection, which is a
common practice technique for bridge condition evaluation, is not able to provide enough information of
internal defects and deteriorations. Although, recent developments in non-destructive techniques provide
bridge inspectors with advanced tools and methods for bridge inspection, most of these methods are either
expensive or difficult to apply.
Thermal Infrared imagery is a technology based on measuring the radiant temperature of an element, such
as a bridge deck. Subsurface delaminations and anomalies appear as hot spots on the thermal IR image
during the day as they interrupt the heat transfer through the concrete. In this way, delaminations can be
detected before turning to spalls on the bridge. Applying this technology can enhance the current bridge
inspection practice as well as providing useful information for maintenance and repair decision making.
The purpose of this paper is to review the recent developments in this field and to investigate the
feasibility of thermal IR application for regular bridge inspections.
10.7 Gamma-Ray Inspection of Post Tensioning Cables in a Concrete Bridge

Author(s): M. Pimentel, J. Figueiras, M. Mariscotti, P. Thieberger, L.M. Ruffolo and T. Frigerio
Publication: http://www.thasa.com/ANTECEDENTES/Edimburgo_2010.pdf

Abstract/Summary: Gamma-rays have been applied in an NDT campaign aimed at evaluating the
condition and the exact location of the internal post-tensioning cables of an existing box-girder concrete
bridge. Previous visual inspections to the bridge deck revealed systematic cracking patterns and localized
corrosion signs in the post-tensioning ducts. In this paper, the test logistics is described as well as the
main results that were obtained.
10.8 Environmental Effects on Subsurface Defect Detection in Concrete Structures

Using Infrared Thermography
Author(s): Naveen Kumar Bolleni
Publication: Master Thesis University of Missouri - Columbus
Publication Date: December 2009
Abstract/Summary: Deterioration of concrete due to corrosion of embedded steel reinforcing bars and
prestressing strands represent a significant challenge for inspection and maintenance engineers. Cracking,
delaminations and spalling that can occur as a result of corrosion of embedded reinforcing steel accelerate
bridge deterioration and lead to pot holes and even punch-through of concrete bridge decks. The typical
method for detecting delaminations is hammer sounding, which requires hands-on access to the material
under inspection. Specialized equipment and lane closures are frequently necessary to achieve the
required access. The application of infrared thermography to detect subsurface damage in concrete has the
potential to image delaminations from a distance, such that direct access to the surface of the concrete is
not required. Thermographic imaging relies on certain environmental conditions to create thermal
gradients in the concrete such that subsurface features can be detected. This thesis presents the results of
an investigation to determine necessary environmental conditions for the detection of subsurface damage
in concrete. To evaluate environmental effects, a large concrete test block has been constructed.
Embedded targets in the test block were used to model delaminations in concrete. Environmental factors
including wind speed, relative humidity, solar loading and variations in the ambient temperature have
been measured by a weather station located on-site with the block. The effects of these environmental
factors have been examined to determine their impact on the detectability of the subsurface targets.
Characteristics of optimum inspection conditions for utilizing infrared thermography in the field are
discussed.
10.9 Gamma-Ray Imaging for Void and Corrosion Assessment in PT Girders

Author(s): M.A.J Mariscotti, F. Jalinoos, T. Frigerio, M. Ruffolo and P. Thieberger
Publication: Concrete International
Abstract/Summary: As an extension of the reinforced concrete tomography technique, gamma rays have
been successfully applied for the assessment of voids and corrosion in concrete structures. In this paper,
some examples are given that illustrate the advantages of using this technique, especially in the case of PT
girders. Results obtained in the Zrate bridge in Argentina are discussed in some detail.
10.10 Evaluation of Radar and Complementary Echo Methods for NDT of Concrete
Elements
Author(s): Christiane Maierhofer, Gerhard Zacher, Christoph Kohl, and Jens Wstmann
Publication: Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation

engineering. This paper presents the results of systematic measurements carried out in the laboratory at
BAM and on-site at several bridges using reconstructed and fused radar and ultrasonic echo data sets. For
investigating the influence of concrete mixture, radar and ultrasonic measurements were performed at test
specimens consisting of concrete mixtures with different pore content and distribution as well as with
steel fibres. Further, it is demonstrated how the fusion of data sets recorded with different methods at the
same structure (here: concrete bridges) enhances the information content in the fused data set. Different
approaches for data fusion algorithms are discussed. The results of these investigations show the high
of large data sets measured with impulse-echo methods. The presented results are based on the research
project FOR384 funded by the DFG (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft).
10.11 Thermographic Crack Detection by Eddy Current Excitation

Author(s): G. Zenzinger, J. Bamberg, W. Satzger, and V. Carl
Publication: Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation Journal
Publication Date: June-September 2007
Abstract/Summary: Eddy current thermography is a new NDT-technique for the detection of cracks in
electroconductive materials. It combines the well established inspection techniques eddy current testing
and thermography. The advantage of this method is to use the high performance of eddy current testing
without the known problem of the edge effect. Especially for components of complex geometry this is an
important factor which may overcome the increased expense for inspection set-up. The principle of this
technique and an algorithm to increase the sensitivity for small defects are described. Some inspection
examples on aero engines parts are presented which show the potential of eddy current thermography.
10.12 Results of Reconstructed and Fused NDT Data Measured in the Laboratory and
On-Site Bridges
Author(s): Chrisoph Kohl and Doreen Streicher
Publication: Cement and Concrete Composites
engineering. This paper presents the results of measurements carried out in the laboratory at BAM and
on-site at several bridges using reconstructed and fused radar and ultrasonic echo data sets. In this context
different scanning systems, developed for the on-site application of NDT-methods (e.g. reinforced
concrete bridges) are introduced. The main object was the demonstration of the improved effectiveness of
radar and ultrasonic pulse echo technique due to the automated measurements and the application of new
software for the data processing and data visualization. The results of these measurements show the high
of large data sets measured with impulse-echo methods.
10.13 Time-Domain Reflectometry to Detect Voids in Posttensioning Ducts

Author(s): Jian Li, Laura Akl, Robert Hunsperger, Wei Liu, Michael Chajes and Eric Kunz
Abstract/Summary: Because incompletely grouted posttensioned ducts result in voids, the steel strands are
vulnerable to premature corrosion. This paper describes a nondestructive evaluation (NDE) procedure that

allows bridge owners to ensure that posttensioned ducts are properly grouted (i.e., have no voids). The
NDE procedure uses time-domain reflectometry (TDR), a technique developed by electrical engineers for
locating discontinuities in transmission lines. TDR involves sending a signal created by a step-pulse
generator through a transmission line, determining whether the signal is reflected back, and, if it is
reflected back, using the elapsed time to determine the location of the discontinuity. Prior research funded
by the Delaware Department of Transportation and the National Science Foundation has shown that TDR
can be used to detect corrosion on strands and can be implemented in the field. To detect and evaluate
voids, the transmission line is placed either in or adjacent to the region where a void is suspected. The
presence of a void affects the electric field surrounding the transmission line and causes a distinct
reflection. Data are presented to show the measurement of both the relative size and the position of voids.
The effects of environmental conditions, such as moisture content, temperature, and material contained in
the void (e.g., corrosion products), also are reported.
10.14 Ultrasonic C-Scan Imaging of Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridge Structures for

Detection of Corrosion and Voids
Author(s): Shivprakash Iyer, Sunil K. Sinha and Andrea J. Schokker
Publication: Journal of Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering
Abstract/Summary: Corrosion of the nations transportation infrastructure is a widespread and costly
problem. Efficiency, durability, safety, and environmental concerns have made the inspection and
structural assessment of these structures a vital issue. The current state of the art in concrete bridge
condition evaluation relies on visual inspection. However, deterioration in pre-stressing/post-tensioned
strand or tendon condition is not always reflected by distress visible on the concrete surface. Further, the
effect of deterioration of pre-stressing/post-tensioned steel is more disruptive than that of mild
reinforcement. Strand, due to its high mechanical strength and metallurgical characteristics, is smaller in
cross section than conventional reinforcing steel and is proportionally more impaired by loss of section.
Methodology for prestressed concrete bridge condition evaluation, therefore, could be revolutionized
through the development of accurate, quantitative nondestructive test methods for strand in pre-tensioned
and post-tensioned structures. This article presents a new sensing method using ultrasound C-scan
imaging for structural health monitoring of posttensioned bridges. Preliminary results from tests are
presented that show promising potential for the detection of corrosion and voids in concrete post-
tensioned bridges.
10.15 Progress in Ultrasonic Imaging of Concrete

Author(s): Martin Schickert
Publication: Materials and Structures
Abstract/Summary: Among present non-destructive methods for concrete evaluation, ultrasonic testing
uses relatively short wavelengths and therefore has particular potential for detailed assessment of
concrete. Methods like SAFT (Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique) and tomographic reconstruction
are able to provide high-resolution images of concrete areas, which can be employed for tasks such as
area imaging, duct localization, fault detection, and thickness measurement. This contribution is intended
to give insight into some of the principles and possibilities of ultrasonic concrete imaging using SAFT
and tomographic reconstruction. It thereby reviews progress that has been achieved at the author's
institute during the last years. For SAFT reconstruction, the processing steps are explained that are
necessary to obtain an image that is easy to interpret, including the influence of transducers, their

coupling, and image noise suppression. Quantitative evaluation of ultrasonic images enables the
examination of tendon ducts for voids and the objective assessment of image quality. A field example
demonstrates the possibilities of SAFT reconstruction. In a separate section, ultrasonic tomography is
shown to have the capability to detect faults such as honeycombing in concrete pillars. Finally, the
potential of ultrasonic imaging and remaining steps necessary to open broad practical application are
described.
10.16 Recent Research in Nondestructive Evaluation of Civil Infrastructures

Author(s): Peter C. Chang and S. Chi Liu
Abstract/Summary: Assessing the condition of a structure is necessary to determine its safety and
reliability. Ideally, structural health monitoring should be similar to medical health monitoring of the
body. In medical health monitoring, the life signs such as pulse and blood pressure give an overall
indication of the overall health of the body. This is analogous to global structural health monitoring, in
which damage to the structure can be identified by measuring changes in the global properties of the
structure. Once the body signs show an anomaly, we do a battery of tests to determine the cause of the
anomaly. Analogously in structural health monitoring, nondestructive evaluation (NDE) can be used to
determine the nature of the damage. NDE methods to determine local damage are also becoming more
accepted in practice. This paper describes some of the recent and current National Science Foundation
projects in this area of research. Promising areas for NDE are identified.
10.17 Detecting Corrosion in Existing Structures Using Time Domain Reflectometry

Author(s): Robert G. Hunsperger, Jian Li, Wei Liu and Michael J. Chajes
Publication: Delaware Center for Transportation
Abstract/Summary: The effectiveness of corrosion evaluation of steel strands using time domain
reflectometry (TDR) has been established both theoretically and experimentally in our previous work. A
two-wire transmission line model has been established. The relationship between model geometry and
impedance has been under thorough investigation and corresponding experimental results have been
obtained. These results have proved its feasibility. TDR instrumentation has been successfully installed
in a newly built bridge and periodic data are being collected and studied. It has been proved that for a
new structure, if a sensor wire is applied along side the strand/rebar in the process of construction, the
future corrosion that could occur on the strand/rebar can be effectively detected and the damage to the
strand can be estimated.
However detecting corrosion in existing structures, in which sensor wires were not applied when the
structures were built, is more difficult. External detection methods must be employed instead of internal
methods. The theory of time domain reflectometry still applies, but factors such as the non-existence of
built-in sensor wires, the presence of concrete layers (which are strong dielectrics and contain non-
uniformities) and the distance from the strand to the sensor wire must be considered. They begin to exert
strong influence on the TDR results and methods of distinguishing and evaluating their effects have to be
found.
This project titled Detecting Corrosion in Existing Structures Using Time Domain Reflectometry has
been directed at solving these problems. Possible geometries that can be applied to externally detect steel
corrosion have been thoroughly studied during the project period.

Besides external steel strand corrosion detection, voids are another issue. It is believed that steel strands
buried in concrete structures are inclined to incur corrosion in voids where moisture is easily gathered and
thus steel is more vulnerable to corrosion. Corrosion will have less chance to happen if voids are detected
and a remedy implemented in time. In this project, void detection and the influence of voids on the
observed signal of corrosion were studied. Different void and corrosion combinations and the effect of
different void contents have been evaluated.
10.18 Ultrasonic C-scan Imaging: Preliminary Evaluation for Corrosion and Void
Detection in Posttensioned Tendons
Author(s): Shivprakash Iyer, Andrea J. Schokker and Sunil K. Sinha
Abstract/Summary: Corrosion of the nations transportation infrastructure is a widespread and costly
problem. The most prevalent durability issue in reinforced concrete structures is chloride-induced
corrosion of the reinforcing steel. A reliable method of determining grout voids and corrosion levels in
posttensioned bridge structures is needed. Traditional techniques of corrosion monitoring (e.g., half-cell
potential and corrosion rate measurement) are problematic when used in this type of structure, as are
standard nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods, such as impact echo. C-scan imaging, an ultrasonic
technique used primarily in the composites industry for detecting delamination, is examined as a method
of evaluating grouted posttensioned tendons. This method exhibits many promising qualities: it can be
used for internal or external tendons and on metal or plastic ducts; access to only one side of a specimen
is required; strong imaging allows easy interpretation of results; the technique poses no risk to users or the
environment; and the method has strong potential for development as a handheld field tool. The C-scan
technique may be valuable for the investigation of not only posttensioning applications but other types of
reinforced concrete structures as well. Results of preliminary investigations on lab specimens indicate that
the C-scan technique holds promise. The ultimate goal of the research is to provide a user-friendly, robust
system for the NDE of posttensioned tendons for voids, corrosion, and wire breaks. Recommendations for
optimal acquisition and processing techniques as well as for the future development of the equipment as a
field tool are proposed.
10.19 Time Domain Reflectometry for Void Detection in Grouted Posttensioned

Bridges
Author(s): Michael Chajes, Robert Hunsperger, Wei Liu, Jian Li and Eric Kunz
Publication: Transportation Research Record 1845
Abstract/Summary: The presence of voids is a serious problem in grouted posttensioned bridges because
voids greatly reduce the corrosion-protective capabilities of the grout. Current methods for void detection
suffer several significant drawbacks. A new method utilizing time domain reflectometry (TDR) is
discussed. TDR is a well-developed method for detecting discontinuities in electrical transmission lines.
A recent study has indicated that TDR can be used as an effective nondestructive damage detection
method for concrete bridges. A void changes the electrical properties of transmission lines and therefore
introduces electrical discontinuities. It can be detected and analyzed by TDR. Experiments on short
specimens that are used to model grouted posttensioning ducts with built-in voids have been conducted
and demonstrate the potential of TDR as a void detection method.

10.20 Use of the Megascan Imaging Process in Inspection Systems for Post
Tensioned Bridges and Other Major Structures
Author(s): Kevin Brown and John St. Leger
Publication: Proceedings NDT-CE
Abstract/Summary: The long-term safety, durability and performance of bridge structures mainly depend
upon good detail design, the quality of materials used and the standard of workmanship achieved on site.
Unfortunately, defects do occur in structures for a wide variety of reasons, ranging from poor detailing to
a lack of maintenance. The investigation and assessment of defects is a demanding task which in many
cases requires the use of experienced staff, supported where necessary by specialist inspection techniques.
One such specialist inspection technique is the MegaScanTM Imaging Capture System, which is a capable
radiographic non-destructive testing (NDT) process. MegaScanTM Imaging has been successfully
employed in the investigation of various components within a diverse range of structures. Major
improvement and development work carried out during the past five years have contributed to this
success by yielding significant improvements both in system safety and imaging techniques.
10.21 Non-Contact Ultrasonic Imagining for Post-Tensioned Bridges to Investigate

Corrosion and Void Status
Author(s): Sunil K. Sinha, Andrea J. Schokker and Shivprakash R. Iyer
Publication: Proceedings of IEEE Sensors
Abstract/Summary: Corrosion of the nations transportation infrastnrcture is a widespread and costly
problem. Recent corrosion problem in post-tensioned bridge structures (Figure I ) have increased the need
for a reliable method for determining grout voids and level of corrosion in post-tensioned tendons.
Corrosion monitoring techniques such as half-cell potential and corrosion rate measurements face
problems when used in this type of structure and standard NDE (nondestructive evaluation) methods such
as impact-echo have also encountered problems. This study begins the evaluation of a method called C-
Scan ultrasonic imaging to evaluate grouted post-tensioned tendons. While this paper focuses on post-
tensioning applications, the C-Scan technique may be valuable for investigation of any type of reinforced
concrete structure
10.22 Experiments to Relate Acoustic Emission Energy to Fracture Energy of

Concrete
Author(s): Eric N. Landis and Lucie Bailon
Publication: Journal of Engineering Mechanics
Abstract/Summary: Acoustic emission (AE) was used to measure energy associated with fracture of
standard concrete test specimens. The goal of the work was to identify ways in which AE could be used to
quantify damage in generic laboratory structures for the purpose of tuning damage models. A series of
mortar and concrete specimens of different compositions were tested for fracture energy Gf , while
simultaneously being monitored for acoustic emission energy release. Reasonable correlation between the
two quantities was observed for fine-grained specimens, however the relationship was not as good for
coarse-grained specimens. Toughening mechanisms such as friction are suggested as being responsible
for the poor relationship observed in the course-grained materials. It is further suggested that AE energy

release can be related to actual crack formation energy but not to friction and other internal energy
dissipation or toughening mechanisms.
10.23 Corrosion Detection of Steel Cables Using Time Domain Reflectometry

Author(s): Wei Liu, Robert G. Hunsperger, Michael J. Chajes, Kevin J. Folliard and Eric Kunz
Publication: Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Abstract/Summary: Corrosion of steel cables and reinforcing steel in concrete structures is a major cause
of structural deterioration. The current methods for corrosion detection suffer from several significant
drawbacks. In this paper, a nondestructive evaluation technique is developed that is capable of
determining the location and severity of corrosion of embedded or encased steel rebar and cables. This
technique utilizes time domain reflectometry (TDR), which has been traditionally used to detect electrical
discontinuities in transmission lines. By installing a sensor wire alongside the steel reinforcement, the
reinforcement can be modeled as an asymmetric, twin-conductor transmission line. Physical defects of the
reinforcement, such as abrupt pitting corrosion, general surface corrosion, and grouting voids, will change
the electromagnetic properties of the line. They can be modeled analytically, and identified using TDR.
TDR measurement results from several fabricated bridge cable sections with built-in defects are reported.
Based on the initial results, the TDR corrosion detection method has proven to be more robust than the
existing methods, because it allows one to detect, locate, and identify the extent of corrosion damage.
10.24 The Impact-Echo Method: An Overview

Author(s): Nicholas J. Carino
Publication: 2001 Structures Congress and Exposition Proceedings
Abstract/Summary: The impact-echo method is a technique for flaw detection in concrete. It is based on
monitoring the surface motion resulting from a short-duration mechanical impact. The method overcomes
many of the barriers associated with flaw detection in concrete based on ultrasonic methods. The purpose
of this paper is to provide an overview of the technique and to discuss the important parameters involved
in this type of testing. One of the key features of the method is the transformation of the recorded time
domain waveform of the surface motion into the frequency domain. The impact gives rise to modes of
vibration and the frequency of these modes is related to the geometry of the test object and the presence
of flaws. The principles involved in frequency analysis are discussed. The importance of the impact
duration in relation to flaw detection and other factors affecting the smallest flaw that can be detected are
also reviewed. The paper concludes with a summary of the ASTM standard governing the use of the
impact-echo method for measuring the thickness of plate-like structures.
10.25 Accuracy of NDE in Bridge Assessment

Author(s): Julia Martin, Michael S.A. Hardy, Asif S. Usmani and Michael C. Forde
Publication: Engineering Structures
Abstract/Summary: NDE has a key role in helping to evaluate input parameters to bridge management
systems. As the worlds bridge stock increases in age, there is considerable interest in maintaining and
extending the life of existing bridges, and hence the interest in bridge management systems. A range of
NDE methods have been identified and the accuracy of the time domain techniques has been related to
signal wavelength. Using the widely accepted criterion of a minimum resolution related to wavelength,

the techniques of ultrasonics and impact echo have been analyzed in detail. The latter has been
investigated with respect to post-tensioned concrete bridge beams. It was concluded that the minimum
resolution achievable in a dispersive medium such as concrete was a half wavelength, l/2. It was also
shown that the concept of using a null hypothesis with impact echo stating that: if no defect is identified,
none exists is fundamentally flawed.
10.26 Detecting Faults in Posttensioning Ducts by Electrical Time-Domain

Reflectometry
Author(s): E.I. Okanla, P.A. Gaydecki, S. Manaf and F.M. Burdekin
Publication: Journal of Structural Engineering
Abstract/Summary: A series of laboratory-based experiments is described in which an electrical time
domain reflectometry (EIDR) system is used to locate, identify, and size a number of different artificial
voids and wet sections in ducts filled with sand and containing a variety of steel cables. The echo
waveforms were digitized using an EIDR instrumentation system and the signals passed to a computer for
storage and processing. Data analysis using simple regression techniques, in conjunction with simple
transmission line theory, suggests that a system based on the same principles could be used to identify
and size similar voids in posttensioning ducts used to carry prestressing cables in load-bearing concrete
structures such as bridges, retaining walls, and load-bearing platforms. Although considerably more
research into the usefulness of this technique is required, initial results suggest that EIDR sensors,
incorporated into the ductwork at the construction phase, may lead to the development of self-monitoring
or so-called smart structures.
10.27 Non-Destructive Examination of Corroded Concrete Structures using

Radiography
Author(s): K. Saravanan, S. Srinivasan, V. Kapali, U. Nayak, R.H. Suresh Bapu, A. Madhavamayandi,
R.M. Kalyanasundaram, N.S. Rengaswamy, and K. Balakrishnan
Publication: Bulletin of Electrochemistry
Publication Date: January-February 1996
Abstract/Summary: Concrete deterioration and reinforcement corrosion occur due to many reasons.
These two factors weaken the structural strength and result in the premature failure of the structures
situated in aggressive environments. The condition of the concrete as well as rebar embedded in it has to
be assessed before taking up any remedial or repair strategy. Several electrochemical non-destructive
techniques are available for this purpose. Some of them lead to indirect conclusions and some lead to
partial quantification of corrosion. Radiographic technique is one of the promising non-destructive
methods for determining the porosity of concrete, voids in the cement grout, rusting of mild steel, rusting
of prestressing steel and snapping of prestressing wires. Laboratory and field experiments were carried
out on model slabs, beams and concrete structures to study the various aspects of concrete corrosion. A 6
MeV high energy X-ray equipment was used for this purpose. Concrete thickness up to 30 cm was
radiographed. Suitable safety measures were undertaken while carrying out the above work. The data
obtained during this radiographic work and the X-ray photographs were analysed as per requisities of
photogrammetric data analysis and results are presented in this paper. This pioneering work has yielded
very interesting and useful results regarding the quality of concrete and grouting, condition of prestressing
wires and other non-prestressed steel.

10.28 Using Emissivity-Corrected Thermal Maps to Locate Deep Structural Defects in
Concrete Bridge Decks
Author(s): Nancy K. Del Grande and Phillip Durbin
Publication: SPIE Nondestructive Evaluation of Aging Bridges and Highways
Abstract/Summary: Dual-band infrared (DBIR) thermal imaging is a promising, non-contact,
nondestructive evaluation tool to evaluate the amount of deteriorated concrete on asphalt-covered bridge
decks. We conducted proof-of-principle demonstrations to characterize defects in concrete structures
which could be detected with DBIR thermal imaging. We constructed two identical concrete slabs with
synthetic delaminations, e.g., 1/8-in thick stryrofoam squares, implanted just above the 2-in. deep steel
reinforcement bars. We covered one of the slabs with a 2-in layer of asphalt. We mounted the DBIR
cameras on a tower platform, to simulate the optics needed to conduct bridge-deck inspections from a
moving vehicle. We detected 4-in, implants embedded in concrete and 9-in. implants embedded in
asphalt-covered concrete. The midday (above-ambient) and predawn (below-ambient) delamination-site
temperatures correlated with the implant sizes. Using DBIR image ratios, we enhanced thermal-contrast
and removed emissivity-noise, e.g., from concrete compositional variations and clutter. Using the
LLNL/VIEW code, we removed the asphalt thermal-gradient mask, to depict the 4-in. deep, 9-in. square,
concrete implant site. We plan to image bridge deck defects, from a moving vehicle, for accurate
estimations of the amount of deteriorated concrete impairing the deck integrity. Potential longterm
benefits are affordable and reliable rehabilitation for asphalt-covered decks.
10.29 Imaging of Reinforced Concrete: State-of-the-Art Review

Author(s): Genevieve F. Pla-Rucki and Marc O. Eberhard
Publication: Journal of Infrastructure Systems
Abstract/Summary: Nondestructive evaluation plays an important role in the assessment of the nation's
infrastructure. The evaluation methods for reinforced and prestressed concrete facilities can become more
reliable if the methods incorporate imaging technology, which has been implemented widely in many
fields. Radiography, ground penetrating radar (in B-scan mode) and infrared thermography have
established themselves in civil engineering practice. They are used to nondestructively locate steel
reinforcement and concrete flaws, such as delaminations, cracks and honeycombing. This paper discusses
the principles of these established methods, as well as their advantages and disadvantages. Radioactive
computed tomography, microwave holography, microwave tomography and acoustic tomography are in
various stages of development. This paper summarizes the basis for each new method and the results of
recent research. It also discusses the potential advantages of the new methods and the barriers to their
implementation in civil engineering applications. Examples of images obtained with each technology are
provided.
10.30 Principles of Thermography and Radar for Bridge Deck Assessment

Author(s): Kenneth R. Maser and W.M. Roddis
Publication: Journal of Transportation Engineering
Abstract/Summary: Traditional methods of bridge deck condition assessment are slow, labor-intensive,
intrusive to traffic, and unreliable. Two new technologies, radar and infrared thermography, which have
recently been introduced, show promise for producing rapid and accurate condition assessment for bridge

decks. These technologies are being applied without the benefit of a firm physical understanding of their
inherent capabilities and limitations. This paper discusses the physical principles upon which these
techniques are based, and proposes simple physical models for the prediction of radar and infrared
response to various bridge deck conditions. Parameter studies are carried out using these models to
predict the radar and infrared response to moisture, chloride, delamination, and deck geometry. The
model study results show the range of sensitivity and the inherent limitations of these two techniques.
These results have led to the suggestion of a predictive technique that has been used in field studies of
repaired and rehabilitated asphalt-overlaid decks. This technique has been shown to predict the area of
deterioration to within 5% of total deck area.
10.31 Automated NDE of PT Concrete Structures

Author(s): H. Wiggenhauser, D. Streicher and M. Friese
Publication:http://www.germann.org/Publications/Sevilla/Automated%20NDE%20of%20PT%20concret
e%20structures,%20Wiggenhauser.pdf
Publication Date: Unknown
Abstract/Summary: Non-destructive testing (NDT) of post-tensioned concrete structures is both
challenging and complex. Locating areas in tendons without corrosion protection (un-grouted) is
technically difficult. Typically, Bridges are large structures, any testing of the complete surface with point
test methods can only be done with automated systems. At present there are acoustic and electromagnetic
methods which cover a large area of application and which can be used complementarily. But in most
cases, only one method is applied to solve a distinct problem. In this contribution, results will be
presented based on the investigation of internal structure of post-tensioned concrete bridges with three
different NDT methods. Measurements with radar, ultrasonic echo and impact-echo were carried out on
three bridges in Germany and Austria. Furthermore different scanning systems, developed at BAM, were
applied. The main object was the demonstration of the improved effectiveness of radar, impact-echo and
ultrasonic echo due to the automated measurements and the application of new software for the data
processing and data visualization. A new ultrasonic device with real-time imaging capabilities allows
detailed measurements in smaller areas without special scanning devices.

11 Sensor Networks and Damage Detection
11.1 Automatic Delamination Detection of Concrete Bridge Decks Using Impact

Signals
Author(s): Gang Zhang, Ronald S. Harichandran, and Pradeep Ramuhalli
Publication: ASCE Journal of Bridge Engineering
Publication Date: November/December 2012
Abstract/Summary: Delamination of the concrete cover above the upper reinforcing bars is a common
problem in concrete bridge decks. Acoustic nondestructive evaluation is widely used to detect such
delamination because of its low cost, fast speed, and ease of implementation. The accuracy of traditional
acoustic approaches is dependent on the level of ambient noise, and the detection process is highly
subjective. An automatic impact-based delamination detection (AIDD) system is described in this paper.
In this system, the traffic noise is eliminated by a modified version of independent component analysis.
Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients are then used as features for detection to eliminate subjectivity. The
delamination detection is performed by a radial basis function neural network. The AIDD system was
developed using mixed-language programming in MATLAB, LabVIEW, and C11. The performance of
the system was evaluated using data from two bridges, and the results were satisfactory.
11.2 Autoregressive Statistical Pattern Recognition Algorithms for Damage

Detection in Civil Structures
Author(s): Ruigen Yao and Shamim N. Pakzad
Publication: Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing
Publication Date: August 2012
Abstract/Summary: Statistical pattern recognition has recently emerged as a promising set of
complementary methods to system identification for automatic structural damage assessment. Its essence
is to use well-known concepts in statistics for boundary definition of different pattern classes, such as
those for damaged and undamaged structures. In this paper, several statistical pattern recognition
algorithms using autoregressive models, including statistical control charts and hypothesis testing, are
reviewed as potentially competitive damage detection techniques. To enhance the performance of
statistical methods, new feature extraction techniques using model spectra and residual autocorrelation,
together with resampling-based threshold construction methods, are proposed. Subsequently, simulated
acceleration data from a multi degree-of-freedom system is generated to test and compare the efficiency
of the existing and proposed algorithms. Data from laboratory experiments conducted on a truss and a
large-scale bridge slab model are then used to further validate the damage detection methods and
demonstrate the superior performance of proposed algorithms.
11.3 Procedures for Fatigue Crack Growth Monitoring and Fatigue Life Prediction
Using Acoustic Emission Data and Neural Networks
Author(s): F.F. Barsoum, E.v.K. Hill, Y. Zhang, A. Korcak, and J. Suleman
Abstract/Summary: This research applied the nondestructive testing (NDT) technique of acoustic
emission (AE) to monitor fatigue cracking in steel structures and utilized artificial neural networks

(ANNs) for fatigue life prediction. The neural network classification network known as a Kohonen self
organizing map (SOM) was first used to classify the AE data into the different source mechanisms
occurring during fatigue cracking. This research developed methodologies for placing sensors, collecting
acoustic emission data and eliminating noise from the raw data. The ultimate goal of this research was to
monitor for steel fatigue cracking and accurately predict remaining fatigue lives using AE flaw growth
data and back propagation neural networks (BPNNs). The procedures for doing so are presented herein.
11.4 Time Series: Theory and Methods (2nd Edition)

Author(s): Peter J. Brockwell and Richard A. Davis
Publication: Springer
11.5 Discrete Wavelet Transform to Improve Guided-Wave-Based Health Monitoring

of Tendons and Cables
Author(s): Piervincenzo Rizzo and Francesco Lanza di Scalea
Publication: Smart Structures and Materials 2004 Conference Proceedings
Abstract/Summary: Multi-wire steel strands are used in civil structures as pre-stressing tendons in
prestressed concrete and as stay-cables in cable-stayed and suspension bridges. Monitoring the structural
performance of these components is important to ensure the proper functioning and safety of the entire
structure. Among the various NDE techniques that are under investigation for monitoring tendons and
cables, the use of ultrasonic guided waves shows good promises. The main advantage of this approach is
the possibility for the simultaneous monitoring of loads and detection of defects, such as corrosion and
broken wires, by using the same ultrasonic setup. Load monitoring is achieved by measuring the travel
time of the wave across a given length of the cable. Defect detection is achieved by measuring the
reflections of the wave from the geometrical discontinuities. In this paper we present the enhancement on
defect detection by implementing the Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) as a data post-processing tool.
The data de-noising and data compression abilities of the DWT allow for greater sensitivity, larger ranges
and higher monitoring speed. It is shown that the implementation of the DWT in the ultrasonic guided-
wave technique becomes necessary for monitoring tendons and cables in the field.
11.6 Pattern Recognition Techniques for the Emerging Field of Bioinformatics: A

Review
Author(s): Alan Wee-Chung Liew, Hong Yan and Mengsu Yang
Publication: Pattern Recognition
Abstract/Summary: The emerging field of bioinformatics has recently created much interest in the
computer science and engineering communities. With the wealth of sequence data in many public online
databases and the huge amount of data generated from the Human Genome Project, computer analysis has
become indispensable. This calls for novel algorithms and opens up new areas of applications for many
pattern recognition techniques. In this article, we review two major avenues of research in bioinformatics,
namely DNA sequence analysis and DNA microarray data analysis. In DNA sequence analysis, we focus
on the topics of sequence comparison and gene recognition. For DNA microarray data analysis, we
discuss key issues such as image analysis for gene expression data extraction, data pre-processing,

clustering analysis for pattern discovery and gene expression time series data analysis. We describe
current methods and show how computational techniques could be useful in these areas. It is our hope that
this review article could demonstrate how the pattern recognition community could have an impact on the
fascinating and challenging area of genomic research.
11.7 Introduction to Time Series and Forecasting (2nd Edition)

Author(s): Peter J. Brockwell and Richard A. Davis
Publication: Taylor & Francis US
11.8 Resampling Methods: A Practical Guide to Data Analysis

Author(s): Phillip Good
11.9 Parameter Estimation and Hypothesis Testing in Linear Models

Author(s): Karl-Rudolf Koch
11.10 Large-Scale Simulation Studies in Image Pattern Recognition

Author(s): Tin Kam Ho and Henry S. Baird
Publication: IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
Abstract/Summary: Many obstacles to progress in image pattern recognition result from the fact that per-
class distributions are often too irregular to be well-approximated by simple analytical functions.
Simulation studies offer one way to circumvent these obstacles. We present three closely related studies
of machine-printed character recognition that rely on synthetic data generated pseudorandomly in
accordance with an explicit stochastic model of document image degradations. The unusually large scale
of experiments involving several million samplesthat this methodology makes possible has allowed
us to compute sharp estimates of the intrinsic difficulty (Bayes risk) of concrete image recognition
problems, as well as the asymptotic accuracy and domain of competency of classifiers.
11.11 The Jackknife and Bootstrap

Author(s): J, Shao and D. Tu
Publication: Springer-Verlag

11.12 Document Analysis- From Pixels to Contents
Author(s): Jurgen Schurmann, Norbert Bartneck, Thomas Bayer, Jurgen Franke, Eberhard Mandler and
Matthias Oberlander
Publication: Proceedings of the IEEE
Abstract/Summary: The paper presents the conceptual framework for solving the task of document
analysis, which, in essence, consists in the conversion of the documents pixel representation into an
equivalent knowledge network representation holding the documents content and layout. The overall
system is structured into several levels of abstraction. Starting on the pixel level, the formation of
elementary geometric objects is described on which layout analysis as well as the definition of character
objects is based. Character recognition accomplishes the mapping from geometric object to character
meaning in ASCII representation, On the subsequent level of abstraction words are formed and verified
by contextual processing. Modeled knowledge about complete documents and about how their
constituents are related to the application form the highest level of abstraction. The various problems
arising at each stage are discussed. The dependencies between the different levels are exemplified and
technical solutions put forward.
11.13 Continuous Speech Recognition by Statistical Methods

Author(s): Frederick Jelinek
Publication: Proceedings of the IEEE
Abstract/Summary: Statistical methods useful in automatic recognition of continuous speech are
described. They concern modeling of a speaker and of an acoustic processor, extraction of the models
statistical parameters, and hypothesis search procedures and likelihood computations of linguistic
decoding. Experimental results are presented that indicate the power of the methods.

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Federal Highway Administration Project

Designing and Detailing Post Tensioned Bridges to Accommodate Non-

ATLSS REPORT NO. 14-01

ATLSS is a National Center for Engineering Research

117 ATLSS Drive

Phone: (610)758-3525 www.atlss.lehigh.edu

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2.1 Post-Tensioned Bridge Construction

2.1.1 Cast-in-Place Bridges on Falsework

Figure 2.1: Cast-in-place post-tensioned construction in California

ATLSS Report 14-01 FHWA Subtask 11.1 Page 2

Figure 2.2: Post-tensioned bulb-T girder fabrication and installation

2.1.3 Segmental Box Girder Bridges

2.1.3.1 Precast Segmental Balanced Cantilever Bridges

ATLSS Report 14-01 FHWA Subtask 11.1 Page 3

2.1.3.2 Cast-in-Place Segmental Balanced Cantilever Bridges

Figure 2.4: Cast-in-Place segmental construction using form travelers

ATLSS Report 14-01 FHWA Subtask 11.1 Page 4

Figure 2.5: Span-by-span construction

Figure 2.6: Typical span post-tensioning for span-by-span construction

2.1.4 Transverse Top Slab Post-Tensioning

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Figure 2.7: Transverse post-tensioning in the top slab of box girder

2.1.5 Post-Tensioning of Substructures

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2.2 Post-Tensioned Components

2.2.1.1 Basic Bearing Plate Systems

Figure 2.9: Basic bearing plate anchorage system

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Figure 2.10: Multi-plane anchorage system and confinement reinforcement

2.2.1.3 Post-Tensioning Bar Anchor Systems

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2.2.2.1 Corrugated Steel

Figure 2.13: Corrugated metal duct

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2.2.2.3 Corrugated Plastic

Figure 2.14: Corrugated plastic duct

2.2.3 Permanent Grout Caps

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2.2.4 Prestressing Strand

Figure 2.16 7-Wire Prestressing Strand (www.amspringwire.com)

2.2.5 Post-Tensioning Bars

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2.3 Damage Conditions Observed in PT Tendons

2.3.1 Corrosion Along the Length of Internal Tendons

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2.3.2 Cantilever Tendon Corrosion through Segment Joints

3.3.3 External Tendon Failure by Corrosion at the Anchorages

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Figure 2.20: Corrosion of strands just behind the wedge plate

3.3.4 External Tendon Corrosion along the Free Length of Tendon