LTE CA: Carrier Aggregation Tutorial

- 4G LTE Advanced CA, carrier aggregation or channel aggregation enables

multiple LTE carriers to be used together to provide the high data rates
required for 4G LTE Advanced.
4G LTE ADVANCED INCLUDES:

LTE Advanced Tutorial

Carrier Aggregation

Coordinated Multipoint - CoMP

LTE Relay

LTE D2D

LTE HetNet
See also

3G LTE

LTE Advanced offers considerably higher data rates than even the initial releases of LTE. While the
spectrum usage efficiency has been improved, this alone cannot provide the required data rates that
are being headlined for 4G LTE Advanced.

To achieve these very high data rates it is necessary to increase the transmission bandwidths over
those that can be supported by a single carrier or channel. The method being proposed is termed
carrier aggregation, CA, or sometimes channel aggregation. Using LTE Advanced carrier
aggregation, it is possible to utilise more than one carrier and in this way increase the overall
transmission bandwidth.

These channels or carriers may be in contiguous elements of the spectrum, or they may be in
different bands.

Spectrum availability is a key issue for 4G LTE. In many areas only small bands are available, often
as small as 10 MHz. As a result carrier aggregation over more than one band is contained within the
specification, although it does present some technical challenges.

Carrier aggregation is supported by both formats of LTE, namely the FDD and TDD variants. This
ensures that both FDD LTE and TDD LTE are able to meet the high data throughput requirements
placed upon them.
LTE carrier aggregation basics
The target figures for data throughput in the downlink is 1 Gbps for 4G LTE Advanced. Even with the
improvements in spectral efficiency it is not possible to provide the required headline data
throughput rates within the maximum 20 MHz channel. The only way to achieve the higher data
rates is to increase the overall bandwidth used. IMT Advanced sets the upper limit at 100 MHz, but
with an expectation of 40 MHz being used for minimum performance. For the future it is possible the
top limit of 100 MHz could be extended.

It is well understood that spectrum is a valuable commodity, and it takes time to re-assign it from one
use to another in view - the cost of forcing users to move is huge as new equipment needs to be
bought. Accordingly as sections of the spectrum fall out of use, they can be re-assigned. This leads
to significant levels of fragmentation.

To an LTE terminal, each component carrier appears as an LTE carrier, while an LTE-Advanced
terminal can exploit the total aggregated bandwidth.

RF aspects of carrier aggregation

There are a number of ways in which LTE carriers can be aggregated:

Types of LTE carrier aggregation

Intra-band: This form of carrier aggregation uses a single band. There are two main
formats for this type of carrier aggregation:
 o Contiguous: The Intra-band contiguous carrier aggregation is the easiest form of
LTE carrier aggregation to implement. Here the carriers are adjacent to each other.

Contiguous aggregation of two uplink component carriers

The aggregated channel can be considered by the terminal as a single enlarged

channel from the RF viewpoint. In this instance, only one transceiver is required
within the terminal or UE, whereas more are required where the channels are not
adjacent. However as the RF bandwidth increases it is necessary to ensure that the
UE in particular is able to operate over such a wide bandwidth without a reduction in
performance. Although the performance requirements are the same for the base
station, the space, power consumption, and cost requirements are considerably less
stringent, allowing greater flexibility in the design. Additionally for the base station,
multi-carrier operation, even if non-aggregated, is already a requirement in many
instances, requiring little or no change to the RF elements of the design. Software
upgrades would naturally be required to cater for the additional capability.

o Non-contiguous: Non-contiguous intra-band carrier aggregation is somewhat more

complicated than the instance where adjacent carriers are used. No longer can the
multi-carrier signal be treated as a single signal and therefore two transceivers are
required. This adds significant complexity, particularly to the UE where space, power
and cost are prime considerations.

Inter-band non-contiguous: This form of carrier aggregation uses different bands. It will
be of particular use because of the fragmentation of bands - some of which are only 10 MHz
wide. For the UE it requires the use of multiple transceivers within the single item, with the
usual impact on cost, performance and power. In addition to this there are also additional
complexities resulting from the requirements to reduce intermodulation and cross modulation
from the two transceivers
The current standards allow for up to five 20 MHz carriers to be aggregated, although in practice two
or three is likely to be the practical limit. These aggregated carriers can be transmitted in parallel to
or from the same terminal, thereby enabling a much higher throughput to be obtained.

Carrier aggregation bandwidths

When aggregating carriers for an LTE signal, there are several definitions required for the bandwidth
of the combined channels. As there as several bandwidths that need to be described, it is necessary
to define them to reduce confusion.

LTE Carrier Aggregation Bandwidth Definitions for Intra-Band Case

LTE carrier aggregation bandwidth classes

There is a total of six different carrier aggregation, CA bandwidth classes which are being defined.

CARRIER AGGREGATION AGGREGATED NUMBER OF COMPONENT

BANDWIDTH CLASS TRANSMISSION CARRIERS
BW CONFIGURATION
A 100 1
B 100 2
C 100 - 200 2

NB: classes D, E, & F are in the study phase.

LTE aggregated carriers
When carriers are aggregated, each carrier is referred to as a component carrier. There are two
categories:

Primary component carrier: This is the main carrier in any group. There will be a primary
downlink carrier and an associated uplink primary component carrier.

Secondary component carrier: There may be one or more secondary component

carriers.

There is no definition of which carrier should be used as a primary component carrier - different
terminals may use different carriers. The configuration of the primary component carrier is terminal
specific and will be determined according to the loading on the various carriers as well as other
relevant parameters.

In addition to this the association between the downlink primary carrier and the corresponding uplink
primary component carrier is cell specific. Again there are no definitions of how this must be
organised. The information is signalled to the terminal of user equipment as part of the overall
signalling between the terminal and the base station.

Carrier aggregation cross carrier scheduling

When LTE carrier aggregation is used, it is necessary to be able to schedule the data across the
carriers and to inform the terminal of the DCI rates for the different component carriers. This
information may be implicit, or it may be explicit dependent upon whether cross carrier scheduling is
used.

Enabling of the cross carrier scheduling is achieved individually via the RRC signalling on a per
component carrier basis or a per terminal basis.

When no cross carrier scheduling is arranged, the downlink scheduling assignments achieved on a
per carrier basis, i.e. they are valid for the component carrier on which they were transmitted.

For the uplink, an association is created between one downlink component carrier and an uplink
component carrier. In this way when uplink grants are sent the terminal or UE will know to which
uplink component carrier they apply.

Where cross carrier scheduling is active, the PDSCH on the downlink or the PUSCH on the uplink is
transmitted on an associate component carrier other than the PDCCH, the carrier indicator in the
PDCCH provides the information about the component carrier used for the PDSCH or PUSCH.
It is necessary to be able to indicate to which component carrier in any aggregation scheme a grant
relates. To facilitate this, component carriers are numbered. The primary component carrier is
numbered zero, for all instances, and the different secondary component carriers are assigned a
unique number through the UE specific RRC signalling. This means that even if the terminal or user
equipment and the base station, eNodeB may have different understandings of the component
carrier numbering during reconfiguration, transmissions on the primary component carrier can be
scheduled.

LTE CoMP or Coordinated Multipoint is a facility that is being developed for LTE Advanced - many of
the facilities are still under development and may change as the standards define the different
elements of CoMP more specifically.

LTE Coordinated Multipoint is essentially a range of different techniques that enable the dynamic
coordination of transmission and reception over a variety of different base stations. The aim is to
improve overall quality for the user as well as improving the utilisation of the network.

Essentially, LTE Advanced CoMP turns the inter-cell interference, ICI, into useful signal, especially at
the cell borders where performance may be degraded.

Over the years the importance of inter-cell interference, ICI has been recognised, and various
techniques used from the days of GSM to mitigate its effects. Here interference averaging
techniques such as frequency hopping were utilised. However as technology has advanced, much
tighter and more effective methods of combating and utilising the interference have gained support.

LTE CoMP and 3GPP

The concepts for Coordinated Multipoint, CoMP, have been the focus of many studies by 3GPP for
LTE-Advanced as well as the IEEE for their WiMAX, 802.16 standards. For 3GPP there are studies
that have focussed on the techniques involved, but no conclusion has been reached regarding the
full implementation of the scheme. However basic concepts have been established and these are
described below.

CoMP has not been included in Rel.10 of the 3GPP standards, but as work is on-going, CoMP is
likely to reach a greater level of consensus. When this occurs it will be included in future releases of
the standards.

Despite the fact that Rel.10 does not provide any specific support for CoMP, some schemes can be
implemented in LTE Rel.10 networks in a proprietary manner. This may enable a simpler upgrade
when standardisation is finally agreed.

LTE CoMP - the advantages

Although LTE Advanced CoMP, Coordinated Multipoint is a complex set of techniques, it brings
many advantages to the user as well as the network operator.

Makes better utilisation of network: By providing connections to several base stations at

once, using CoMP, data can be passed through least loaded base stations for better
resource utilisation.

Provides enhanced reception performance: Using several cell sites for each connection
means that overall reception will be improved and the number of dropped calls should be
reduced.

Multiple site reception increases received power: The joint reception from multiple base
stations or sites using LTE Coordinated Multipoint techniques enables the overall received
power at the handset to be increased.

Interference reduction: By using specialised combining techniques it is possible to utilise

the interference constructively rather than destructively, thereby reducing interference levels.

What is LTE CoMP? - the basics

Coordinated multipoint transmission and reception actually refers to a wide range of techniques that
enable dynamic coordination or transmission and reception with multiple geographically separated
eNBs. Its aim is to enhance the overall system performance, utilise the resources more effectively
and improve the end user service quality.

One of the key parameters for LTE as a whole, and in particular 4G LTE Advanced is the high data
rates that are achievable. These data rates are relatively easy to maintain close to the base station,
but as distances increase they become more difficult to maintain.

Obviously the cell edges are the most challenging. Not only is the signal lower in strength because
of the distance from the base station (eNB), but also interference levels from neighbouring eNBs are
likely to be higher as the UE will be closer to them.

4G LTE CoMP, Coordinated Multipoint requires close coordination between a number of

geographically separated eNBs. They dynamically coordinate to provide joint scheduling and
transmissions as well as proving joint processing of the received signals. In this way a UE at the
edge of a cell is able to be served by two or more eNBs to improve signals reception / transmission
and increase throughput particularly under cell edge conditions.
 Concept of LTE Advanced CoMP - Coordinated Multipoint
In essence, 4G LTE CoMP, Coordinated Multipoint falls into two major categories:

Joint processing: Joint processing occurs where there is coordination between multiple
entities - base stations - that are simultaneously transmitting or receiving to or from UEs.

Coordinated scheduling or beamforming: This often referred to as CS/CB (coordinated

scheduling / coordinated beamforming) is a form of coordination where a UE is transmitting
with a single transmission or reception point - base station. However the communication is
made with an exchange of control among several coordinated entities.

To achieve either of these modes, highly detailed feedback is required on the channel properties in a
fast manner so that the changes can be made. The other requirement is for very close coordination
between the eNBs to facilitate the combination of data or fast switching of the cells.

The techniques used for coordinated multipoint, CoMP are very different for the uplink and downlink.
This results from the fact that the eNBs are in a network, connected to other eNBs, whereas the
handsets or UEs are individual elements.

Downlink LTE CoMP

The downlink LTE CoMP requires dynamic coordination amongst several geographically separated
eNBs transmitting to the UE. The two formats of coordinated multipoint can be divided for the
downlink:

Joint processing schemes for transmitting in the downlink : Using this element of LTE
CoMP, data is transmitted to the UE simultaneously from a number of different eNBs. The
aim is to improve the received signal quality and strength. It may also have the aim of
 actively cancelling interference from transmissions that are intended for other UEs.

This form of coordinated multipoint places a high demand onto the backhaul network
because the data to be transmitted to the UE needs to be sent to each eNB that will be
transmitting it to the UE. This may easily double or triple the amount of data in the network
dependent upon how many eNBs will be sending the data. In addition to this, joint
processing data needs to be sent between all eNBs involved in the CoMP area.

Coordinated scheduling and or beamforming: Using this concept, data to a single UE is

transmitted from one eNB. The scheduling decisions as well as any beams are coordinated
to control the interference that may be generated.

The advantage of this approach is that the requirements for coordination across the
backhaul network are considerably reduced for two reasons:

o UE data does not need to be transmitted from multiple eNBs, and therefore only
needs to be directed to one eNB.

o Only scheduling decisions and details of beams needs to be coordinated between

multiple eNBs.

Uplink LTE CoMP

Joint reception and processing: The basic concept behind this format is to utilise
antennas at different sites. By coordinating between the different eNBs it is possible to form
a virtual antenna array. The signals received by the eNBs are then combined and processed
to produce the final output signal. This technique allows for signals that are very low in
strength, or masked by interference in some areas to be receiving with few errors.

The main disadvantage with this technique is that large amounts of data need to be
transferred between the eNBs for it to operate.

Coordinated scheduling: This scheme operates by coordinating the scheduling decisions

amongst the ENBs to minimise interference.

As in the case of the downlink, this format provides a much reduced load in the backhaul
network because only the scheduling data needs to be transferred between the different
eNBs that are coordinating with each other.
Overall requirements for LTE CoMP
One of the key requirements for LTE is that it should be able to provide a very low level of latency.
The additional processing required for multiple site reception and transmission could add
significantly to any delays. This could result from the need for the additional processing as well as
the communication between the different sites.

To overcome this, it is anticipated that the different sites may be connected together in a form of
centralised RAN, or C-RAN.

Relaying is one of the features being proposed for the 4G LTE Advanced system. The aim of LTE
relaying is to enhance both coverage and capacity.

The idea of relays is not new, but LTE relays and LTE relaying is being considered to ensure that the
optimum performance is achieved to enable the expectations of the users to be met while still
keeping OPEX within the budgeted bounds.

Need for LTE relay technology

One of the main drivers for the use of LTE is the high data rates that can be achieved. However all
technologies suffer from reduced data rates at the cell edge where signal levels are lower and
interference levels are typically higher.

The use of technologies such as MIMO, OFDM and advanced error correction techniques improve
throughput under many conditions, but do not fully mitigate the problems experienced at the cell
edge.

As cell edge performance is becoming more critical, with some of the technologies being pushed
towards their limits, it is necessary to look at solutions that will enhance performance at the cell edge
for a comparatively low cost. One solution that is being investigated and proposed is that of the use
of LTE relays.

LTE relay basics

LTE relaying is different to the use of a repeater which re-broadcasts the signal. A relay will actually
receive, demodulates and decodes the data, apply any error correction, etc to it and then re-
transmitting a new signal. In this way, the signal quality is enhanced with an LTE relay, rather than
suffering degradation from a reduced signal to noise ratio when using a repeater.
For an LTE relay, the UEs communicate with the relay node, which in turn communicates with a
donor eNB.

Relay nodes can optionally support higher layer functionality, for example decode user data from the
donor eNB and re-encode the data before transmission to the UE.

The LTE relay is a fixed relay - infrastructure without a wired backhaul connection, that relays
messages between the base station (BS) and mobile stations (MSs) through multihop
communication.

There are a number of scenarios where LTE relay will be advantageous.

Increase network density: LTE relay nodes can be deployed very easily in situations
where the aim is to increase network capacity by increasing the number of eNBs to ensure
good signal levels are received by all users. LTE relays are easy to install as they require no
separate backhaul and they are small enabling them to be installed in many convenient
areas, e.g. on street lamps, on walls, etc.

LTE relay used to increase network density

Network coverage extension : LTE relays can be used as a convenient method of filling
small holes in coverage. With no need to install a complete base station, the relay can be
quickly installed so that it fills in the coverage blackspot.
 LTE relay coverage extension - filling in coverage hole

Additionally LTE relay nodes may be sued to increase the coverage outside main area. With
suitable high gain antennas and also if antenna for the link to the donor eNB is placed in a
suitable location it will be able to maintain good communications and provide the required
coverage extension.

LTE relay coverage extension - extending coverage

It can be noted that relay nodes may be cascaded to provide considerable extensions of the
coverage.

Rapid network roll-out: Without the need to install backhaul, or possibly install large
masts, LTE relays can provide a very easy method of extending coverage during the early
roll-out of a network. More traditional eNBs may be installed later as the traffic volumes
increase.
 LTE relay to provide fast rollout & deployment

LTE relaying full & half duplex

LTE relay nodes can operate in one of two scenarios:

Half-Duplex: A half-duplex system provides communication in both directions, but not

simultaneously - the transmissions must be time multiplexed. For LTE relay, this requires
careful scheduling. It requires that the RN coordinates its resource allocation with the UEs in
the uplink and the assigned donor eNB in the downlink. This can be achieved using static
pre-assigned solutions, or more dynamic ones requiring more intelligence and
communication for greater flexibility and optimisation.

Full Duplex: For full duplex, the systems are able to transmit and receive at the same time.
For LTE relay nodes this is often on the same frequency. The relay nodes will receive the
signal, process it and then transmit it on the same frequency with a small delay, although this
will be small when compared to the frame duration. To achieve full duplex, there must be
good isolation between the transmit and receive antennas.

When considering full or half duplex systems for LTE relay nodes, there is a trade-off between
performance and the relay node cost. The receiver performance is critical, and also the antenna
isolation must be reasonably high to allow the simultaneous transmission and reception when only
one channel is used.

LTE relay types

There is a number of different types of LTE relay node that can be used. However before defining
the relay node types, it is necessary to look at the different modes of operation.

One important feature or characteristic of an LTE relay node is the carrier frequency it operates on.
There are two methods of operation:
 Inband: An LTE relay node is said to be "Inband" if the link between the base station and
the relay node are on the same carrier frequency as the link between the LTE relay node and
the user equipment, UE, i.e. the BS-RN link and the BS-UE link are on the same carrier
frequency.

Outband: For Outband LTE relay nodes, RNs, the BS-RN link operates of a different carrier
frequency to that of the RN-UE link.

For the LTE relay nodes themselves there are two basic types that are being proposed, although
there are subdivisions within these basic types:

Type 1 LTE relay nodes: These LTE relays control their cells with their own identity
including the transmission of their own synchronisation channels and reference symbols.
Type 1 relays appear as if they are a Release 8 eNB to Release 8 UEs. This ensures
backwards compatibility. The basic Type 1 LTE relay provides half duplex with Inband
transmissions.

There are two further sub-types within this category:

o Type 1.a: These LTE relay nodes are outband RNs which have the same properties
as the basic Type 1 relay nodes, but they can transmit and receive at the same time,
i.e. full duplex.

o Type 1.b: This form of LTE relay node is an inband form. They have a sufficient
isolation between the antennas used for the BS-RN and the RN-UE links. This
isolation can be achieved by antenna spacing and directivity as well as specialised
digital signal processing techniques, although there are cost impacts of doing this.
The performance of these RNs is anticipated to be similar to that of femtocells.

Type 2 LTE relay nodes: These LTE relaying nodes do not have their own cell identity and
look just like the main cell. Any UE in range is not able to distinguish a relay from the main
eNB within the cell. Control information can be transmitted from the eNB and user data from
the LTE relay.

LTE RELAY CLASS CELL ID DUPLEX FORMAT

Type 1 Yes Inband half duplex
Type 1.a Yes Outband full duplex
Type 1.b Yes Inband full duplex
Type 2 No Inband full duplex

Summary of Relay Classifications & Features in 3GPP Rel.10

There is still much work to be undertaken on LTE relaying. The exact manner of LTE relays is to be
included in Release 10 of the 3GPP standards and specifications.

One of the schemes that is being researched and considered for 4G LTE Advanced is the concept of
Device to Device communications.

This form of communication using the LTE system is used where direct communications are needed
within a small area.

LTE D2D communications is a peer to peer link which does not use the cellular network
infrastructure, but enables LTE based devices to communicate directly with one another when they
are in close proximity.

One of the particular applications where LTE device to device communications is for the emergency
services. With proprietary systems like TETRA being expensive to maintain because of the separate
infrastructure required, the LTE is becoming increasingly attractive as a result of cost, and
performance. The main issue is that of reliability.

LTE device to device communication is also being investigated for applications where peer discovery
is required for commercial applications in the presence of network support.

LTE D2D was a feature that appeared in LTE REl 12.

Benefits of D2D communications

Direct communications between devices can provide several benefits to users in various applications
where the devices are in close proximity:

Data rates: Devices may be remote from cellular infrastructure and may therefore not be
able to support high data rate transmission that may be required

Reliable communications: LTE Device to Device can be sued to communicate locally

between devices to provide high reliability communications especially if the LTE network has
failed for any reason - even as a result of the disaster.

Instant communications: As the D2D communications does not rely on the network
infrastructure the devices could be used for instant communications between a set number
of devices in the same way that walkie-talkies are used. This is particularly applicable to t e
way communications may be used by the emergency services.

Use of licensed spectrum: Unlike other deveice to device systems including Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, etc, LTE would use licensed spectrum and this would enable the frequencies to be
used to be less subject to interference, thereby allowing more reliable communications.

Interference reduction: By not having to communicate directly with a base station, fewer
links are required (i.e. essentially only between devices) and this has an impact of the
 amount of data being transmitted within a given spectrum allocation. This reduces the overall
level of interference.

Power saving : Using device to device communication provides energy saving for a variety
of reasons. One major area is that if the two0 devices are in close proximity then lower
transmission power levels are required.

LTE D2D basics

4G LTE device to device, D2D would enable the direct link of a device, user equipment UE, etc to
another device using the cellular spectrum. This could allow large volumes of media or other data to
be transferred from one device to another over short distances and using a direct connection.. This
form of device to device transfer would enable the data to be transferred without the need to run it
via the cellular network itself, thereby avoiding problems with overloading the network.

Other examples of direct communication include Wi-Fi Direct, Bluetooth, etc. Networks can be
formed in many ways.

LTE device to device, D2D concept

The D2D system would operate in a manner where devices within a locality would be able to provide
direct communications rather than transmitting via the network. The cellular infrastructure, if present,
may assist with issues like peer discovery, synchronisation, and the provision of identity and security
information.

LTE D2D issues

The addition of the LTE D2D or device to device communication capability impacts the whole of the
network and is therefore not a trivial addition, Issues like authorisation and authentication are
currently handled by the network and the overall LTE system would need to be extended to
accommodate device to device to communication without the essential presence of the network.

Another issue would be that of direct communication between devices that are under subscriptions
with different operators, although this is unlikely to occur in the event of public service or emergency
services.

LTE heterogeneous networks, HetNet are fast becoming a reality.

Within LTE and LTE Advanced, operators see the need to very significantly increase the data
capacity of all areas of the network while also reducing the costs as cost per bit rates are falling.

Whilst LTE HetNet technology is starting to be defined, many operators are seeking to utilise the
concepts to ensure that the delivery of service to the users meets expectations under the very
varying conditions and scenarios that users are placing on the networks.

LTE heterogeneous network basics

To achieve this LTE and LTE Advanced operators need to adopt a variety of approaches to meet the
needs of a host of scenarios that will occur within the network.

Different types of user will need use the network in different places and for different applications.
Coupled to this operators introducing LTE and LTE Advanced networks will have many legacy
systems available. In any LTE heterogeneous network it will be necessary to accommodate other
radio access technologies including HSPA, UMTS and even EDGE and GPRS. In addition to this
other technologies including Wi-Fi also need to be accommodated.

These solutions for LTE heterogeneous networks need to incorporate not only the radio access
network solutions, but also the core network as well. In this way a truly heterogeneous network can
become functional.

To ensure the best use is made of the available capabilities, all the various elements need to be
operated in a manner that is truly seamless to the user. The user should be given the best
experience using the best available technology at any given time. The performance and hence the
user experience should also be very much the same whatever the location and whatever the
application.

Note on Heterogeneous Networks, HetNet:

The concept of the Heterogeneous Network or HetNet has arisen out of the need for cellular telecommunications

operators to be able to operate networks consisting of a variety of radio access technologies, formats of cells and

many other aspects, and combining them to operate in a seamless fashion.

Click on the link for further information about Heterogeneous Networks, HetNet

LTE HetNet features

There are a number of features for LTE that can be incorporated into an LTE heterogeneous network
above and beyond some of what may be termed the basic wireless heterogeneous network
techniques..Although they could conceivably be used with other forms of wireless heterogeneous
network, they are currently found in LTE.

Carrier aggregation: With spectrum allocated for 4G networks, operators often find they
have a variety of small bands that they have to piece together to provide the required overall
bandwidth needed for 4G LTE. Making these bands work seamlessly is a key element of the
LTE heterogeneous network operation.

Coordinated multipoint: In order to provide the proper coverage at the cell edges, signal
from two or more base stations may be needed. Again, providing the same level of service
regardless of network technology and areas within the cell can prove to be challenging.
Adopting a heterogeneous network approach can assist in providing he same service quality
regardless of the position within the cell, and the possibly differing cell and backhaul
technologies used for the different base stations.

Heterogeneous networks are now an established concept within LTE networks. The requirement to
provide a better level of coverage and performance in a greater variety of situations means that a
greater variety of techniques is required. Making all the different technologies from radio access
networks to base station technologies and backhaul paths all come together needs careful planning.
Early cellular systems had a far more standard approach, where base stations were characterised
by the mast and antennas. Now a much greater variety of approaches is needed.