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International Conference on Case Histories in (2004) - Fifth International Conference on Case
Geotechnical Engineering Histories in Geotechnical Engineering

Apr 13th - Apr 17th

Skin Friction and Pile Design

Akira Wada
Asia Georesearch Agency Corporation Pte Ltd. (AGA), Singapore

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Akira Wada, "Skin Friction and Pile Design" (April 13, 2004). International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering.
Paper 14.
http://scholarsmine.mst.edu/icchge/5icchge/session01/14

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 SKIN FRICTION AND PILE DESIGN

Akira Wada
Asia Georesearch Agency
Corporation Pte Ltd (AGA)
Singapore

ABSTRACT

The skin friction of pile is found as a parameter of pile shaft displacement. It will not be a simple/constant values for each type of
soil/weathered rock. Pile load test data shows skin friction grows to maximum strength at certain displacement and then reduces to
residual strength. Due to this property, the main active skin friction zone is shifted downwards with the increase of load.
From the shared ratio of total skin friction in pile bearing capacity, the share ratio of skin friction is found related with pile length.
This means that for 30m long pile, the skin friction share is approx.95% of bearing capacity. The shared ratio shows almost constant
value for each pile under 100% ~ 300% of design load if there is no failure in the pile. From this point of view, the failure of pile
bearing mechanism will be due to the change of skin friction share ratio.

INTRODUCTION ULTIMATE LOAD TEST ON PILE

Today, the pile design is proceed by taking certain safety
factor into the interpretation on the evaluated ultimate skin
friction and ultimate bearing capacity. This procedure is
constructed on the assumption that the skin friction and toe
bearing capacity generates together and achieves the ultimate
value at the same time.
Based on the analysis of pile load test on bored pile, it is found
that the skin friction and toe bearing capacity are the
parameters of pile shaft displacement. Both values did not
achieve the ultimate value at the same time. This paper
presents the study result of the bearing mechanism of pile for
to review the pile design.
The ultimate pile load test is for to verify the ultimate bearing
capacity that is evaluated by the pile design work. So the
applied load on the test pile is 250 ~ 300% of design load,
which is considered based on the safety factor in the design
work.
The test piles which are studied in this paper are bored piles
with 800 ~ 1500mm in diameter and the length are 14m ~ 40m.
The object test piles have instruments such as strain gauge and
extensometer (see fig. 2). The ground materials of these test
piles location consist of 3 types of bedding formation, such as
granite, sedimentary rock (Jurong Formation) and Pleistocene
cemented layer (Old Alluvium). All these materials are
heavily weathered and top zone is classified as residual soil
and completely weathered zone. The toe of test pile is socket
into the following hard/strong materials:

Granite area Pile toe is penetrated into highly

weathered zone or moderately
7 19
weathered zone. The penetration length
1
8,9,10 & 11
12,13 & 14
in highly weathered zone is 3 ~ 8m,
16
where N>100 and 1 ~ 3m in moderately
15
weathered zone, when RQD>35%.
18 LEGEND

5&6 Gombak Norite

4 Alluvium

2&3
17
Old Alluvium Sajahat Formation
Sedimentary rock Pile toe is penetrated into highly
weathered zone more than 3m where
Jurong Formation Reclaimed Land

Bukit Timah Granite Singapore's Shoreline

(Before Reclamation)
N>100.
Fig. 1. Singapore geological map and location of test piles

Paper No.1.20 1
 Depth of Instrument
Boring B-10 RL 105.04m Extensometer A (18.0m)
Pleistocene
B (20.5m)
SPT Soil / C (22.5m)
Cemented Layer Pile toe is penetrated into cemented
Level (m)
Elevation

Diagram
GL (m)
Depth
N-Value Rock RL 105.734m zone more than 5m where N>100.
20 40 60 80 100 Name RL 105.00m
0
1a 1b (0.5m) From the interpretation result of the monitoring data, it shows
that stress distribution, friction and deformation/displacement
2
Fill of pile shaft can be obtained at each depth of pile. The flow
chart in fig. 3 shows the process of data interpretation.
4
Light The phenomenon/behaviour of pile under surcharge load is
Brown explained as follows: (see fig. 4).
2a 2b (6.0m)
6
Medium - The stress develops in the pile shaft by surcharge load on top
Coarse of the pile and transfer the stress downwards with damping.
8
Grain Each depth of pile is deformed by the stress developed at each
Sand depth. Then the stress at the pile toe is transferred into the
10
ground material. The ground material under the pile toe is
93.24 11.80 compressed due to the transfer of stress. The compression of
12
Very Soft
3a 3b (12.0m) ground material and the deformation of pile shaft will
Greenish
accumulate from the pile toe to the top. Then it is monitored
14
Grey
as the displacement of pile shaft and settlement of pile top.
Marine
4a 4b (15.0m) The skin friction is generated by the displacement of pile shaft
16
Clay
and its magnitude is found as the parameter of displacement.
87.06 18.00
18 5a 5b (18.0m)

85.04 20.00
Residual Soil SKIN FRICTION
20 6a 6b (20.0m)
Highly W.
82.44 22.60
Mudstone 7a 7b (21.5m)
Properties of Skin Friction
22
8a 8b (22.5m)
The relationship between the skin friction and pile shaft
24 Moderately Weath. displacement under the increase surcharge load is shown in fig.
Sandstone
79.24 25.80 5. The skin friction is generated with the increment of pile
26 shaft displacement and the maximum skin friction is observed
H.W.Sandstone/
Mudstone at 5 ~ 15mm displacement. Then it reduces to residual
77.04 28.00
28 strength when the displacement continues. The maximum
Fig. 2. Sample of instrumentation in test pile skin friction is confirmed as the parameter of shear strength of
soil and as shown in table 1 and figs. 6 & 7.
In general, the magnitude of displacement which generates the
maximum skin friction has good relationship with the shear
strength and elastic modulus of soil, such as:
at Each Gauge Area of Pile Section
Load / Skin Friction
Strain Gauge Settlement
at Each Depth
P Monitoring Depth Sn-1

Concrete Volume
Pile Dia at Each Zone l 1 l 2 = P
of Pile
i n P l l Length (Area) of Each
Monitoring Depth
l
AE
Uncon. Comp. Test
E of Concrete
of Test Cube
P Monitoring Depth
Sn l
Load at Each Depth
P = .E.A S : Monitoring Shortening of Pile
Depth of Strain Gauge Length of Each Area S = S (top) - S (toe)
(l )
Distribution of P Deformation of Pile at Each Area l : Deformation of Pile At Each Area
Along the Pile at Each Area l 2 = P.l / A.E Sb : Settlement at Pile Toe

Adjustment Factor Comparision between Extensometer

Skin Friction (fn) = l / l2 data and evaluated data
Along the Pile

Deformation at Each Area

Surface Area of Pile at l = l 2
Each Area

Accumulate Displacement at Each Area

si = l + Sb
Unit Skin Friction i
at Each Area
Relationship of i and si Shown in Graph

Show in Table
and Figure Unit Skin Friction For Design
at Each Area

Fig. 3 Flow chart of analysis work of instrumentation

Paper No.1.20
2
 Unit Skin Friction () t/m2 Increase Stress in Pile, (t/m2) Displacement of Pile (mm)
0 Pile Pile Pile 0

Depth (m)
Depth (m)

Fig. 4. Increase of stress and magnitude of pile displacement along the pile
24 32
4.0-8.0m 4.20-6.20m
12.0-16.0m 30 6.20-8.20m
22
16.0-20.0m 8.20-10.20m
20.0-24.0m 28
10.20-16.20m
20 24.0-28.0m
26
16.20-18.20m
28.0-32.0m
18.20-20.20m
32.0-36.0m
18 24 20.20-22.20m
36.0-40.0m
40.0-42.0m 22.20-23.00m
22
16
Unit Skin Friction, i (ton/m )

Unit Skin Friction, i (ton/m )

2

20
2

14
18

12 16

14
10

12
8
10

6 8

6
4

4
2
2

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Displacement of Pile Shaft, Si (mm) Displacement of Pile Shaft, Si (mm)

Fig. 5. Unit skin friction with displacement

Table 1. Skin friction of pile in various soil and weathered rock

Ground Material Skin Friction Soil Parameters
Max. Skin Friction Residual Skin Friction Ratio
Soil / Rock
Formation
Weathered Grade
Displacemen
Displacement Strength Displacement Strength res N Cu
(mm) max (KN/m ) 2 (mm) res (KN/m ) 2
max (KN/m )
2

Sandy Clay / Sandy Silt 10.0 44 19.7 31 0.68 7 20

Top Soil / Fill
Silty Sand / Reclaimed Sand 8.8 110 14.0 25 0.21 14 24
Marine Clay 7.5 60 16.0 52 0.85 14 24
Silty Clay 4.0 64 - - - 10 29
Alluvium
Organic Clay/ Organic sand / Peat 7.8 40 16.0 31 0.77 2 11
Sandy Clay / Clayey Sand / Silty Sand 13.8 90 24.4 32 0.45 17 30
Residual Soil of Limestone (VI) 9.3 117* - - - 12 99
Jurong Compl. Weathered Mudstone (V) 7.5 195 - - - 28 210
Formation Highly Weathered Mudstone (IV) 8.0 400* - - - >100 2100
Moderately Weathered Limestone (III) 5.7 1520* - - - >100 -
Residual Soil of Granite (VI) 7.1 77 16.6 59 0.69 19 50
Completely Weath. Granite (V) 7.2 135 8.3 108 0.77 46 203
Bukit Timah
Completely Weath. Granite (V) 8.1 287 12.8 253 0.94 72 -
Granite
Highly Weathered Granite (IV) 5.0 690* 10.0 430 0.91 >100 2643
Moderately Weathered Granite (III) 5.0 2600* - - - >100 -
Residual Soil of Boulder Clay 5.1 60 9.5 52 0.79 19 45
Residual Soil of Boulder Sandstone 5.9 86 - - - 25 -
Boulder Clay
Weathered Zone of Boulder Clay 8.0 144 12.0 58 0.52 37 98
Cemented Zone of Boulder Clay 7.1 398 11.0 253 0.87 >100 175
Weathered Zone of Old Alluvium 14.0 98 16.3 62 0.63 32 60
Old Alluvium Cemented Zone (I) of Old Alluvium 14.5 258* - - - >100 -
Cemented Zone (II) of Old Alluvium 9.8 820 14.5 790 0.96 >100 -
Note : (*) - Under Progress

Paper No.1.20 3
 300 500
Type of Weathered Rock Type of Weathered Rock
270 450
B.T. Granite Limestone / Mudstone
240 Boulder Clay 400 max = 4 N
Max . Skin Friction, max (kN/m 2)
Bukit Timah Granite

Max. Skin Friction, max (kN/m )

2
210 Old Alluvium 350
Boulder Clay
180 300
Old Alluvium
150 max = 1.8 Cuu 250

120 200

90 150

60 100

30 50

0 0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Cohesion C uu (kN/m ) 2 N - Value By SPT

Fig. 6. Relationship between max and Cuu Fig. 7. Relationship between max and N-Value

i - Si i - P Unit Skin Friction Unit Skin Friction

2 2
0 Pile Pile Pile 10 20 30 40 50 t/m Pile 10 20 30 40 50 t/m

Depth (m)
Depth (m)

Depth (m)

Max Skin Friction

Aw

At
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Displacement of Magnitude of Loading Stage 1
Active Skin Friction
Pile Shaft (Si) Applied Load (P) Loading Stage 2 Loading Stage 5
Loading Stage 4 Loading Stage 7

Fig. 8. Magnitude of skin friction under load test

Pile with Strain Maximum Skin 100% Loading Stage 200% Loading Stage 300% Loading Stage
Gauge Friction Skin Friction Skin Friction Skin Friction
G-1

fa fa (100) fa (200) fa (300)

G-2
Depth (m)

fb fb (100) fb (200) fb (300)

G-3

fc fc (100) fc (200) fc (300)

G-4

fd fd (100) fd (200) fd (300)

G-5

fe fe (100) fe (200) fe (300)

G-6

f (max) = fa + fb + . . . . . Active Skin Friction f(100) Active Skin Friction f(200) Active Skin Friction f(300)
fi = i x i x li fa(100)+fb(100)+fc(100)+.. fa(200)+fb(200)+fc(200)+.. fa(300)+fb(300)+fc(300)+..

f(100) ... for 100% loading stage

Ratio of Active Skin Friction =
f(max)

Fig. 9. Active skin friction

Paper No.1.20 4
Relatively small displacement
Relatively big displacement
This relation means the magnitude of displacement is a
parameter of elastic modulus of soil.
When the skin friction is monitored during the pile load test,
the active skin friction under certain loading stage does not
show good relation with shear strength of soil because the skin
friction being a parameter of pile shaft displacement.
The active skin friction under increase loading stage is shown
in fig. 8.
o
Left figure shows the relationship between the skin friction
and the pile shaft displacement at several depths.
o
The second figure shows the skin friction at each loading
stage. The load increases from number 1 to 7. The
maximum skin friction at each depth generates different
loading stage.
o
The third figure shows active skin friction with depth. With
the increment of loading, the depth of maximum skin
friction shifts downwards and total skin friction increases.
o
The fourth figure shows the relations between the active
skin friction at certain loading stage and the maximum skin
friction along the pile shaft. As shown in this figure, the
skin friction at upper zone is at residual strength stage and
lower zone is at the increment stage to maximum strength.
350
- at the soil of big shear
strength/large elastic
modulus.
- at the soil of low shear
strength/small elastic
modulus.
Active skin friction
Fig. 9 shows the illustration of active skin friction. In fig. 9,
the maximum skin friction during 300% loading is shown as
f(max). Then the active skin friction at 100% loading, 200%
loading and 300% loading show f(100), f(200) and f(300)
respectively. The ratio of active skin friction with maximum
skin friction is evaluated using each load test data and shown
in fig. 10. By this evaluation, the active skin friction is found
as follows:
(1) The ratio of active skin friction is not shown 100% of
f(max) at any loading stage. The ratio under 300% loading
stage is still 95% of f(max).
(2) The ratio of active skin friction under 100% and 200%
loading stage is 38% and 73% respectively, which is slightly
on the safety side of the actual design.
Table 1 summarises the ratio between maximum skin friction
and residual skin friction. The ratio at loose sand of fill
material and alluvium formation show less than 50% and at
cohesive soil is in the range of 0.7 ~ 0.85. Also, the ratio in
weathered rock is in the range of 0.7 ~ 0.95.
The displacement at the moderately strong ~ strong rock near
the pile toe is generally small, such as less than 5mm and the
correct residual value are not monitored. Due to this, the ratio
in weathered rock will change if it can be mobilize up to
10mm.
This range of ratio is almost the same as adhesion factor.
350
Pile Length L > 30m
L < 25m L= 25~30m
300
Applied Load (% ) based on Design Load

300
Applied Load (% ) based on Design Load

L < 25m
L = 25m~30m
250 250 L>30m

200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Share Ratio of Skin Friction (% )

Ratio of Active Skin Friction (% )

Fig. 10. Active skin friction with increment of load Fig. 11. Share Ratio of skin friction with increment of load

Paper No.1.20 5
BEARING MECHANISM OF PILE
The share ratio of skin friction in pile bearing capacity is
summarised in fig. 11. As shown in this fig. 11, more than
80% of bearing capacity is obtained from skin friction. The
share ratio of skin friction increase with longer pile length,
such as if pile is more than 30m long, 95% of bearing capacity
comes from skin friction. The large share ratio of skin friction
is considered to come from the pile deformation which
generates maximum skin friction. For example, the total
deformation of pile under 300% of design load is
approximately as follows:
15m long pile approximately 5.0 ~ 10.0mm
30m long pile approximately 10.0 ~ 20.0mm
If the total pile deformation is 15mm, the maximum skin
friction and residual skin friction will take place at most of the
depth of pile shaft. If the total pile deformation is 7.5mm, the
skin friction at more than 50% of the pile shaft will be under
the development stage and the maximum skin friction will not
generate in pile shaft.
Another one remarkable point is the share ratio of skin friction
will not change by magnitude of loading. It is almost constant
under 100% ~ 300% loading for non failure pile. This point
suggests that if the failure of bearing mechanism takes place in
pile, above constant share ratio will change significantly.
Most possible case is the toe bearing cannot generate due to
problem of soft toe. But if there is any problem in the skin
friction, it also causes the failure of bearing mechanism.
The share ratio shows in this paper is for Singapores case
study. It will change according to the stratigrahic structure of
soil layer. Also, the share ratio will change for steel pile
which can transfer large stress to pile toe.
In the studied pile load test data, the relationship of settlement
and bearing capacity of pile toe material cannot be obtained
because settlement is usually small. So the allowable
settlement of pile toe and ultimate toe bearing capacity for
several types of soil/rock is not found in this study.
DESIGN OF PILE
Based on this study, the following points are recommended to
take into the consideration of pile design.
(1) The share ratio of skin friction in total bearing capacity of
pile.
The share ratio of skin friction is found as a parameter of
pile length. In the pile design, it is better to study the
bearing capacity of pile base on the share ratio.
Also the share ratio is understood to depend on the
stratigraphic structure of ground material and type of pile.
Due to this point, the share ratio shall be further studied
for a variety of soils and pile types.
Paper No.1.20
(2) Today, it is difficult to obtain the accurate skin friction
from laboratory/in-situ shear test result on hard soil and
weathered rock due to the following reasons:
o
There are limits in the accuracy in the laboratory test
result which use undisturbed sample from stiff, hard
soil and weathered rock, where large skin friction is
generated.
This is according to the disturbance of specimen during
sampling, handling and treatment in laboratory.
o
The relations between the skin friction and shear
strength of ground material is not clearly analysed.
Generally, this relationship is shown as certain index
factor and sometimes keeps in the black box.
o
The presence of disturbance and its shear strength of
ground material during piling work is not well studied.
The shear failure takes place at the weak zone such as
the disturbed zone. So the magnitude of skin friction
depends on the shear strength of the disturbed zone.
Due to this reason, the skin friction and toe bearing are
designed using N value for usual pile design.
(3) For pile design, the monitored skin friction from pile load
test is kept in a database for each type of soil, and uses
this as guide value. In future, this database can be
worked for analysis the bearing mechanism of pile.
CONCLUSION
Through the study of pile load test, the following properties
are evaluated.
(1) Skin friction value is not simple/constant and it is
generated by pile shaft displacement.
(2) Skin friction has maximum strength at certain
displacement. It reduces to residual strength if displacement
increases.
(3) The depth of main active skin friction zone is shifted
downwards by increase of load.
(4) The active skin friction will not achieve 100% of
theoretical skin friction because skin friction is the parameter
of pile shaft displacement.
(5) The share ratio of skin friction shows almost constant
value however load increase from 100% to 300% of design
load. The constant value is related with pile length.
REFERENCES
Broms B.B., Chang M.F. & Goh A.T., (1988), Bored Piles in
Residual Soil and Weathered Rock in Singapore
Meyerhof G.G. (1956), Penetration Test and Bearing Capacity
of Cohesionless Soil, Soil Mech. Found. Vol. 82
M.J. Tomlinson (1994), Pile Design and Construction Practice
(4th Edition) Chapter 4.
Poulos H.G. (1989), Pile Behaviour Theory and Application
Geotechnique Vol. 39, No. 3.
6