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Physics II (PH 102)

Electromagnetism (Lecture 10)

Udit Raha

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

Feb 2016
Conductors & Insulators
I Depending on the response to applied electric fields, materials are
classified as CONDUCTORS and INSULATORS.
Conductors & Insulators
I Depending on the response to applied electric fields, materials are
classified as CONDUCTORS and INSULATORS.
I Conductors are materials such as metals, electrolytes (e.g., salt water),
graphite, human body, etc., that have a large number of mobile charge
carriers, like, electron, ions, etc., that freely flow across entire surface of
materials and distribute uniformly.
Conductors & Insulators
I Depending on the response to applied electric fields, materials are
classified as CONDUCTORS and INSULATORS.
I Conductors are materials such as metals, electrolytes (e.g., salt water),
graphite, human body, etc., that have a large number of mobile charge
carriers, like, electron, ions, etc., that freely flow across entire surface of
materials and distribute uniformly.
I A perfect conductor is an idealized concept, defined as a material with
infinite supply of free charge carriers. In electrostatics, metals almost
qualify as nearly perfect conductors having an abundance of loosely bound
electrons.
Conductors & Insulators
I Depending on the response to applied electric fields, materials are
classified as CONDUCTORS and INSULATORS.
I Conductors are materials such as metals, electrolytes (e.g., salt water),
graphite, human body, etc., that have a large number of mobile charge
carriers, like, electron, ions, etc., that freely flow across entire surface of
materials and distribute uniformly.
I A perfect conductor is an idealized concept, defined as a material with
infinite supply of free charge carriers. In electrostatics, metals almost
qualify as nearly perfect conductors having an abundance of loosely bound
electrons.
I Insulators are materials, such as plastic, glass, rubber, etc., that impede
the free flow of chages and subsequently charge is seldom distributed
evenly across their surfaces. They are substances usually with very high
resistances.
Conductors & Insulators
I Depending on the response to applied electric fields, materials are
classified as CONDUCTORS and INSULATORS.
I Conductors are materials such as metals, electrolytes (e.g., salt water),
graphite, human body, etc., that have a large number of mobile charge
carriers, like, electron, ions, etc., that freely flow across entire surface of
materials and distribute uniformly.
I A perfect conductor is an idealized concept, defined as a material with
infinite supply of free charge carriers. In electrostatics, metals almost
qualify as nearly perfect conductors having an abundance of loosely bound
electrons.
I Insulators are materials, such as plastic, glass, rubber, etc., that impede
the free flow of chages and subsequently charge is seldom distributed
evenly across their surfaces. They are substances usually with very high
resistances.
I Semi-conductors are usually solid materials, such as silicon, germanium,
etc., that has conductivities intermediate between insulators and that of
most metals, which can be regulated in a controlled way, either by the
addition impurities or under temperature variations.
Properties of Conductors

I Static Electric field E is always zero inside a conductor.


Properties of Conductors

I Static Electric field E is always zero inside a conductor.

Example
An uncharged conductor is placed in external field E0 .

- +
- +
- +
- +
Positive charges are pushed to right and neg- - +
- +
ative charges to left. These are termed as in- - +
- +
duced charges, which give rise to the induced - +
Electric field E1 . The process would continue - E1 +
- +
until E1 = E0 . Total field E = E1 + E0 = - +
- +
E1 E1 = 0 inside the conductor. What hap- - +
pens for the field inside a non-conductor or -
-
+
+
dielectric? - +
- +

E0
Properties of Conductors (contd.)

Given that the total field E is zero (and constant) inside the conductor, the
volume charge density also vanishes:

= 0 E = 0
I Volume charge density () is always zero inside the conductor.
Properties of Conductors (contd.)

Given that the total field E is zero (and constant) inside the conductor, the
volume charge density also vanishes:

= 0 E = 0
I Volume charge density () is always zero inside the conductor.
I Any net charge resides on the surface of conductors.
Properties of Conductors (contd.)

Given that the total field E is zero (and constant) inside the conductor, the
volume charge density also vanishes:

= 0 E = 0
I Volume charge density () is always zero inside the conductor.
I Any net charge resides on the surface of conductors.
I V is constant throughout a conductor representing an equipotential.
Properties of Conductors (contd.)

Given that the total field E is zero (and constant) inside the conductor, the
volume charge density also vanishes:

= 0 E = 0
I Volume charge density () is always zero inside the conductor.
I Any net charge resides on the surface of conductors.
I V is constant throughout a conductor representing an equipotential.
I E perpendicular to the surface just outside a conductor.
Properties of Conductors (contd.)

I The induced charges in a conductor have the same magnitude as the total
charges enclosed within cavities, i.e., |q| = |qinduced |.
Properties of Conductors (contd.)

I The induced charges in a conductor have the same magnitude as the total
charges enclosed within cavities, i.e., |q| = |qinduced |.
I The Electric field in the cavity of a conductor is non-zero only if it encloses
some net amount of charge.
Boundary Conditions for a Conductor
Let n be the outward normal at a point r on a conductors surface with surface
charge density (r). Consider a Gaussian pillbox with upper and lower surface
area a. The sides have vanishing thickness which give no contribution to the
flux, since Eout is perperdicular to the upper surface. Applying Gausss law

a
E dS = [Eout (r) Ein (r)] n
a = .
0
pillbox

I Since, Ein (r) = 0, the field immediately outside a conductor is a constant.



E
out = n

0
Eout,|| = 0
Capacitor
I It is a device used to store elecric charge, consisting of a system of two
conductors placed in close proximity (suitably shielded from other
conductors) having equal and opposite charges Q.
I The simplest capacitor just consists of a single isolated charged conductor,
with the earth/ground as the other half.
Capacitance
I The potential difference between the conductors is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge Q carried by the conductors

(+)
V = V+ V = E dl Q
()
 
1
= Q
C
Q
C =
V
I The purely geometrical coefficient C is called the CAPACITANCE and
depends on the shapes, sizes and separation of the two conductors. The
capacitance of a capacitor is a measure of its ability to store charge.
Capacitance
I The potential difference between the conductors is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge Q carried by the conductors

(+)
V = V+ V = E dl Q
()
 
1
= Q
C
Q
C =
V
I The purely geometrical coefficient C is called the CAPACITANCE and
depends on the shapes, sizes and separation of the two conductors. The
capacitance of a capacitor is a measure of its ability to store charge.
I SI Unit: Coulomb per Volt(C/V) or Farad (F).
Capacitance
I The potential difference between the conductors is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge Q carried by the conductors

(+)
V = V+ V = E dl Q
()
 
1
= Q
C
Q
C =
V
I The purely geometrical coefficient C is called the CAPACITANCE and
depends on the shapes, sizes and separation of the two conductors. The
capacitance of a capacitor is a measure of its ability to store charge.
I SI Unit: Coulomb per Volt(C/V) or Farad (F).
I The Electrostatic energy stored in a capacitor of charge Q and potential
difference V :
1 1Q2
UE = CV 2 = .
2 2V
Capacitances of simple Capacitors
Examples

I Spherical capacitor of radius R:


C = 40 R
I Parallel plate capacitor with area A and separation d:
0 A
C =
d
I Concentric spherical capacitor with inner radius a and outer radius b:
 
ab
C = 40
ba
I Coaxial cylindrical capacitor of length L, inner radius a and outer radius b:
L
C = 20 b

ln a
I Effective capacitance of parallel system of capacitors:
C = C1 + C2 + C3 +
I Effective capacitance of series connected capacitors:
1 1 1 1
= + + +
C C1 C2 C3
Coulombs and Gauss Law
I You are so far familar with problems in electrostatics where either a system
of charges qi , charge densities (, , ) for isolated charge distributions
and conductors are supplied. Then you can determine V and E using
Coulombs law:

1 (r0 ) (r r0 ) 0
E(r) = dv
40 |r r0 |2

1 (r0 )
V (r) = dv 0
40 |r r0 |
Coulombs and Gauss Law
I You are so far familar with problems in electrostatics where either a system
of charges qi , charge densities (, , ) for isolated charge distributions
and conductors are supplied. Then you can determine V and E using
Coulombs law:

1 (r0 ) (r r0 ) 0
E(r) = dv
40 |r r0 |2

1 (r0 )
V (r) = dv 0
40 |r r0 |

I For problems with high degrees of symmetry you can first use Gausss law
to determine E and then determine V :

1
E(r) dS = Qencl
0
r
V (r) = E(r) dl

Boundary-Value Problems
I Practical problems in Electrostatics often involves a system of conductors
in a given region where charge density is not apriori known everywhere,
instead, either V (r) or the total charge Qi may be supplied on the surfaces
of each conductor. Such problems require solving for the potential using
Special Techniques using Boundary Conditions:
Boundary-Value Problems
I Practical problems in Electrostatics often involves a system of conductors
in a given region where charge density is not apriori known everywhere,
instead, either V (r) or the total charge Qi may be supplied on the surfaces
of each conductor. Such problems require solving for the potential using
Special Techniques using Boundary Conditions:
1. Solving via the Method of Images
Boundary-Value Problems
I Practical problems in Electrostatics often involves a system of conductors
in a given region where charge density is not apriori known everywhere,
instead, either V (r) or the total charge Qi may be supplied on the surfaces
of each conductor. Such problems require solving for the potential using
Special Techniques using Boundary Conditions:
1. Solving via the Method of Images
2. Solving Laplaces or Poissons Equations:

(r)
2 V (r) = = Poissons Equation
0
2 V (r) = 0 = Laplaces Equation

I Laplaces Equation in Cartesian system:

2 V (x, y , z) 2 V (x, y , z) 2 V (x, y , z)


2 V (x, y , z) = + + = 0.
x 2 y 2 z 2
Solution to Laplaces Equation: Domain

I Our interest is particularly to obtain a solution to V (r) in a charge free


((r) = 0) region: r D R3 , bounded by one or more simple closed
surfaces S1 , S2 (sometimes over entire R3 , including the boundary at
infinity S , provided (r) 6= 0, r R3 , else V (r) is trivially zero (or
constant) everywhere, which is uninteresting!)

I Note: D is free of charge distributions, but there may be prenty of charge


distributions and charged conductors elsewhere in R3 .
Characteristics of Solutions to Laplaces Equation
I The set of specified conditions that determine unique solutions is termed
as BOUNDARY CONDITIONS.
Characteristics of Solutions to Laplaces Equation
I The set of specified conditions that determine unique solutions is termed
as BOUNDARY CONDITIONS.
I Potential functions, which are solutions to the Laplaces equations are
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS having the special property that they attain
extrema only at the boundaries of the domain D of definition. They are
rather monotonic functions without any local minima or maxima at
intermediate points.
Characteristics of Solutions to Laplaces Equation
I The set of specified conditions that determine unique solutions is termed
as BOUNDARY CONDITIONS.
I Potential functions, which are solutions to the Laplaces equations are
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS having the special property that they attain
extrema only at the boundaries of the domain D of definition. They are
rather monotonic functions without any local minima or maxima at
intermediate points.
I The value of a harmonic function at any intermediate point P in a given
domain D, is the average over values in any closed interval around that
point.
Characteristics of Solutions to Laplaces Equation
I The set of specified conditions that determine unique solutions is termed
as BOUNDARY CONDITIONS.
I Potential functions, which are solutions to the Laplaces equations are
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS having the special property that they attain
extrema only at the boundaries of the domain D of definition. They are
rather monotonic functions without any local minima or maxima at
intermediate points.
I The value of a harmonic function at any intermediate point P in a given
domain D, is the average over values in any closed interval around that
point.
I Geometrical Interpretations of solutions to Laplaces equations in various
spatial dimensions:
1. In 1D, the solution yields the shortest distance between the two given
boundary points, i.e., a straight line.
Characteristics of Solutions to Laplaces Equation
I The set of specified conditions that determine unique solutions is termed
as BOUNDARY CONDITIONS.
I Potential functions, which are solutions to the Laplaces equations are
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS having the special property that they attain
extrema only at the boundaries of the domain D of definition. They are
rather monotonic functions without any local minima or maxima at
intermediate points.
I The value of a harmonic function at any intermediate point P in a given
domain D, is the average over values in any closed interval around that
point.
I Geometrical Interpretations of solutions to Laplaces equations in various
spatial dimensions:
1. In 1D, the solution yields the shortest distance between the two given
boundary points, i.e., a straight line.
2. In 2D, the solution minimizes the surface area between the given boundary
curves.
Characteristics of Solutions to Laplaces Equation
I The set of specified conditions that determine unique solutions is termed
as BOUNDARY CONDITIONS.
I Potential functions, which are solutions to the Laplaces equations are
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS having the special property that they attain
extrema only at the boundaries of the domain D of definition. They are
rather monotonic functions without any local minima or maxima at
intermediate points.
I The value of a harmonic function at any intermediate point P in a given
domain D, is the average over values in any closed interval around that
point.
I Geometrical Interpretations of solutions to Laplaces equations in various
spatial dimensions:
1. In 1D, the solution yields the shortest distance between the two given
boundary points, i.e., a straight line.
2. In 2D, the solution minimizes the surface area between the given boundary
curves.
3. In 3D or more, geometric interpretations are in general not possible.
Solutions to Laplaces Equation in 1D
Solutions to Laplaces Equation in 2D
Harmonic Nature of Solution in 3D
Example
Find the average potential over a spherical surface with radius R whose center
P is located at a distance d > R from a point charge q.
Harmonic Nature of Solution in 3D
Example
Find the average potential over a spherical surface with radius R whose center
P is located at a distance d > R from a point charge q.

q
I Electrostatic Potential at P: V (P) = 40 d
Harmonic Nature of Solution in 3D
Example
Find the average potential over a spherical surface with radius R whose center
P is located at a distance d > R from a point charge q.

q
I Electrostatic Potential at P: V (P) = 40 d
I Average potential on S:

1
VS = V (r(R, , )) dA
4R 2
S
Harmonic Nature of Solution in 3D
Example
Find the average potential over a spherical surface with radius R whose center
P is located at a distance d > R from a point charge q.

q
I Electrostatic Potential at P: V (P) = 40 d
I Average potential on S:

1
VS = V (r(R, , )) dA
4R 2
S

1 q =2 =
R 2 sin d d
=
4R 2 40 =0 =0 R 2 + d 2 2Rd cos
Harmonic Nature of Solution in 3D
Example
Find the average potential over a spherical surface with radius R whose center
P is located at a distance d > R from a point charge q.

q
I Electrostatic Potential at P: V (P) = 40 d
I Average potential on S:

1
VS = V (r(R, , )) dA
4R 2
S
=2 =
1 q R 2 sin d d
=
4R 2 40 =0 =0 R 2 + d 2 2Rd cos

q 1 p
2 2

= R + d 2Rd cos
40 2dR 0
q
= = V (P)!
40 d
Harmonic Nature of Solution in 3D
Example
Find the average potential over a spherical surface with radius R whose center
P is located at a distance d > R from a point charge q.

q
I Electrostatic Potential at P: V (P) = 40 d
I Average potential on S:

1
VS = V (r(R, , )) dA
4R 2
S
=2 =
1 q R 2 sin d d
=
4R 2 40 =0 =0 R 2 + d 2 2Rd cos

q 1 p
2 2

= R + d 2Rd cos
40 2dR 0
q
= = V (P)!
40 d

Potential at a point P, due to a point charge is same as the average potential
over the spherical surface centered about P. By superposition principle, the same
must be true for any collection of distant point charges outside the sphere.

Properties of Electrostatic Potential in 3D
Theorem

Let D be a charge free region in R3 and a point P be inside D. If S is any
spherical surface in D with center at P, then the net Electrostatic potential at
P is equal to the average of the net Electrostatic potentials over S.

Properties of Electrostatic Potential in 3D
Theorem

Let D be a charge free region in R3 and a point P be inside D. If S is any
spherical surface in D with center at P, then the net Electrostatic potential at
P is equal to the average of the net Electrostatic potentials over S.

Proof.
Consider the collection of point charges q1 , q2 . . . , qn , all placed outside D, and
V1 , V2 , . . . , Vn be the potentials due to these charges, respectively. If A be the
surface area of sphere S, then we have already seen that the potential for a
single charge, say qi , at P is

1
Vi (P) = V i,S = Vi (r S) dA
A
S
Properties of Electrostatic Potential in 3D
Theorem

Let D be a charge free region in R3 and a point P be inside D. If S is any
spherical surface in D with center at P, then the net Electrostatic potential at
P is equal to the average of the net Electrostatic potentials over S.

Proof.
Consider the collection of point charges q1 , q2 . . . , qn , all placed outside D, and
V1 , V2 , . . . , Vn be the potentials due to these charges, respectively. If A be the
surface area of sphere S, then we have already seen that the potential for a
single charge, say qi , at P is

1
Vi (P) = V i,S = Vi (r S) dA
A
S

So, the net potential at P by superposition principle is


Xn
Vnet (P) = Vi (P)
i=1
Properties of Electrostatic Potential in 3D
Theorem

Let D be a charge free region in R3 and a point P be inside D. If S is any
spherical surface in D with center at P, then the net Electrostatic potential at
P is equal to the average of the net Electrostatic potentials over S.

Proof.
Consider the collection of point charges q1 , q2 . . . , qn , all placed outside D, and
V1 , V2 , . . . , Vn be the potentials due to these charges, respectively. If A be the
surface area of sphere S, then we have already seen that the potential for a
single charge, say qi , at P is

1
Vi (P) = V i,S = Vi (r S) dA
A
S

So, the net potential at P by superposition principle is


Xn
Vnet (P) = Vi (P)
i=1
n "X
n
#
X 1
= V i,S = Vi (r S) dA
i=1
A i=1
S

= V net,S
Properties of Electrostatic Potential in 3D (contd.)
Corollary
(1) If D be a charge free region in R3 , then there can be no local maxima or
minima in the solution to the Electrostatic potential anywhere intermediate
within D. All extremities occur at the boundaries.
Properties of Electrostatic Potential in 3D (contd.)
Corollary
(1) If D be a charge free region in R3 , then there can be no local maxima or
minima in the solution to the Electrostatic potential anywhere intermediate
within D. All extremities occur at the boundaries.

Corollary
(2) Let D be a charge free region in R3 such that the electrostatic potential is
zero on all its boundaries. Then it implies that the Electrostatic potential must
be identically zero throughout D.
Uniqueness Theorem
Solutions to the Laplaces Equation can be obtained in a variety of different
ways in general. Infact there are infinite number of sulutions for different
boundary conditions. But for specific boundary conditions, the Uniqueness
Theorem guarantees a solution is unique regardless of the method used to
obtain the solution.
Uniqueness Theorem
Solutions to the Laplaces Equation can be obtained in a variety of different
ways in general. Infact there are infinite number of sulutions for different
boundary conditions. But for specific boundary conditions, the Uniqueness
Theorem guarantees a solution is unique regardless of the method used to
obtain the solution.

Theorem
' $
Let D R3 be a region free of charge with boundary surface S and : S R
be any arbitrary function defined on the boundary points. Then the Laplaces
equation,
2 V (r) = 0 over D,
given that, V (r) = (r) on S ,

always guarantees a unique solution.


& %
Uniqueness Theorem (contd.)
Proof.
First, assume that two solutions V1 (r) and V2 (r) to the Laplaces equations in
the simple region D, assuming V1 (S) = V2 (S) = (S) on the simple
boundary surface S:

2 V1 (r) = 0 over D,
2
V2 (r) = 0 over D.
Uniqueness Theorem (contd.)
Proof.
First, assume that two solutions V1 (r) and V2 (r) to the Laplaces equations in
the simple region D, assuming V1 (S) = V2 (S) = (S) on the simple
boundary surface S:

2 V1 (r) = 0 over D,
2
V2 (r) = 0 over D.

Next, define function V3 = V2 V1 , then V3 also satisfies Laplaces equation:


Uniqueness Theorem (contd.)
Proof.
First, assume that two solutions V1 (r) and V2 (r) to the Laplaces equations in
the simple region D, assuming V1 (S) = V2 (S) = (S) on the simple
boundary surface S:

2 V1 (r) = 0 over D,
2
V2 (r) = 0 over D.

Next, define function V3 = V2 V1 , then V3 also satisfies Laplaces equation:

2 V3 = 2 V2 2 V1 = 0 over D,
such that, V3 (S) = V2 (S) V1 (S) = 0 on S.
Uniqueness Theorem (contd.)
Proof.
First, assume that two solutions V1 (r) and V2 (r) to the Laplaces equations in
the simple region D, assuming V1 (S) = V2 (S) = (S) on the simple
boundary surface S:

2 V1 (r) = 0 over D,
2
V2 (r) = 0 over D.

Next, define function V3 = V2 V1 , then V3 also satisfies Laplaces equation:

2 V3 = 2 V2 2 V1 = 0 over D,
such that, V3 (S) = V2 (S) V1 (S) = 0 on S.

But, solutions to Laplaces equation tolerates no local extrima, which can occur
only at the boundaries. Thus, V3 = 0 everywhere, implying V1 = V2 over D,
i.e., both the solutions are one and the same.
Uniqueness Theorem: Extensions
I The charge free region D in general may have islands with boundary
surfaces S1 , S2 , as long as V is specified on all surfaces.
Uniqueness Theorem: Extensions
I The charge free region D in general may have islands with boundary
surfaces S1 , S2 , as long as V is specified on all surfaces.
I If the charge free region D R3 , then the appropriate boundary condition
is V = 0 at S . This corresponds to a trivial solution V = 0 everywhere.
Uniqueness Theorem: Extensions
I The charge free region D in general may have islands with boundary
surfaces S1 , S2 , as long as V is specified on all surfaces.
I If the charge free region D R3 , then the appropriate boundary condition
is V = 0 at S . This corresponds to a trivial solution V = 0 everywhere.
I Second Uniqueness Theorem: If V be a region surrounded by a system of
charged conductors, then the Electric field is uniquely determined by
specifying the total charge on each conductor.
Uniqueness Theorem: Application

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