7/25/2016 1 Introduction Essential Radio Astronomy

EssentialRadioAstronomy
Preface 2RadiationFundamentals

Chapter1
Introduction
1.1AnIntroductiontoRadioAstronomy

1.1.1WhatIsRadioAstronomy?
Radioastronomyisthestudyofnaturalradioemissionfromcelestialsources.Therange
ofradiofrequenciesorwavelengthsislooselydefinedbyatmosphericopacityandby
quantumnoiseincoherentamplifiers.Togethertheyplacetheboundarybetweenradio
andfarinfraredastronomyatfrequency 1 THz(1THz 10 Hz)orwavelength
12

= c/ 0.3 mm,wherec 3 10 isthevacuumspeedoflight.The

10 1
cm s

Earthsionospheresetsalowfrequencylimittogroundbasedradioastronomyby
reflectingextraterrestrialradiowaveswithfrequenciesbelow 10MHz( 30m),
andtheionizedinterstellarmediumofourownGalaxyabsorbsextragalacticradiosignals
below 2 MHz.

Theradiobandisverybroadlogarithmically:itspansthefivedecadesbetween
10MHzand1THzatthelowfrequencyendoftheelectromagneticspectrum.Nearly
everythingemitsradiowavesatsomelevel,viaawidevarietyofemissionmechanisms.
Fewastronomicalradiosourcesareobscuredbecauseradiowavescanpenetrate
interstellardustcloudsandComptonthicklayersofneutralgas.Becauseonlyopticaland
radioobservationscanbemadefromtheground,pioneeringradioastronomershadthe
firstopportunitytoexploreaparalleluniversecontainingunexpectednewobjectssuch
asradiogalaxies,quasars,andpulsars,plusverycoldsourcessuchasinterstellar
molecularcloudsandthecosmicmicrowavebackgroundradiationfromthebigbang
itself.

Telescopesobservingfromabovetheatmospherehavesinceopenedtheentire
electromagneticspectrumtoastronomers,butradioastronomyretainsaunique
observationaladvantage.Coherentamplifiers,whichpreservephaseinformation,allow
theconstructionofsensitivemultielementaperturesynthesisinterferometersthatcan
imagecomplexsourceswithangularresolutionandabsoluteastrometricaccuracies
approaching10 arcsec.Quantumnoiseforeverrestrictssensitivecoherent
4

amplificationtothelowphotonenergiesE = h (whereh = Plancksconstant

6.626 10 ergs)oftheradioband.Also,coherentsignalscanbeshiftedtolower
27

frequenciesanddigitized,permittingtheconstructionofradiospectrometerswith
extremelyhighspectralresolutionandfrequencyaccuracy.

1.1.2AtmosphericWindows

TheEarthsatmosphereabsorbselectromagneticradiationatmostinfrared(IR),
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ultraviolet,Xray,andgammaraywavelengths,soonlyoptical/nearIRandradio
observationscanbemadefromtheground(Figure1.1).Thevisiblelightwindowis
relativelynarrowandspansthewavelengthsofpeakthermalemissionfromT 3000K
toT 10, 000 Kblackbodies.Earlyobservationalastronomywaslimitedtovisible
objectshotthermalsourcessuchasstars,clustersandgalaxiesofstars,andgasionized
bystars(e.g.,theOrionNebulainOrionsswordisvisibleasafuzzyblobtotheunaided
eyeonadarknight),andtocoolerobjectsshiningbyreflectedstarlight(e.g.,planetsand
moons).Knowingthespectrumofblackbodyradiation,astronomersacenturyago
correctlydeducedthatstarshavingnearlyblackbodyspectrawouldbeundetectablyfaint
asradiosources,andincorrectlyassumedthattherewouldbenoothercelestialradio
sources.Consequentlytheyfailedtodevelopradioastronomyuntilstrongradioemission
fromourGalaxywasdiscoveredaccidentallyin1932andfollowedupbyradioengineers.

Figure1.1:Groundbasedastronomyisconfinedtothevisibleandradioatmospheric
windows,wavelengthrangesinwhichtheatmosphereisnearlytransparent.Theradio
windowismuchwiderthanthevisiblewindowwhenplottedonlogarithmic
wavelengthorfrequencyscales,soitincludesawiderangeofastronomicalsources
andemissionmechanisms.Radioastronomersusuallymeasure(andthinkintermsof)
frequencies = c/ insteadofwavelengths .Thus = 0.3 mm correspondsto
= 1 THz,thehighestfrequencyaccessiblefromthebestterrestrialsites.TheEarths

ionospherereflectsradiowaveslongerthan 30 m ( 10 MHz ).Abscissa:

Wavelength.Ordinate:Atmospherictransmission.ImageCredit:ESA/Hubble
(F.Granato).

Whatphysicalprocesseslimittheatmosphericwindows?Atthehighfrequencyend
oftheradiowindow,vibrationaltransitionsofatmosphericmoleculessuchasCO ,O ,2 2

andH OhaveenergiesE = h comparablewiththoseofmidinfraredphotons,so

2

vibratingmoleculesabsorbmostextraterrestrialmidinfraredradiation.Lowerenergy
rotationaltransitionsofatmosphericmoleculesdefinethefairlybroadtransitionbetween
thefarinfraredbandandthehighfrequencylimitoftheradiowindowat 1 THz.
Groundbasedradioastronomyisincreasinglydegradedatfrequencies < 300 MHz
(wavelengths > 1 m)byvariableionosphericrefraction,andcelestialradiowaves
havingfrequencies < 10MHz(wavelengths > 30m)areusuallyreflectedbackinto
spacebytheEarthsionosphere.Totalinternalreflectionintheionospheremakesthe
Earthlooklikeamirrorfromspace,liketheglassfaceofanunderwaterwristwatch
viewedobliquely.

Ultravioletphotonshaveenergiesclosetothebindingenergiesoftheouterelectrons
inatoms,soelectronictransitionsinatomsaccountforthehighultravioletopacityofthe
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atmosphere.HigherenergyelectronicandnucleartransitionsproduceXrayandgamma
rayabsorption.Inaddition,Rayleighscatteringofsunlightbyatmosphericgasmolecules
anddustparticlesatvisibleandultravioletwavelengthsbrightenstheskyenoughto
precludedaytimeopticalobservationsoffaintobjects.Radiowavelengthsaremuch
longerthanatmosphericdustgrainsandtheSunisnotanoverwhelminglybrightradio
source,sotheradioskyisalwaysdarkandmanyradioobservationscanbemadedayor
night.

Figure1.2:Theatmosphericzenithopacity atGreenBankduringatypicalsummer
z

night.Anopacity attenuatesthepowerreceivedfromanastronomicalsourcebythe
factorexp( ) .Theoxygenanddryairopacitiesarenearlyconstant,whilethewater
vaporandhydrosolcontributionsvarysignificantlywithweather.

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Figure1.3:Zenithatmosphericopacity for0.5mmpwvattheAtacamaLarge
z

MillimeterArray(ALMA)site.Watervaporabsorptionisresponsibleforthebroad
opaquebandscenteredon557GHz,752GHz,and970GHz.Theplotteddataarefrom
https://almascience.eso.org/about-alma/weather/atmosphere-model.

Theatmosphereisnotperfectlytransparentatanyradiofrequency.Figure1.2shows
howitszenith(thezenithisthepointdirectlyoverhead)opacity inGreenBank,WV
z

varieswithfrequencyduringatypicalsummernightwithawatervaporcolumndensity
of1cm,55%cloudcover,andsurfaceairtemperatureT = 288 K = 15 C .Thetotal

zenithopacity(solidcurve)isthesumofseveralcomponents[65]:

1.Thebroadbandorcontinuumopacityofdryair(longdashes)resultsfromviscous
dampingofthefreerotationsofnonpolarmolecules.Itisrelativelysmall(
0.01 )andnearlyindependentoffrequency.
z

2.Molecularoxygen(O )hasnopermanentelectricdipolemoment,butitdoeshave
2

rotationaltransitionsthatcanabsorbradiowavesbecauseithasapermanent
magneticdipolemoment.Theatmosphericpressurebroadenedcomplexofoxygen
spectrallines(shortdashes)isquiteopaque( 1 )andprecludesgroundbased
z

observationsinthefrequencyrange52 GHz < < 68 GHz (1 GHz 10 Hz 9

).
3.Hydrosolsareliquidwaterdropletssmallenough(radius 0.1mm)toremain
suspendedinclouds.Theyaremuchsmallerthanthewavelengthevenat120GHz
( 2.5 mm),sotheiremissionandabsorptionobeytheRayleighscattering
approximationandtheiropacity(dotdashcurve)isproportionalto or . 2 2

4.Thestrongwatervaporspectrallineat 22.235 GHzispressurebroadenedto

4 GHzwidth.Thesocalledcontinuumopacityofwatervaporatradio

wavelengthsisactuallythesumoflinewingopacitiesfrommuchstrongerwater
linesatinfraredwavelengths[106].Intheplottedfrequencyrange,thiscontinuum
opacityisalsoproportionalto .Boththelineandcontinuumzenithopacities
2

(dottedcurves)aredirectlyproportionaltothecolumndensityofprecipitable
watervapor(pwv)alongtheverticallineofsightthroughtheatmosphere.
Conventionallypwvisexpressedasalength(e.g.,1cm)ratherthanasatrue
2
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columndensity(e.g.,1gmcm ),butthetwoformsarenumericallyequivalent
2

becausethemassdensityofwaterisunityinCGSunits.

Thepartiallyabsorbingatmospheredoesntjustattenuateincomingradioradiation
italsoemitsradionoisethatcanseriouslydegradethesensitivityofgroundbasedradio
observations.Iftheatmosphericopacityis ,theatmospherictransparencyisexp( )
andemissionfromtheatmosphereatkinetictemperatureT 300 Kadds
T = T [1 exp( )]tothesystemnoisetemperatureT .Radioastronomersuse
s s

T P /k ,wherek = Boltzmannsconstant 1.38 10 ,asa

16 1
s
erg K

convenientmeasureofthenoisepowerperunitbandwidthP .Thesystemnoise

temperatureisnormallymuchsmallerthantheatmospherickinetictemperature,sothe
addednoisefromatmosphericemissiondegradessensitivityevenmorethanpure
absorptionalone.Forexample,emissionbywatervaporinthewarmandhumid
atmosphereaboveGreenBank,WVprecludessensitiveobservationsnearthewater
vaporlineat 22GHzduringthesummer.GreenBankcanbequitecoldanddryin
thewinter,allowingobservationsatfrequenciesupto 115 GHz .Theverybestsites
forobservingathigherfrequenciesareexceptionallyhighanddry.Forexample,the
AtacamaLargeMillimeterArray(ALMA)showninFigure8.5islocatedat5000m
elevationonadesertplainnearCerroChajnatorinChile,wherethetypicalpwvis
< 1 mm.Figure1.3showsthezenithatmosphericopacityattheALMAsitewhenpwv

= 0.5 mm,forfrequenciesuptothe 1 THz atmosphericlimit.

Finally,therefractiveindexofwatervaporisabout20timeshigheratradiothanat
opticalwavelengthsbecausetheindexofrefractionatwavelength isproportionaltothe
cumulativestrengthofthewatervaporabsorptionlinesatshorterwavelengths,the
strongestofwhichlieinthefarinfraredrange0.03 < (mm) < 0.6 .Watervaporis
notwellmixedintheatmosphere,sofluctuationsinthecolumndensityofwatervapor
alongthelineofsightblurtheimageofapointradiosource.Thescaleheightofwater
vaporinthetroposphereis 2 km ,sothelargestfluctuationshavetransverse
dimensionsofseveralkm.Consequentlypointsourcesseenbyallradiotelescopesor
radiointerferometerssmallerthanafewkminsizeareblurredby 0.5 arcsec ,and
thisblurringisnearlyindependentofwavelengthforall > 0.6 mm .Theangularsize
oftheseeingdiskforinterferometersmuchlargerthanafewkmisinversely
proportionaltothesizeoftheinterferometer.Incontrast,opticalseeingatwavelengths
0.03 mm isdominatedbythemuchsmaller( 10 cm )turbulentdensity

fluctuationsofdryair.Itisonlyacoincidencethattheopticalseeingdiskisalso
0.5 arcsec atthebestterrestrialsites.Forathoroughreviewofatmosphericand

ionosphericpropagationeffects,seeThompson,Moran,&Swenson[106,Chapter13].

1.1.3AstronomyintheRadioWindow
Becausetheradiowindowissobroad,(1)almostalltypesofastronomicalsources,
thermalandnonthermalradiationmechanisms,andpropagationphenomenacanbe
observedatradiowavelengthsand(2)awidevarietyofradiotelescopesandobserving
techniquesareneededtocovertheradiowindoweffectively.

Theradiowindowwasexploredbeforethereweretelescopesinspace,soearlyradio
astronomywasascienceofdiscoveryandserendipity.Itrevealedaparalleluniverseof
unexpectedsourcesnotpreviouslyseen,oratleastnotrecognizedasbeingdifferentfrom
ordinarystars.Majordiscoveriesofradioastronomyinclude

1.nonthermalradiationfromourGalaxy[86]andmanyotherastronomicalsources
2.theviolentuniverseofpowerfulradiogalaxies[4]andquasars(quasistellar

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radiosources)[48,101]poweredbysupermassiveblackholes(SMBHs)
3.cosmologicalevolutionofradiogalaxiesandquasars[98]
4.thermalspectrallineemissionfromcoldinterstellargasatoms,ions,and
molecules
5.maser(theacronymformicrowaveamplificationbystimulatedemissionof
radiation)emissionfrominterstellarmolecules[114]
6.coherentcontinuumemissionfromstarsandpulsars
7.cosmicmicrowavebackgroundradiationfromthehotbigbang[80]
8.pulsarsandneutronstars[50]
9.indirectbutconvincingevidenceforgravitationalradiation[104]
10.thesupermassiveblackholeatthecenterofourGalaxy[8]
11.evidencefordarkmatteringalaxies,deducedfromtheirHI(neutralhydrogen)
rotationcurves[92]
12.extrasolarplanets[117]
13.stronggravitationallensing[113].

Thefollowingitemsaresomeofthefeaturesofthisparalleluniverse.

1.Itisoftenviolent,reflectinghighenergyandexplosivephenomenainradio
galaxies,quasars,supernovae,pulsars,etc.,incontrasttothesteadylightoutputof
mostvisiblestars.
2.Manyradiosourcesareultimatelypoweredbygravityinsteadofbynuclearfusion,
theprincipalenergysourceofvisiblestars.
3.Itiscosmologicallydistant.Mostcontinuumradiosourcesareextragalactic,and
theyhaveevolvedsostronglyovercosmictimethatmostareseenatlookback
timescomparablewiththeageoftheuniverse.
4.Itcanbeverycold.Thecosmicmicrowavebackgrounddominatesthe
electromagneticenergyoftheuniverse,butits2.7Kblackbodyspectrumis
confinedtoradioandfarinfraredwavelengths.Coldinterstellargasesemitspectral
linesatradiowavelengths.

Withtheadventoftelescopesinspace,theentireelectromagneticspectrumhas
becomeaccessibletoastronomers.Manysourcesdiscoveredbyradioastronomerscan
nowbestudiedinotherwavebands,andnewobjectsdiscoveredinotherwavebands(e.g.,
gammaraybursters)cannowbefollowedupatradiowavelengths.Radioastronomyis
nolongeraseparateanddistinctfielditisonefacetofmultiwavelengthastronomy.Even
so,theradiobandretainsuniqueastronomicalandtechnicalfeatures.

Figure1.4:Theelectromagneticspectrumoftheuniverseatradio[31],farinfrared
(FIR)[46],optical/nearinfrared(OIR)[46,45],andXray(X)andgammaray( )[42]
frequencies.Theextragalacticskybrightness I perlogarithmicfrequencyintervalis

plottedasafunctionofthelogarithmoffrequency,sothehighestpeakscorrespondto
themostenergeticallyimportantspectralranges.
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Mostoftheelectromagneticenergyoftheuniverse(Figure1.4)isinthecosmic
microwavebackground(CMB)radiationleftoverfromthehotbigbang.Ithasanearly
perfect2.73Kblackbodyspectrumpeakingat 220 GHz .Thestrongoptical/near
infrared(OIR)peakat 3 10 GHz( 1 m)isprimarilythermalemission
5

fromstarsplusasmallercontributionofthermalandnonthermalemissionfromtheactive
galacticnuclei(AGN)inSeyfertgalaxiesandquasars.Mostofthecomparablystrong
cosmicfarinfrared(FIR)backgroundpeakingat 3 10 GHz( 100 m)is
3

thermalreemissionfrominterstellardustthatwasheatedbyabsorbingabouthalfofthat
OIRradiation.ThecosmicXrayandgammaraybackgroundsaremixturesof
nonthermalemission(e.g.,synchrotronradiationorinverseComptonscattering)from
highenergyparticlesacceleratedbyAGNandthermalemissionfromveryhotgas(e.g.,
gasinclustersofgalaxies).Bycomparison,therelativelyfaintextragalacticradiosource
background(radio)isbrighterthantheCMBonlyfor 0.4 GHz .Althoughmanyare
energeticallyinsignificant,radiosourcesdotracemostphenomenathataredetectablein
otherportionsoftheelectromagneticspectrum,andmodernradiotelescopesaresensitive
enoughtodetectthem.

1.1.4WhatIsSpecialaboutLongWavelengthsandLowFrequencies?
Manyuniquescientificandtechnicalfeaturesofradioastronomyresultfromradiowaves
occupyingthelongwavelengthendoftheelectromagneticspectrum.Atmacroscopic
wavelengthslargegroupsofchargedparticlesmovingtogetherinvolumes < may 3

producestrongcoherentemission,accountingfortheastoundingradiobrightnessesof
pulsarsat 1 m .Dustscatteringisnegligiblebecauseinterstellardustgrainsare
muchsmallerthanradiowavelengths,sothedustyinterstellarmedium(ISM)isnearly
transparent.ThisallowedradioastronomerstoseethroughthedustydiskofourGalaxy
anddiscoverthecompactradiosourceSgrA [8]poweredbythesupermassiveblack

holeatitscenter.

LowfrequenciesimplylowphotonenergiesE = h .Thusradiospectrallinestrace
extremelylowenergytransitionsproducedbyatomichyperfinesplitting(theubiquitous
21cmlineofneutralhydrogenat 1.420 GHzgeneratesphotonsofenergy
eV ),thequantizedrotationratesofpolarmoleculessuchascarbon
6
E 6 10

monoxideininterstellarspace,andhighlevelrecombinationlinesfrominterstellaratoms.

Atradiofrequencies,thedimensionlessratioh / (kT ) ofphotonenergytothe

meankineticenergyofparticlesattemperatureT isverysmall( 1).Inthislimit,the
brightnessofablackbodyemitterisproportionalto ,ensuringthatnearlyevery
2

astronomicalobjectisathermalradiosourceatsomelowlevel.Onthenegativeside,the
factthatnearlyeverythingemitsradioradiationmeansradioastronomersmustdealwith
largeandfluctuatingnaturalforegroundsofemissionfromtheground,fromthe
atmosphere,andevenfromtheirownantennasandreceivers.Also,stimulatedemission
(negativeabsorption)becomescomparablewithabsorptionwhenh / (kT ) 1.This
greatlylowerstheopacitiesofradiospectrallines,makestheiremissionstrengthsnearly
independentofthetemperatureoftheemittinggas,andallowsmaseremissionwithonly
asmallpopulationinversion.

Incontrast,h / (kT ) 1forcoldsourcesatopticalfrequencies,wherethe

exponentialhighfrequencycutoffoftheblackbodyradiationspectrumensuresthat
essentiallynoopticalphotonsareemitted.Coldthermalemitters(e.g.,the2.73Kcosmic
microwavebackground,orinterstellargasattemperaturesbelow100K)arecompletely
invisible.Forexample,apersoncanbeapproximatedbya300Kblackbodywitha
surfacearea 1 m .Suchablackbodyemits 10 photonspersecondatradio
2 16

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frequenciesbelow10GHzbutonly0.01photonspersecondatvisiblewavelengths
< 0.75 m .

FreeelectronsscatterelectromagneticradiationbyaprocesscalledThomson
scatteringorComptonscattering.TheThomsonscatteringcrosssectionperelectronis
6.65 10
T
cm atallfrequencies,andsourcesbehindfreeelectroncolumn
25 2

densitiesN > 10 cm calledComptonthickbecausetheyareobscured.

e
1
T
24 2

Radiophotonshaveenergiesmuchlowerthanthe eV(electronvolt)bindingenergies
ofelectronsinatoms,sothoseelectronsarenotfreeforradiophotons,andradiowaves
canpenetrateneutralComptonthicksources.Incontrast,electronsinatomsdonot
appearboundtoXrayphotonswith eV energies,andComptonthicksources(e.g.,
buriedquasarsbehindcloudsofgasanddust)arehiddenfromXrayobservations.

Radiosynchrotronsourceslivelongaftertheiremittingelectronswereacceleratedto
relativisticenergies,sotheycanprovidelonglastingarchaeologicalrecordsofpast
energeticphenomena(e.g.,seeFigures8.14and8.15).Likewise,neutralhydrogen
strippedfromcollidinggalaxiescontinuesemittingat = 21 cmfortensofmillionsof
years(Figures8.11and8.12).

Mostplasmaeffects(scattering,dispersion,Faradayrotation,etc.)havestrengths
proportionalto andarestrongenoughatlowradiofrequenciestobeusefultoolsfor
2

tracinginterstellarelectrondensitiesandmagneticfieldstrengths.

1.1.5RadioTelescopesandApertureSynthesisInterferometers
RadiotelescopesmusthaveverylargeaperturediametersD toachievegooddiffraction
limitedangularresolution /D radiansatradiowavelengths.Eventhebiggest
precisionradiotelescopes(e.g.,telescopeswithsmallrmsreflectorsurfaceerrors
< /16 )suchastheGreenBankTelescope(GBT)(Figure8.1)with 0.2 mm

andD = 100 m arelimitedto 1 arcsec .Ontheotherhand,hugemultielement

interferometersspanninguptoD 10 kmarepractical(Figure1.5).Paradoxically,the
4

finestangularresolutionforimagingfaintandcomplexsourcesisobtainableatthelong
wavelength(radio)endoftheelectromagneticspectrum.Interferometersalsoyield
extremelyaccurateastrometry(Figure1.6)becauseinterferometricpositionsdependon
measuringtimedelaysbetweentelescopesratherthanonthemechanicalpointingerrors
oftelescopes,andclocksarefarmoreaccuratethanrulers.

Radioastronomersalwaysmeasurefrequenciesdirectly,whilewavelengthsare
usuallymeasuredintherestoftheelectromagneticspectrum.Measuringafrequencyhas
twopracticaladvantages:(1)frequencycanbemeasuredmoreaccuratelythan
wavelengthbecauseclocksaremoreaccuratethanrulersand(2)frequencydoesnt
changewhenradiationpassesthrougharefractivemedium,butwavelengthdoes.

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Figure1.5:TheVeryLongBaselineArray(VLBA)of1025mtelescopesextending
8000kmfromSt.Croix,VItoMaunaKea,HIyieldsangularresolutionasfineas
= 0.00017arcsec,surpassingtheresolutionoftheHubbleSpaceTelescopebytwo

ordersofmagnitude.Imagecredit:NRAO/AUI/NSF

Coherent(phasepreserving)amplifiersarerequiredforaccurateinterferometric
imagingoffaintextendedsourcesbecausetheyallowthesignalfromeachtelescopeina
multielementinterferometertobeamplifiedbeforeitissplitandcombinedwiththe
signalsfromtheothertelescopes,ratherthanjustbeingdividedamongtheother
telescopes.TheminimumpossiblenoisetemperatureofacoherentreceiverisT h /k
owingtoquantumnoise.Quantumnoiseisproportionaltofrequency,soeventhebest
possiblecoherentamplifiersatvisiblelightfrequenciesmusthavenoisetemperatures
T > 10 K.Aperturesynthesisinterferometersatradiowavelengthsprovide
4

unparalleledsensitivity,imagefidelity,angularresolution,andabsolutepositionaccuracy.

Figure1.6:MultiepochVLBApositionmeasurementsofTTauSb,acompanionofthe
wellknownyoungstellarobjectTTauri,allowedLoinardetal.[67]todetermineits
parallaxdistancewithunprecedentedaccuracy:d = 146.7 0.6 pc,asignificant
improvementovertheHipparcosdistanced = 177 pc,andeventodetect
+68

39

acceleratedpropermotion.

1.2TheDiscoveryofCosmicRadioNoise

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NaturalradioemissionfromourGalaxywasdetectedserendipitouslyin1932byKarl
GutheJansky,aphysicistworkingasaradioengineerforBellTelephoneLaboratories.
Whyhadntprofessionalastronomersofthateravigorouslypursuedradioastronomyand
madethisdiscoveryfirst?Inpart,becausetheyknewtoomuch.Theyknewthatstarsare
nearlyblackbodyradiatorsatvisiblewavelengths.ThespectralbrightnessB at

frequency ofanidealblackbodyradiatorisgivenbyPlanckslaw

3
2h 1
B ( , T ) = ,
2
h
c
exp( ) 1 (1.1)
kT

whereB isthepoweremittedperunitareaperunitfrequencypersteradianofsolid

anglebyablackbody,h 6.63 10 27
erg s = 6.63 10 joule s = Plancks
34

constant, = frequencyincyclespersecond,orhertz(soHz=s ), 1

= Boltzmannsconstant,
16 1 23 1
k 1.38 10 erg K = 1.38 10 joule K

= thespeedoflight,andT isthe
10 1 8 1
c 3.00 10 cm s = 3.00 10 m s

absolutetemperature(K)oftheblackbody.

Thesubscript inB ( , T ) denotesbrightnessperunitfrequencyandnot

brightnessasafunctionoffrequency.Likewise,thesubscript inB denotesbrightness

perunitwavelength,evenifB iswrittenasafunctionoffrequency,B ( , T ) .Thus

B ( , T ) = B (, T ) butB ( , T ) B ( , T ) .BothB andB appearinthe

astronomicalliterature,soyouhavetopayattentiontowhichoneisbeingused.Radio
astronomersusuallyuseB becauseelectronicspectrometersmeasurefrequencies,but

B isoftenappropriateformechanicalspectrometersthatmeasurewavelengths.

Atradiofrequencies,thedimensionlessquantityh / (kT ) 1formost

astronomicalsources.Forexample,thetemperatureoftheSunsphotosphere(theSuns
visiblesurface)isT 5800K.At = 1 GHz = 10 Hz,whichwasnearthehigh
9

frequencylimitofradiotechnologyin1932,

27 9
h 6.63 10 erg s 10 Hz
6
8 10 .
kT 1.38 10
16
erg K
1
5800 K (1.2)

ReplacingtheexponentialdenominatorinEquation1.1byitsTaylorseries
approximation

h h h
exp( ) 1 1 + + 1
kT kT kT (1.3)

yieldsthesimpleRayleighJeansapproximation

3 2
2h kT 2kT
B ( , T ) =
c
2
h c
2 (1.4)

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or

2kT
B (, T ) =

2 (1.5)

totheblackbodyspectrumvalidatlowfrequenciesorlongwavelengths.Theradio
emissionfromastar,whichsubtendsaverysmallsolidangle,wouldhavebeentoofaint
todetect.Thisargumentismoreorlesscorrectinfact,eventhemostsensitivemodern
radiotelescopescouldnotdetectthe1GHzblackbodyemissionfromthephotosphereof
astarliketheSunifitweremovedtothedistanced > 1 pcoftheneareststars(1parsec
(pc) 3.09 10 cm isdefinedasthedistanceatwhichtheradiusoftheEarths
18

orbitsubtends1 arcsec 206265 rad ).

1

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Example.WhatwouldbethefluxdensityS at = 1 GHzofaT = 5800Kblackbody

thesizeoftheSun(radiusR 7 10 cm)atthedistanceoftheneareststar,about1

10

parsec(d 3 10 cm)?ThissimpleexampleillustratesconversionsamongCGSunits
18

(favoredbyastrophysicists),MKSorSIunits(favoredbyengineersandradioobservers),
andastronomicalunits.SeeAppendixFforlistsofusefulconstantsandunits,andareview
ofhowtoconvertbetweenCGSandMKSunits.
FluxdensityS isdefinedasthepowerreceivedperunitdetectorareainaunitbandwidth(

= 1 Hz)atfrequency ,sotheMKSunitsofS areWm Hz .Thefluxdensity 2 1

receivedfromacompactsourcehavingbrightnessB andsubtendingasmallsolidangle

1 sris

S = B .

FortheSunat1GHz,
2
16 1 9
2
2kT 2 1.38 10 erg K 5800 K (10 Hz)
B = ;
2 2
c 10 1
(3.00 10 cm s )

Hz=s 1
andsrisdimensionless,so
15 2 15 1 2 1 1
B 1.78 10 erg cm = 1.78 10 erg s cm Hz sr .

NotethatB isapropertyofthesourcealoneitdoesnotdependonthedistancetothe

observer.Thesolidangle subtendedbytheSundoesdependonthedistanced tothe

observer:
2
2 10
R (7 10 cm)
15
= 1.71 10 sr;
2 2
d 18
(3 10 cm)

sothefluxdensityoftheSun,
30 1 2 1
S = B 3.0 10 erg s cm Hz ,

alsodependsonthedistancetotheobserver.ThestatementthatthefluxdensityoftheSun
is3 10 30
erg s
1
cm Hz misleadinglysuggeststhatthefluxdensityisan
2 1

intrinsicpropertyoftheSunitmakessenseonlybecausethequalifierforanobserver
locatedontheEarthisimplicitlyassumed.InMKSunits,
33 1 2 1 33 2 1
S 3.0 10 J s m Hz 3.0 10 W m Hz .

Thefluxdensitiesofastronomicalsourcesaresosmallintheseunitsthatastronomers
introducedtheunitjansky(honoringKarlJansky,thefirstradioastronomer)definedby
1 Jy 10
26
W m Hz
2
= 10
1
erg s cm
23
Hz .TheunitsmJy(10 Jy),
1 2 1 3

Jy(10 Jy ),orevennJy(10 Jy )areusedforthefaintestsources.Thus

6 9

S 0.3 Jy.

Thisistoofaintevenforthemostsensitivemodernradiotelescopes,whichcanbarelydetect
continuumsourcesasfaintasS 1 Jy.

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Nonetheless,ProfessorOliverLodgeatLiverpoolUniversitytriedtodetectlong
waveradiationfromtheSunin1894byfilteringouttheordinarywellknownwavesby
ablackboardandusingacohererofmetalfilingstodetectradiowaves.Both
terrestrialsourcesofdisturbanceinacitylikeLiverpoolandaninsufficientlysensitive
detectorfoiledthiseffort[51].

Inthe1920s,theBellTelephoneCompanyofferedtransatlantictelephoneservice
basedonshortwave( 15m)radiotransmissions.Naturalradiostaticwasaserious
sourceofinterference,soBellTelephoneLaboratoriesaskedtheiryoungelectrical
engineerKarlJanskytodetermineitsorigin.JanskybuilttheantennashowninFigure1.7
tomonitorradiostaticat20.5MHz( 15m).Itsreceptionpatternwasafanbeam
(narrowhorizontallyandbroaderintheverticalplane)thatpointednearthehorizonand
couldberotatedinazimuththeanglemeasuredfromnorthtoeastaroundthehorizon.
Hefoundthatmostofthestaticisproducedbylightningstrokesinnumeroustropical
thunderstorms.Inadditionhediscoveredasteadyhisswhosestrengthroseandfell
daily,withaperiodof23hoursand56minutes.Herecognizedthatthisisthelengthof
thesiderealday(thetimeittakestheEarthtorotateonceinthereferenceframeofthe
fixedstars),deducedthatthehissmustoriginatesomewhereoutsidetheSolarSystem,
andidentifiedthedirectiontotheGalacticcenterasthesourceofthestrongestemission.

Figure1.7:KarlJanskyandtheantennathatdiscoveredcosmicradiostatic.Itrotated
inazimuthonfourwheelsscavengedfromaFordModelT.Anaccuratereplicaofthis
antennaislocatedattheNRAOinGreenBank,WV.Imagecredit:NRAO/AUI/NSF.

JanskypublishedhisresultsinthepaperElectricaldisturbancesofapparently
extraterrestrialorigin[56].Hisdiscoverywasevenannouncedonthefrontpageofthe
NewYorkTimes,buthisemployerhadnopracticalinterestinunderstandingthecosmic
componentofradiostaticandreassignedJanskytootherprojects.Janskyhimself
believedthatthecosmicnoisewasthermalemissionbecauseitproducedasteadyhissin
headphonesthatsoundedlikethehissgeneratedbyhotelectronsinvacuumtube
amplifiers.Skepticalastronomerscouldntunderstandhowsuchstrong(equivalenttothe
emissionfromaT 2 10 KblackbodycoveringmostoftheinnerGalaxy)radio
5

noisewasproduced,andgenerallyignoredit.

TheonlypersonwhotookaseriousinterestinJanskysdiscoverywastheamateur
radiooperatorandprofessionalradioengineerGroteReber.Helaterwrote,

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Myinterestinradioastronomybeganafterreadingtheoriginalarticlesby
KarlJansky.ForsomeyearspreviousIhadbeenanardentradioamateurand
considerableofaDX[longdistancecommunication]addict,holdingthecall
signW9GFZ.AftercontactingoversixtycountriesandmakingWAC
[WorkedAllContinents,anamateurradioaward],theredidnotappeartobe
anymoreworldstoconquer.([87])

Radioastronomyprovidedthenewworldstoconquer,andradioastronomybecamehis
obsession.Hedevotedyearsofhislifetobuildingtheworldsfirstradioantennausinga
parabolicreflector(Figure1.8)athisownexpenseinhisbackyardinWheaton,ILand
usingittomaptheGalaxy.

Figure1.8:GroteRebersbackyardradiotelescopeinWheaton,IL.Theparabolic
reflectorisabout10mindiameter.Hisoriginaltelescopewasdismantledand
reassembledneartheNRAOvisitorssciencecenterinGreenBank,WV.Imagecredit:
NRAO/AUI/NSF.

BecauseReberalsoexpectedtofindthermalemissionwithB ,hestarted

2

observingat = 3300 MHz,thehighesttechnicallyfeasibleobservingfrequencyin

1937.Whenhefailedtoseeanything,heconcludedthattheradiospectrumoftheGalaxy
wasnotPlanckian.Nexthetried910MHz,stillwithnoluck,butsinceIamarather
stubbornDutchman,thishadtheeffectofwhettingmyappetiteformore.In1938he
finallysucceededindetectingandmapping(with 10 angularresolution)theGalaxy

at160MHz,therebyconfirmingJanskysdiscoveryanddemonstratingthattheradio
emissionhasadistinctlynonthermalspectrum.Heobservedonlyatnightbecause
automotiveignitioninterferenceinWheaton,ILwastoostrongduringtheday.He
patientlyrecordedmeterreadingsbyhandonceperminute.Hisresultswerepublishedin
theAstrophysicalJournal[86].

ThenWorldWarIIintervened,hinderingastronomicalresearchbutstimulating
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progressinradioandradartechnology.Someoftheengineersandphysicistswho
developedandusedthistechnologyduringthewarledtherapidscientificdevelopmentof
radioastronomyimmediatelyafterward.

Ifyouareinterestedinlearningmoreabouttheearlyhistoryofradioastronomy,see
thebooksCosmicNoise:AHistoryofEarlyRadioAstronomybyW.T.SullivanIII[102]
andTheEvolutionofRadioAstronomybyJ.S.Hey[51].

1.3ATouroftheRadioUniverse

Figure1.9:TheradioskyisshownaboveanoldphotographoftheNRAOsitein
GreenBank,WV.Theformer300foottelescope(thelargestdish)madethis4.85GHz
radioimage[26],whichisabout45degreesacross.Increasingradiobrightnessis
indicatedbylightershadestoindicatehowtheskywouldappeartosomeonewitha
radioeye300feet(91m)indiameter.Imagecredit:NRAO/AUI/NSF.Investigators:
J.J.Condon,J.J.Broderick,andG.A.Seielstad.

Thevisibleandradioskiesrevealdistinctparalleluniversessharingthesame
space.Mostopticallybrightstarsareundetectableatradiowavelengths,andmanystrong
radiosourcesareopticallyfaintorinvisible.FamiliarobjectsliketheSunandplanetscan
appearquitedifferentwhenseenthroughtheradioandopticalwindows.Theextended
radiosources,spreadalongabandfromthelowerlefttotheupperrightinFigure1.9,lie
intheouterregionsofourGalaxy.Thebrightestirregularlyshapedsourcesarecloudsof
hydrogenionizedbyluminousyoungstars.Suchstarsquicklyexhausttheirnuclearfuel,
collapse,andexplodeassupernovaetheirsupernovaremnantsappearasfaintradiorings.
Unlikethenearby(d < 1000lightyears)starsvisibletothehumaneye,almostnoneof
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themyriadradiostars(unresolvedradiosources)scatteredacrosstheskyareactually
stars.Mostareextremelyluminousradiogalaxiesorquasars,andtheiraveragedistance
isover5 10 lightyears.Radiowavestravelatthespeedoflight,sodistant
9

extragalacticsourcesappeartoustodayastheyactuallywerebillions(usingtheshort
scaledefinition1 billion 10 )ofyearsago.Radiogalaxiesandquasarsarebeacons
9

carryinginformationaboutgalaxiesandtheirenvirons,everywhereintheobservable
universeandeversincethefirstgalaxieswereformed.

ThebrightestdiscreteradiosourceistheSun(Figure1.10),buttheSunismuchless
dominantthanitisinvisiblelight.TheradioskyisdarkevenwhentheSunisupbecause
atmosphericmoleculesanddustparticlesdontscatterradiowaveswhosewavelengths
aremuchlargerthantheseparticles.Mostradioobservationscanbemadedayornight.
Cloudsarealsonearlytransparentatwavelengths > 2 cm,solongwavelengthradio
observationscanbemadeevenwhentheskyisovercast.

Figure1.10:TheSunat = 4.6 GHzimagedbytheVeryLargeArray(VLA

Figure8.4)witharesolutionof12arcsec,whichsubtendsabout8400kmatthesurface
oftheSun.Thebrightestfeaturesinthisimagehavebrightnesstemperatures
10 Kandcoincidewithsunspots.Atthisfrequencytheradioemittingsurface
6
Tb

oftheSunhasanaveragetemperatureof3 10 K,andthedarkerfeaturesarecooler
4

yet.TheradioSunissomewhatbiggerthantheopticalSun:thesolarlimb(theedgeof
thedisk)inthisimageisabout20000kmabovetheopticallimb.Imagecredit:
NRAO/AUI/NSF&S.M.White

TheMoonandplanetsarenotdetectablebyreflectedsolarradiationatradio
wavelengths.However,theyallemitthermalradiation,andJupiterisastrongnonthermal
sourceaswell.IftheSunweresuddenlyswitchedoff,theplanetswouldremainradio
sourcesforalongtime,slowlyfadingastheycooled.

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Figure1.11:ThermalemissionfromtheMoonat = 850 m.Imagecredit:

http://www.eaobservatory.org/JCMT/publications/newsletter/jcmt-n15.pdf.

Atfirstglance,the = 0.85 mmradioimageoftheMoon(Figure1.11)looks

familiar,butitissubtlydifferentfromthevisibleMoon.Thedarkerrightedgeofthe
MoonisnotbeingilluminatedbytheSun,butitstillemitsradiowavesbecauseitdoes
notcooltoabsolutezeroduringthelunarnight.Theradioemissionisnotproducedatthe
visiblesurfaceitemergesfromalayerabout10wavelengthsthick.Asaresult,the
monthlybrightnessvariationsoftheMoondecreaseaswavelengthincreases.These
wavelengthdependentbrightnessvariationsencodeinformationaboutthethermal
conductivityandheatcapacityoftherockyanddustyouterlayersoftheMoon.The
cratersstandoutbecausetheirinteriorsareshieldedfromsunlightandhencecooler,and
alsobecausethesteepanglesofthecraterwallsreducetheiremissivity(aslaterexplained
inEquation2.47)owingtotheBrewsterangleeffectfordielectricboundaries.

RadarstudiesofSolarSystemobjectsareactiveexperimentsinvolvingartificial
radiosignalsreflectedfromtargets,notjustpassiveobservationsofnaturalemission.
PlanetaryradarexperimentsfirstdeterminedtherotationperiodofVenusbypenetrating
itsopticallyopaqueatmosphere,measuredamoreaccuratevaluefortheastronomical
unit(thedistancebetweentheEarthandtheSun),imagedthetopographyofthesolid
planetsandmoons,andtrackedasteroidsandcomets.Radarimagesliketheonein
Figure1.12wererecentlyusedtosearchforwatericetrappedincoldcratersnearthe
lunarpoles.Foragoodintroductiontoradarastronomy,seetheAreciboradarwebpage
http://www.naic.edu/~pradar/radarpage.html.Theprinciplesofradarastronomy
arecoveredindetailbythetextbook[36]basedonthe1960MITsummercourseinradar
astronomy.

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Figure1.12:ThisArecibo+GBT = 70cmbistaticradarimageofthelunarnorth
poledidnotfindanywatericewithinafewmetersofthelunarsurface,evenincold
polarcraters.Imagecredit:B.Campbell,NAIC/NSFNRAO/AUI/NSF.

ThecosmicstaticdiscoveredbyKarlJanskyisprimarilydiffuseemission
originatinginandnearthediskofourGalaxy.Thedistributionof408MHzcontinuum
emissiondisplayedinGalacticcoordinates(Figure1.13)isstrongestalongtheGalactic
equator,orGalacticlatitudeb = 0 ,whereb istheanglefromthedisk.Thebrightest
radiationcomesfromnearthecenterofourGalaxy(Galacticlongitudel = 0),whichis
atthecenterofFigure1.13.

Figure1.13:Thisallsky408MHzcontinuumimage[44]isshowninGalactic
coordinates,withtheGalacticcenterinthemiddleandtheGalacticdiskextending
horizontallyfromit.Mostofthe408MHzemissionissynchrotronradiationfrom
cosmicrayelectronsacceleratedinsupernovaremnants.Imagecredit:
HEASARC/LAMBDA/NASA/GSFC.

Galacticinterstellargasemitsspectrallinesaswellasbroadbandcontinuumnoise.
Neutralhydrogen(HI)gasisubiquitousinthedisk.Thebrightnessofthe 21cm
hyperfinelineat 1420.4 MHzisproportionaltothecolumndensityofHIalongthe
lineofsightandisnearlyindependentofthegastemperature.Itisnotattenuatedbydust
absorption,soHIcanbeseenthroughouttheGalaxyandnearbyexternalgalaxies
(Figure8.11).

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Figure1.14:CassiopeiaA(usuallyshortenedtoCasA)istheremnantofasupernova
explosionthatoccurredover300yearsagoinourGalaxy,atadistanceofabout11,000
lightyears.Itsnameisderivedfromtheconstellationinwhichitisseen:Cassiopeia,
theQueen.Aradiosupernovaistheexplosionthatoccursattheendofamassivestars
life,andCasAistheexpandingshellofmaterialthatremainsfromsuchanexplosion.
ThiscompositeimageisbasedonVLAdataatthreedifferentfrequencies:1.4,5.0,and
8.4GHz.Imagecredit:NRAO/AUI/NSF.Investigators:L.Rudnick,T.DeLaney,
J.Keohane,&B.KoraleskyimagecompositebyT.Rector.

SomeofthediffusecontinuumemissionfromourGalaxycanberesolvedinto
discretesources.SupernovaremnantssuchasCasA(Figure1.14)andtheCrabNebula
(Figure8.10),andtherelativisticelectronsdiffusedthroughouttheGalaxythatwere
acceleratedbythem,accountforabout90%ofthe 1 GHzcontinuumemissionfrom
ourGalaxy.Mostoftheremainingcontinuumemissionat1GHzisthermalemission
fromHIIregions,hydrogencloudsionizedbyUVradiationfromextremelymassivestars.
ThenearestlargeHIIregionistheOrionNebula.Orionsradiocontinuumisfreefree
thermalemissionfromthehotionizedhydrogen.Thedustynebulaistransparentathigh
radiofrequencies,soalloftheionizedhydrogencontributestotheradioemission.

Thusmassive,shortlivedstarsareresponsiblefornearlyalloftheradiocontinuum
fromourGalaxy,andtheradioluminositiesofmostspiralgalaxiesareproportionalto
theirrecentstarformationrates.ThenearbystarburstgalaxyM82(Figure8.13)hasa
starformationrateabout10timesthatofourGalaxyandisacorrespondinglymore
luminousradiosource.Mostgalaxieswithlittleornorecentstarformation(e.g.,elliptical
galaxies)areradioquiet.Starforminggalaxiesareverycommon,buttheirradiosources
arenotespeciallyluminous,sotheyaccountfor < 1%ofthestrongestextragalactic
radiosourcesandsomewhatlessthanhalfofthecosmicradiosourcebackground.

ThestrongestextragalacticradiosourceistheradioCygnusA(usuallyshortenedto
CygA)showninFigure5.12.Theidentificationofthissourcein1954withadistant
(redshiftz 0.057,correspondingtoadistanced 240 Mpcandalookbacktimeof
about700millionyears)galaxystunnedradioastronomers,whoimmediatelyrecognized
thatsuchluminousradiosources(totalradioluminosity 10 erg s = 10 W)
45 1 38

couldbedetectedalmostanywhereintheuniverse.TheangularextentofCygA,about
100arcsec,impliesalinearextent 100kpc,whichismuchlargerthanitshostgalaxy
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ofstars.Theenergysourceisclearlynotstars.Gravitationalenergyreleasedbymatter
accretingontoasupermassive(M 10 M )blackholeinthecenterofthehostgalaxy
9

powersthisandotherluminousextragalacticradiosources.InFigure8.14thehigh
resolution(0.4arcsec)radio(inred)andopticalimagesoftheradiogalaxy3C348are
superimposedtoillustratetheirrelativesizes.

Thebrightradiosource3C273(Figure1.15)wasidentifiedwiththefirstquasarat
anevenhigherredshift,z 0.16 .Suchquasarsappeartoberadiogalaxiesinan
especiallyactivestate,whenvisiblelightfromtheregionneartheblackholeoverwhelms
thestarlightfromthehostgalaxyandmakesthequasarlooklikeabrightstar.

Figure1.15:ThisHubbleSpaceTelescope(HST)grayscaleimageofthequasar
3C273includesradiocontourssuperimposedontheopticaljetemission[7].

Someexoticphenomenaareradiosourcesbutwerediscoveredinotherwavelength
ranges.Gammaraybursts(GRBs)arebrieflythemostluminous(upto10 erg s ) 53 1

discretesourcesintheuniverse,sobrightthattheywerediscoveredinthe1960sbythe
VELAnucleartestmonitoringsatellites.(Foragoodhistory,seetheNASA/SwiftGRB
page.2)Theirfaintradioafterglowshaveprovenveryusefulforconstrainingthe
energeticsandparentpopulationsofGRBs.

Thefinalstoponanytouroftheradiouniverseisthecosmicmicrowavebackground
radiation(CMBR),whichisthermalradiationfromthehotbigbang.Itfillstheuniverse
andistheenergeticallydominantcomponentofallelectromagneticradiation.Weseethe
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surfaceoflastscatteringbeyondwhichtheuniversewasionizedandopaque.Nomore
distantradiosources,evenifanyexist,couldbeseen.Thesurfaceoflastscatteringisat
redshiftz 1100,sothephotonsreceivedtodaywereemittedwhentheuniversewas
onlyabout4 10 yearsold.TheCMBRisverynearlyisotropicandverynearlya
5

perfectblackbodywithT 2.73 K.TheWilkinsonMicrowaveAnisotropyProbe

(WMAP),inorbitneartheL2Lagrangepoint,andthePlancksatellitehavemadeallsky
imagesofthetinyfluctuationsinCMBRbrightness(Figure8.16).Theangularpower
spectrumofthesefluctuations(Figure1.16)revealedbythePlancksatelliteofthe
EuropeanSpaceAgency(ESA)constrainsahostoffundamentalcosmological
parameters.SeethePlanck3andWMAP4websitesforthemostrecentresults.

Figure1.16:TheupperpanelshowstheangularpowerspectrumofCMBbrightness
fluctuationsmeasuredbythePlancksatellite[83].Themultipolenumberl corresponds
toanangularseparation 180 /l .Thelowerpanelshowstheoffsetsfromthe

modelandtheirerrors.Abscissa:Multipolenumberl .Upperordinate:Brightness
powerexpressedintemperatureunits(K ).Lowerordinate:Offsetsandtheir
2

uncertainties(K ).Notethescalechangeatl = 30 .Imagecredit:Planck

2

Collaborationetal.[83],ESA/Planck,andthePlanckCollaboration.
PrefaceBibliographyIndex 2RadiationFundamentals
GeneratedonSatMar1218:31:372016byLATEXML

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