The Negative Branch Impedance in

the Transformer Sequence Circuit Model

Elmo Price Krzysztof Kulasek Gary Kobet
ABB Inc. ABB Inc. Tennessee Valley Authority

Introduction
The neutral (to ground) or delta tertiary current in transformers with high and low voltage wye-grounded
windings and a delta tertiary winding is usually used to provide a sensitive polarizing quantity for legacy
discrete directional relays or microprocessor functions to determine correct fault direction on
transmission lines. A common assumption is that the polarizing current, either neutral current, IN, and
delta current, IY0, as shown in figure 1(a) is always in the same direction regardless of the fault location
being on the high (H) or low (X) voltage side. However, incorrect directional relay (function) operations
have occurred due to the reversal of the polarizing current obtained from either of the two locations. The
current reversal is the result of transformer design characteristics that produce a negative or very small
positive branch impedance value in its equivalent circuit model usually the low voltage. Refer to figure
1(b). This paper will address the development and effect of the sequence circuit model on polarizing
current reversals and the aspects of transformer design that affect it. Also, a review of transformer
characteristics and their application from two utilities is provided to identify potential application issues
and their mitigation.

H3 Y3

X3
IY0 ZH0 (+/-) ZX0
Y1
Y2 * H0 X0
IN
N H1
C S X
* IY0 ZY0
IC0 X1 X
* Polarizing Current
X2 N

H2
(a) Autotransformer with delta tertiary (b) Zero sequence circuit

Figure 1. Expected current direction in an autotransformer and its zero sequence

model for a ground fault on the high or low voltage side

Leakage impedance
First it is important to have a fundamental understanding of leakage impedance between transformer
windings. Leakage impedance is directly related to leakage flux. Leakage flux is that part of the total flux
that is produced by energizing a winding that does not link the other winding. This is illustrated rather
simply in figure 2(a) where L is the leakage flux produced when the primary P winding is energized and
does not link (flow through the center of) the secondary S winding. Figure 2(b) illustrates the leakage flux
where the primary and secondary are wound concentrically.

L - leakage
Primary Secondary Secondary Primary

L - leakage

EP NS
NP ES

CORE

L - leakage
PS - links primary and
secondary coils
(b) Leakage flux between concentric windings
(a) Leakage flux illustration

Figure 2. Leakage flux

Since the amount of flux in the secondary winding (the winding not directly energized in this case) is
smaller than that in the primary winding there will be a smaller percent voltage induced into the secondary
winding. Percent (leakage) impedance between two windings represents the induced voltage difference
(drop) between the two windings. Figures 3 and 4 show the main parameters that influence the leakage
impedance between windings where the windings are circular and wound concentrically on the core. This
would be typical of core form construction. Shell form construction will be constructed differently, but
equally as complex. The parameters include, but are not limited to, the winding diameters, winding
heights, winding radial build, winding turns, the duct space between windings, the windings placement
relative to the core and the winding connections.

The following approximate formula is provided to illustrate how the relative winding-to-winding
impedances change with the transformer geometry [2] using the H X impedance as an example.
N * I DH + DX t H + t X
Z HX = 2.48 *10 6 * f * * *( + d HX ) * K R [%] (1)
e * hW 2 3
Where:
t H + t X + d HX
KR = 1 - Rogowski factor
* hW
DH, DX, DY - Mean winding diameters
tH, tX, tY - Radial build of the winding
dHX, dXY, dHY - Duct space between windings
hW Winding height (or average winding height in case there are not equal)
e volt-per-turn
NI = N1 I1 = N2 I2 mmf (ampere-turns) at the reference current of winding of the pair
f Frequency

The above equation shows the impedance calculated for the H-X windings. Other impedances for a 3
winding transformer (X-Y and H-Y) can be calculated as well using the dimensions as per figure 3.

2
 DH DH
Y1 DX Y1 DX
X1 DY X1 DY
H1 H1
H Primary winding
NH Primary winding turns NT NT
DH Primary winding mean diameter NS Series NS
NP Common NP
X Secondary winding
NX Secondary winding turns
DX Secondary winding mean diameter

Y Tertiary winding h
NY Tertiary winding turns
DY Tertiary winding mean diameter

h Winding height
dHX, dHY, dXY Duct space between windings S
tH, tX, tY Winding radial build H X Y Y X H H X Y Y X H
H0 CORE CORE
dXY dHX tY tX tH
X0 H0X0
Y2 Y2
dHY
(a) Conventional YYD three winding (b) Autotransformer YYD

Figure 3. Parameters affecting leakage impedance between windings

Y1 X1 X1
X1 Y1 H1
H1 H1 Y1

Series Series Series

Common Common Common

H X Y H Y X Y H X
CORE CORE CORE
H0X0 Y2 Y2
Y2 H0X0 H0X0
(a) Configuration 1 (b) Configuration 2 (c) Configuration 3
Tertiary next to core Tertiary between series and common winding Tertiary outside of series winding

Figure 4. Placement of tertiary winding

Equation (1) can be also used to calculate the impedance of an autotransformer. In that case we should
enter N * I either for the common or the series winding. The calculated impedance H-X is on the basis of
the equivalent power, not the rated (through) power. However, in system studies we have to refer to the
rated power and therefore, this impedance must be multiplied by the reduction factor R which is equal to
(VH VX)/ VH. Impedance X-Y can be calculated directly from the equation (1). However, when calculating
the H-Y impedance for an autotransformer winding arrangement as per fig. 3b one has to take into
consideration that the current will flow in the series and common winding (see fig. 6 b) and therefore the
total ampere-turns have to be considered with the equivalent H and X winding dimensions.

The calculation of winding-to-winding leakage impedance becomes increasingly difficult with additional
windings and their relative placement (for example, with the tertiary Y winding located between H and L
(fig. 4 b) windings). This task is generally left to the manufacturers using FEM (finite element method)
design programs for the magnetic field calculations.

3
When working on a new transformer design or running a system study engineers have to consider
transformer and network impedances when calculating short circuit currents and forces. Symmetrical and
unsymmetrical fault cases must be evaluated to find the maximum mechanical and thermal stress for the
design. The method of the symmetrical components is used to calculate short circuit current. It is
described in several publications including the Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book
[1]. The paragraph above described how the positive sequence impedance for a transformer can be
calculated. The negative sequence is equal to the positive. The calculations of the zero sequence
impedance of a transformer are more complex and cannot be represented by simplified formulas. In
general the following factors must be considered: transformer construction (shell or core type), type of
the core (three or five legs), windings connections, presence of the neutral terminal (YN), and existence
of a delta connected winding. When zero-sequence current flows in only one winding of a phase (e.g. the
secondary winding in the Y-YN connection) without corresponding balancing ampere-turns in another
winding, a flux in all three phase legs will be generated that have equal amplitude and the same phase
angle. The return path for this flux will depend on the transformer core construction. Three single-phase
units, three-phase shell form and three-phase five-legged core form units (see fig. 5, a, c and d) offer a
low reluctance return path through the core, and therefore, the zero sequence impedance will be high.
The values will be of the order of the magnetizing branch impedance. For a three-phase three-legged
design (see fig. 5(b)) with a wye-wye connection the zero sequence flux saturates the top and bottom core
yokes forcing a return path of the flux outside of the core. The flux in this case will have a relatively high
reluctance path, and therefore a low zero sequence impedance. However, this impedance is usually 5 to
10 times greater than the positive sequence leakage impedance between winding [2]. This order of
magnitude is due to the effect of the tank that can be regarded as a short-circuited delta connected
winding for the circulation of zero sequence currents. The zero-sequence impedances in these cases are
influenced by the degree of saturation in the core and, therefore, will vary with the zero-sequence
currents.

When zero-sequence currents can flow through two windings per phase, with equal and opposite ampere-
turns (D-YN connection), the transformer zero-sequence impedance approaches the positive sequence
leakage impedance between those two windings. Analysis of that with different winding connections is
given in reference [2].

The zero sequence impedance, and therefore its relation/ratio to positive sequence impedance, varies
greatly depending on:

Winding arrangement
Winding connection - wye or delta
Winding location relative to core and other windings
Whether LV windings are vertically stacked
Transformer core construction

The above factors cause the Z0/Z1 ratio to vary in value between a minimum of around 0.35 to nearly 1.0.
When working on the short circuit calculations of a power transformer the designer has to calculate the
zero sequence impedance with good accuracy. Using a factor may lead to wrong calculation of the current
and under or overestimate the SC currents. Since the forces are proportional to the square of the current
it is an important factor in the design evaluation. It is equally important for the protection engineer to
have accurate winding-to-winding zero sequence impedances rather than depending on factors.

4
 A B C
I0 I0 I0

0 0 0
0
I0
A

3I0

(a) Three single phase cores

A B C A B C
I0 I0 I0 I0 I0 I0
I0
B
0 0 0 0
0 0 0

I0 0
C
3I0

3I0 3I0

(b) Three phase three legged core form (c) Three phase five legged core form (d) Three phase shell form

Figure 5. Zero sequence flux path for different transformer core constructions

Impedance testing
Impedance testing of a transformer is addressed in IEEE Standard C57.12.90 2010, Section 9. Testing
measures the positive and zero sequence impedances between any two windings. Zero sequence testing
is essential when an accurate transformer model is needed for ground fault studies and polarization
current requirements. Basically, positive sequence impedance is measured between windings by applying
a voltage to one winding and shorting the other winding being tested. All other windings are left open.
The voltage is increased until the windings nominal rated current is flowing. Since the current is at 100%
of rated the measured voltage in % of rated voltage is equal to the % impedance between the two
windings. The losses are also measured to give the real (resistance) part of the impedance. Resistance,
however, will not be considered further in this paper. The basic test connections for a single-phase three
winding conventional and autotransformer are shown in figure 6.

IT IT
H X H X H X H Y H Y H Y

IX
VT IY IY
VT X X X
IX
Y Y Y

IY
IY ZHX ZHY ZXY

ZHX ZHY ZXY

(a) Conventional transformer (b) Autotransformer
Figure 6. Test connections for a single-phase three winding YYD conventional and autotransformer
Single phase units do not require zero sequence testing as the positive and zero sequence impedances
are equal. This is also generally true for three phase shell form designs and core form designs with more
than three legs. Zero sequence testing is warranted for three legged core designs with or without a delta

5
winding. Test connections for a three-phase YYD autotransformer with a delta tertiary winding are shown
in figure 7. These tests will provide the transformers positive and zero sequence impedances.

Zero sequence testing will include the effect of the tank [acting as a buried tertiary winding]. Testing the
zero sequence impedance between windings of a three-phase transformer uses a single phase voltage
source and the connections of figures 7(c) and 7(d). Also, not shown, is the test connection for ZXY0 where
in figure 7(d) the test voltage is applied to the X terminals of the common winding and the H terminals
are left open.

The C57.12.90 standard provides the connections and equations to determine the zero sequence T branch
model. The difference between the positive and zero sequence impedances is the effect of the core and
tank design on zero sequence flux.

IY2
H3 H3
Y3 Y3 IY3
IT IT IY1
X3 I=0 X3

VT Y2 Y1 VT Y2 Y1
N H1 H1
IX3 N
C S C S
X1 X1
VH1-H2
X2 IX1 X2
IX2 VH1-H2

H2 H2

(a) Three-phase autotransformer ZHX1 positive sequence test (b) Three-phase autotransformer ZHY1 positive sequence test
(accessible delta tertiary winding connections)

H3 H3
3IH0 Y3 3IH0 Y3
IH0 IH0

X3 IY0 X3 IY0
VH0 VH0
Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1
N N
C S C S
H1 H1
X1 X1 IH0
IH0
IH0 IH0
X2 X2
Common winding X terminals
Common winding X terminals open circuited.
shorted and grounded.

H2 H2

(c) Three-phase autotransformer ZHX0 (d) Three-phase autotransformer ZHY0

zero sequence test zero sequence test

Figure 7. Three-phase positive and zero sequence impedance tests

6
The effect of tertiary winding placement
There are multiple types of transformers where particular application and system conditions set the
ratings, working conditions and unit application; substation, distribution and network tie
autotransformers. The most common in the USA and in Canada for HV transmission lines are
autotransformers. The electrical characteristics of an autotransformer or any other three winding YYD
transformer are generally represented in system analysis by an equivalent circuit T diagram as shown
in figure 8(b). When impedances ZHX, ZHY and ZXY of figure 8(a) are known equivalent ZH, ZX and ZY of figure
8(b) are calculated using equations 2 4 where all impedances are expressed in percent or per unit on
the same reference power (MVA base).

ZH ZX
ZHX H X
H X

ZY
ZHY ZXY

Y Y
(a) Three winding transformer sequence circuit model (b) Three winding transformer sequence circuit
with winding-to-winding impedances as tested equivalent T model

Figure 8. Equivalent T diagram for an autotransformer

+
= (2)
2
+
= (3)
2
+
= (4)
2
Unless all impedances between different systems are listed in the transformer specification a designer
can choose to put the delta connected winding in three different relative positions in relation to the high
and low voltage winding as presented in figure 4. The selection is based on the optimized production cost
and loss evaluation. Generally this is configuration 1 of figure 4(a), which is guided primarily by insulation
requirements. In some applications, however, it could be beneficial to have the tertiary (Y) winding as the
outermost and wind the main low (X) and high (H) voltage coils with smaller diameters as shown in
configuration 3 of figure 4(c). This is often feasible for transformers with a high H/X turns ratio such as
260/72 kV or 345/34.5 kV because it will reduce copper weight and load losses in the main windings and
offset the cost of insulation. Such high turns ratio applications with an outer tertiary winding are being
used with wind farm and other small generation utilities.

With the same reference power the impedance between windings is a function of the geometry as was
explained earlier when discussing equation (1). Figures 3 and 4 also give a visual explanation of the
dimensions and tertiary placement. When looking at the winding configuration 1 of figure 4(a) we can

7
see that the impedances based on the distance between windings that ZHX and ZXY are smaller than ZHY,
at the same time ZHX + ZXY is very close in value to ZHY being slightly larger or smaller due to the variance
in other parameters. Using the equation (3) above for this winding configuration we can see that in the
equivalent T diagram low voltage impedance, ZX, may have a small negative value with the right parameter
values. It will be a similar situation for the configuration 3 of figure 4(c) where the impedances ZHX + ZHY
< ZHY is possible using equation (2). In case it is required to have all positive branch impedances in the T
diagram, winding configuration 2 of figure 4(b) can be used. This cannot be changed by adding a reactor
in the tertiary winding (to limit current during faults) since this will simultaneously increase impedances
and .

In order to illustrate the change in the impedances, short circuit zero sequence currents and other
transformer design criteria, the authors selected a 280 MVA 161.7/69 kV autotransformer with a 56.6
MVA 13.8 kV buried tertiary winding. Analysis included the 3 winding configurations per figure 4. Fault
currents were calculated using IEEE 57.12.00-2010 with Z0/Z1=1 for the HV and LV systems. The
equivalent sequence network used is shown in figure 9.
Sequence circuit interconnection Sequence circuit interconnection
for fault on high voltage (H) side for fault on low voltage (X) side

ZHS1 ZH1 ZX1 ZLS1

H X
IH1 ZY1 IX1
Y
1.0 pu 1.0 pu

Positive

ZHS2 ZH1 ZX1 ZLS2

H X

IH2 ZY1 IX2

Y

Negative

ZHS0 ZH0 ZX0 ZLS0

H X

IH0 ZY0 IX0

Y
IY0
Zero

Figure 9. Sequence network interconnection for analysis

Results are shown in tables 1 and 2. Analysis shows that there are zero sequence current reversals in the
tertiary and common windings for configurations 1 and 3. It is also shown that with positive tertiary
current a reversal in the common winding can still occur.

Table 1. 280 MVA Autotransformer - impedances for different winding arrangements.

Winding configuration Positive sequence Impedance Positive sequence impedance

8
 H-X H-Y X-Y H X Y
1 Core-TV-LV-HV 10.6 29.0 14.4 12.6 -2.00 16.4
2 Core-LV-TV-HV 10.2 8.4 11.4 3.6 6.6 4.8
3 Core-LV-HVR-HV-TV 10.4 39.7 70.3 -10.1 20.5 49.8
All impedances are in % on 0.6*280 MVA base at rated winding voltage. ZBase = kV2/MVA, Z = ZBase x Z%/100
HVR - regulating winding

Table 2. 280 MVA Autotransformer Zero sequence currents for single -G ground fault on HV and LV
SC Case Winding HV (kA) LV (kA) TV (kA)
configuration Line Series Line Common Line Winding
winding winding
1 fault on 1 -1.558 -1.558 3.734 -2.176 0.00 -0.24
HV 2 -2.804 -2.804 2.42 0.384 0.00 11.93
3 -3.51 -3.51 5.69 -2.183 0.00 7.271

1 fault on 1 1.82 1.82 -7.69 5.87 0.00 9.844

LV 2 1.132 1.132 -4.957 3.826 0.00 6.625
3 2.64 2.64 -5.01 2.365 0.00 -3.53

The effect of the negative branch impedance on current polarization

All of the measured winding-to-winding impedances in table 1 above will be positive. One of the branch
impedances, however, is likely to be negative unless design constraints are imposed. With winding
configuration 1 being the usual case, ZHY will be the largest of the three branch impedances, possibly
causing ZY to be negative. In Figure 10(a), k0 represents the per-unit current that flows in the ZX leg with
1.0 per unit of current flowing to the point of discontinuity (for example a ground fault) on the high-
voltage system. This distribution factor is very important in identifying whether or not neutral or tertiary
current in the transformer is a reliable polarizing quantity. ZS0 is the source impedance for the low voltage
system. With one per-unit current flowing in the high voltage winding, for a ground fault on the high-
voltage system, k0 per-unit current flows in the low voltage system and 1- k0 flows to ground through the
common and tertiary windings. Translating per unit current to amperes, in figure 10(b) with one ampere
of zero sequence current in the high voltage winding of an autotransformer, there will be k0VH/VX amperes
of zero sequence current in the low voltage system, 1 - k0VH/VX amperes of zero sequence current will
flow to ground through the common winding and (1 - k0)VH/VY amperes will circulate in the delta tertiary
winding. For the conventional three winding transformer of figure 10(c) the currents have the same high
and low side ct primary distribution, the ct secondary neutral current sum and tertiary current are
proportional to (1 k0) provided the neutral cts have the ratios as indicated. Therefore, the neutral sum
of a conventional transformer does not have the same limitations as an autotransformer neutral.

9
 H X H
ZLS0 ZX0 ZH0 1.0 1.0
X H Y k0VH/VX Y
X (1 - k0)VH/VY
k0 1.0 pu (1 - k0)VH/VY
1-k0 ZY0 k0VH/VX
* *

*Polarizing Current *Polarizing Current

VH/VX:1 1:1 3(1 - k0)
Z
k0 = Z + Z Y0 + Z Tertiary current *
* 3(1 - k0VH/VX)
X0 LS0 Y0
reverses if k0 > 1
(a) Zero sequence circuit of a three winding transformer (b) Relative ampere values in (c) Relative ampere values in three
(values in perunit) autotransformer winding transformer
Figure 10. Zero sequence current reversal in the delta tertiary and common windings

The summary of requirements for correct operation (no current reversal) for a fault on the high voltage
side is:
0
From figure 9 0 = (5)
0 +0 +0
Delta 0 < 1 (6)
Neutral 0 < / (7)

Equations for correct operation for a fault on the low side are derived similarly as:
0
0 = (8)
0 +0 +0
Delta 0 < 1 (9)
Neutral 0 < / (10)

Usually there are no issues for faults on the low side of the transformer (equations 8 10). Most
transformer designs will not usually result in a negative ZHO branch and therefore k0h will be less than 1.
However, it was shown in tables 1 and 2 that a unit such as configuration 3 (winding placement from the
core: X, H and Y) could result in k0h of equation (9) not being satisfied and the delta tertiary winding
current reverses. On the other hand the neutral current would most likely always be a good polarizing
source.

Analyzing the values for a high voltage fault (equations 5 7) we reach some very important conclusions;
the common neutral of a wye-delta-wye three winding transformer or the neutral of a wye-wye
autotransformer with a delta tertiary will supply a reliable polarizing current only if k0 < VX/VH. If it were
greater than the ratio VX/VH, the direction of the polarizing current to the relay would be in the opposite
direction to that shown in figure 10(b or c). This is unacceptable because this current should always be up
the neutral when there is current flow to a ground fault on the low voltage wye system. Also, keep in mind
that k0 may even be greater than VX/VH for small positive values of the low side impedance ZLS0 + ZX0
causing a neutral polarizing current reversal.

The delta winding of such a transformer is virtually always a reliable polarizing source unless the net
impedance to the system is not positive. For example, if the quantity ZLS0 + ZX0 is negative, the current
inside the delta would not be suitable as a polarizing source.

When using polarizing current one must stay aware of the applications sensitivity to decreasing source
impedance with system configuration changes. As systems grow and become more interconnected, the

10
short circuit capacity increases and thus reduces the high and low voltage source impedances to the
transformer. A previously installed application, which operated correctly, may misoperate due to the
subsequent system changes.

Field data analysis

Autotransformer application impedance data from two utilities can be found in Appendix A. Table 3
summarizes the data.

Table 3. Summary of autotransformer application data

Utility A Utility B Both
Total units in survey 57 28 85
# (%) with negative high side branch impedance 0 0 0

# (%) with negative low side branch impedance 42 (72%) 17 (61%) 60 (71%)
# (%) not suitable for tertiary current polarization, k0 > 1 1 (2%) 0 1 (1%)
# (%) not suitable for neutral current polarization, k0 > VX/VH 38 (67%) 10 (36%) 48(56%)

The study of the utility applications suggests that autotransformers are designed, unless otherwise
specified, with their winding configuration build from core, Y-X-H as shown in figure 4(a), such that
negative low voltage branch impedance in the auto transformer equivalent circuit is rather common
occurring in 60% to 75% of transmission voltage level autotransformers. These negative impedances are
generally small enough such that the low voltage source impedance overcomes the effect of the
transformers negative low voltage branch impedance making the use of the delta tertiary suitable for
most applications 99% of the applications studied here. However, 71% of these are subject to the
possibility of decreasing source impedances due to system changes. In 56% of the cases studied the
transformers neutral current is not suitable as a polarizing source. These numbers will vary with
transformer design and likewise from utility to utility that use them.

A review of each utilitys applications the following:

Utility A
Most applications involving newer technology used voltage polarizing
Tertiary current polarizing was used mostly for legacy products where available
Neutral current polarizing was not used

Utility B
Most applications involving newer technology used voltage polarizing
Tertiary current polarizing was used where available mostly for legacy products and newer
products where dual polarization (using both voltage and current) was desired.
Polarizing current derived from high and low voltage line ct connections was used in one
application (figure 12(c)).
Neutral current polarizing was used in some cases where tertiary current was not available and
there were no application issues.

While this study was limited to autotransformers it should be noted that conventional full winding
transformers are subject to delta tertiary current reversals and the criteria of equations 6 and 9 still apply.

11
Mitigation
Use Delta Tertiary Current
Where applications of neutral current polarization are not reliable and a current transformer (ct) is
available in the unloaded delta tertiary winding (or 3 cts in a loaded tertiary) then it would be possible to
change current polarization sources.

LOAD
*
*Polarizing Current
(a) Buried or non-loaded delta
tertiary winding (b) Loaded delta tertiary winding

Figure 11. Connection of delta tertiary current transformers

1 H
H
1.0 1
1.0
Y Y
k0VH/VX k0VH/VX
X VH/VX
X VH/VX (1 - k0)VH/VY
(1 - k0)VH/VY 3

3VX/VH
3k0 * * 3
3k0
3 S S

C C
IP = 3(1 - k0) 3k0VH/VX
VH/VX
IP = 3(1 - k0)
IN = 3(1 - k0VH/VX)
IN = 3(1 - k0VH/VX) 1
Aux ct Aux ct
C/(S+C)= VX/VH
C/(S+C)= VX/VH
INS = 3(VX/VH - k0) INS = 3(1 - k0VH/VX)
(a) Polarizing with neutral and low voltage cts (b) Polarizing with neutral and high voltage cts

IP = 3(1 - k0) 3
3k0
H
1.0 1
Y
k0VH/VX
X
(1 - k0)VH/VY
VH/VX

IN = 3(1 - k0VH/VX)

(c) Polarizing with high and low voltage cts

Figure 12. Delta tertiary polarizing current using neutral, high voltage and low voltage cts

As is sometimes the case tertiary cts may not have been provided. In such cases it is possible to obtain a
secondary ct polarization current that is equal to the tertiary ct secondary current by using a combination

12
of the neutral, high voltage and low voltage cts. Three connection methods are shown in figure 12. These
are polarizing with the neutral and sum of low voltage cts, polarizing with the neutral and sum of high
voltage cts and polarizing with the sums of high and low voltage cts. An auxiliary current-balancing auto
transformer is required for connections with the neutral ct. The neutral ct has the same ratio as the high
or low voltage cts with which it is being used and the ct ratios are normalized with the high voltage ct ratio
equal to 1 to simplify the expressions.

The ct schemes may be subject to incorrect operation if a fault occurs within the zone defined by the ct
locations. It is expected that other protections, e.g. transformer differential and restricted earth fault,
will have operated.

If tertiary current cannot be used based on the provided criteria then sequence voltage or current
compensated sequence voltage is suggested.

Transformer Design
The issue of polarizing current reversal can be eliminated through transformer design. Using configuration
2 of figure 4(b) is an example. In this case the tertiary is placed between the high and low voltage windings
altering the tested winding-to-winding impedances and calculated branch impedances shown in table 1.
With these impedances immunity to polarizing current reversal is guaranteed barring human connection
errors. This can be validated by calculating k0 for both high and low voltage faults with source impedance
set to zero (IHS0 = ILS0 = 0) and using equations 5 10. If both k0h and k0l values meet the criteria of the
equations then there will never be issues.

Alternative Polarizing Methods

The primary advantage of current polarization is that the quantity provides more sensitive directional
control in those applications where measuring a polarizing voltage may be a problem. This is particularly
true when polarizing voltage is measured near a strong ground source (small source impedance). Also,
using polarizing current has been a long established with many utilities and is very much a part of their
installed base where changing to alternative methods can be very expensive. In such cases frequent
review of the application is warranted.

Zero and Negative sequence voltages are far more reliable polarization methods, and are indeed
preferred, if sensitivity is not an issue. This is particularly true in applications where mutual coupling
affects the reliability of both zero sequence voltage and current polarization methods and negative
sequence voltage polarization has to be used. With the increased use of microprocessor technology
methods have been developed to reliably compensate zero and negative sequence polarizing voltages
with the respective line zero or negative sequence current to address sensitivity issues. One method is
illustrated in figure 13. In figure 13(a) we see the zero sequence voltage profile for a forward fault. The
zero (or negative) sequence voltage is highest at the fault location and reduces in value as the
measurement moves back towards a source. The zero sequence voltage measured at relay A is the voltage
drop across the source impedance and equal to I0AZ0A. This quantity may not be a voltage sufficient for
polarizing. Observe the voltage profile. By adding some line impedance voltage drop, I0AkZ0L, to the
measured quantity we get I0A(Z0A + kZ0L), a quantity sufficient for polarization for detecting forward faults
accurately. This is as if the voltage transformer was moved out on the transmission line by a distance k
times line length. Now we must investigate how setting this compensation affects reverse faults. Observe
the voltage profile on figure 13(b) for a reverse fault. Reliable polarizing for a reverse fault requires that
(Z0L + Z0B) > kZ0L plus some margin to assure sufficient reverse fault voltage polarization. If the protected
line, Z0L, is long (in impedance) and k is set less than 0.4 there is no problem.

13
These methods vary from manufacturer to manufacturer, but all generally work the same. Applying this
compensation usually eliminates the need for the transformer polarizing current for these applications.

-V0
Zero Sequence
Voltage Distribution
- I0A(kZ0L)
Fault Location

Z0A kZ0L mZ0L (1-m)Z0L Z0B

I0A REL A I0B

REL B
V0A = - I0AZ0A V0k = - I0A(Z0A+kZ0L) V0(MAX)

A B
(a) Forward Fault X Fault Location

-V0
I0B(kZ0L)
Zero Sequence
Voltage Distribution

Z0A I0B Z0L Z0B

V0(MAX) REL A V0k = - I0B(Z0B+(1-k)Z0L) I0B

REL B
I0A
V0A = - I0B (Z0B+Z0L)

A B
X Fault Location (b) Reverse Fault

Figure 13. Compensating zero sequence voltage with zero sequence line current

Conclusions and Recommendations

The negative branch impedance of the transformers T branch model was investigated as to its effects on
current reversals in the delta tertiary winding and transformer neutral. Along with the negative branch
values small positive values allowed current reversals in the transformers neutral. Given the importance
of accuracy the model should be developed with zero sequence impedances derived from zero sequence
testing. It was also pointed out how transformer design affects the T branch model. Generally the
negative or low impedance is on the low voltage side of the transformer model. However, different
winding configurations can eliminate or even move the negative impedance to the high voltage side. The
latter case being possible or even likely for transformers with high H/X turns ratios (e.g. 345/34.5/13.8
kV).

The following recommendations are made from the results of the investigation.

Voltage polarization and impedance compensated voltage polarization are wise alternatives and
are recommended as first choices.
Reliable polarization current can generally always be obtained from the delta tertiary winding.
There are a few exceptions where zero sequence source impedance is very small and does not
allow its use. Also schemes involving the neutral and line cts are available to provide a
proportional quantity when tertiary windings are not provided with cts. Each application should
be reviewed with system changes.

14
 Polarization current from the neutral ct is not generally reliable and, therefore, not
recommended where alternatives are available. Using the neutral ct connected to line cts with
an auxiliary transformer may very well be suitable.
Accurate zero sequence testing is desired for development of the T branch model.
The problem of negative branch impedances can be eliminated with the design of transformer
winding configurations. The possible extra costs, first and evaluated, should be considered.

References
[1] Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book. ABB Inc. Raleigh, North Carolina. 1997.

[2] Giorgio Bertagnolli. Short Circuit Duty of Power Transformers. ABB Ltd. Zurich, Switzerland 2007

[3] Elmore, W., Price, E. Polarization Fundamentals. 27th Annual Western Protective Relay
Conference. Spokane, Washington. October 24 26, 2000.

[4] Andrichak, J., Patel, S. Polarizing Sources for Directional Ground Relays. Publication GER3182A.
GE power Management. Malvern, PA.

[4] IEEE Standard C57.12.00, 2010

[5] IEEE Standard C57.12.90, 2010

15
Biographies
Elmo Price, PE
Elmo is currently a Senior Consultant with ABB Inc. He received his BSEE degree in 1970 from Lamar State
College of Technology and his MSEE degree in 1978 from the University of Pittsburgh. He began his career
with Westinghouse in 1970 and worked in many engineering positions in various manufacturing divisions,
and as a District Engineer located in New Orleans providing engineering support for Westinghouse power
system products. With the consolidation of Westinghouse into ABB in 1988 Elmo assumed regional
responsibility for product application for the Protective Relay Division. Since then he has worked in
various technical management positions responsible for product management, product design,
application support and relay schools. Elmo is a registered professional engineer and a Life Senior
member of the IEEE. He is a member of the IEEE Power System Relay Committee and the Line Protection
Subcommittee, serving as a contributing member to many working groups. He has two patents and has
authored and presented numerous industry papers.

Krzysztof Kulasek
Krzysztof is Vice President of Engineering for ABB Large and Medium Power Transformers in North
America located in Varennes, QC, Canada. While working in the transformer business for more than 20
years he has been involved in new technology implementations in different factories as well as product
and production process development. Krzysztofs areas of expertise include: transformer optimization,
insulation design, SC calculations, stray loss heating, process improvement and production optimization.
While being part of the ABB global technical team he contributed to R&D projects, technology and quality
improvement initiatives and new engineers training. He received his electrical engineering degree in 1993
at the Technical University of Lodz, Poland from the faculty of Electrical Machines and Transformers and
has been an IEEE member since 2002.

Gary Kobet
Gary is an Electrical Engineer (short-term planning) for the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) in
Chattanooga, Tennessee. His responsibilities include machine and voltage stability studies for the
operating horizon, developing operating guides, and disturbance analysis. Previously he worked in the
System Protection department scoping relaying schemes for transmission and generation projects, as well
as developing relay set point calculations. He has performed transient studies using EMTP for breaker TRV
studies and switching surge overvoltages. Previously he worked as a field engineer and as power quality
specialist. Mr. Kobet earned the B.S.E. (electrical) from the University of Alabama in Huntsville in 1989
and the M.S.E.E. from Mississippi State University in 1996. He is a member of the IEEE Power Engineering
Society, CIGRE, Eta Kappa Nu, Tau Beta Pi, and is a registered professional engineer in the state of
Alabama. Presently he is serving on the NERC Geomagnetic Disturbance Task Force.

16
Appendix A - Autotransformer Application Data
Utility A

17
Utility A continued

18
Utility B

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