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To cite this article: Virginia Braun & Victoria Clarke (2006) Using thematic analysis in
psychology, Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3:2, 77-101
Download by: [b-on: Biblioteca do conhecimento online UMinho] Date: 21 January 2016, At: 09:19
www.QualResearchPsych.com Qualitative Research in Psychology 2006; 3: 77 /101
Correspondence: Virginia Braun, Department of Psychology, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland,
New Zealand.
E-mail: v.braun@auckland.ac.nz
the similarities and differences between manifestations of the method, from within
different approaches that share features in the broad theoretical framework. Second,
common with a thematic approach. there are methods that are essentially in-
Qualitative approaches are incredibly dependent of theory and epistemology, and
diverse, complex and nuanced (Holloway can be applied across a range of theoretical
and Todres, 2003), and thematic analysis and epistemological approaches. Although
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tions explicit (Holloway and Todres, 2003). So in Virginias example, if she was inter-
Qualitative psychologists need to be clear ested in how sexual pleasure was talked
about what they are doing and why, and to about, her data set would consist of all
include the often-omitted how they did instances across the entire data corpus that
their analysis in their reports (Attride- had some relevance to sexual pleasure.
Stirling, 2001). These two approaches might sometimes
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In this paper we outline: what thematic be combined to produce the data set. Data
analysis is; a 6-phase guide to performing item is used to refer to each individual
thematic analysis; potential pitfalls to piece of data collected, which together
avoid when doing thematic analysis; what make up the data set or corpus. A data
makes good thematic analysis; and advan- item in this instance would be an indivi-
tages and disadvantages of thematic analy- dual surgeon interview, a television docu-
sis. Throughout, we provide exam- mentary, or one particular website. Finally,
ples from the research literature, and our data extract refers to an individual coded
own research. By providing examples, we chunk of data, which has been identified
show the types of research questions and within, and extracted from, a data item.
topics that thematic analysis can be used to There will be many of these, taken from
study. throughout the entire data set, and only a
Before we begin, we need to define a few selection of these extracts will feature in
of the terms used throughout the paper. the final analysis.
Data corpus refers to all data collected for
a particular research project, while data set
refers to all the data from the corpus that
What is thematic analysis?
are being used for a particular analysis.
There are two main ways of choosing the Thematic analysis is a method for identify-
data set (which approach you take depends ing, analysing and reporting patterns
on whether you are coming to the data (themes) within data. It minimally orga-
with a specific question or not / see A nizes and describes your data set in (rich)
number of decisions below). First, the data detail. However, frequently if goes further
set may consist of many, or all, individual than this, and interprets various aspects of
data items within your data corpus. So, for the research topic (Boyatzis, 1998). The
example, in a project on female genital range of different possible thematic ana-
cosmetic surgery, Virginias data corpus lyses will further be highlighted in relation
consists of interviews with surgeons, to a number of decisions regarding it as a
media items on the topic, and surgeon method (see below).
websites. For any particular analysis, her Thematic analysis is widely used, but
data set might just be the surgeon inter- there is no clear agreement about what
views, just the websites (Braun, 2005b), or thematic analysis is and how you go about
it might combine surgeon data with some doing it (see Attride-Stirling, 2001; Boyat-
media data (eg, Braun, 2005a). Second, the zis, 1998; Tuckett, 2005, for other exam-
data set might be identified by a particular ples). It can be seen as a very poorly
analytic interest in some topic in the data, branded method, in that it does not appear
and the data set then becomes all instances to exist as a named analysis in the same
in the corpus where that topic is referred. way that other methods do (eg, narrative
80 V Braun and V Clarke
analysis, grounded theory). In this sense, it can be misinterpreted to mean that themes re-
is often not explicitly claimed as the side in the data, and if we just look hard enough
they will emerge like Venus on the half shell.
method of analysis, when, in actuality, we If themes reside anywhere, they reside in
argue that a lot of analysis is essentially our heads from our thinking about our data and
thematic / but is either claimed as some- creating links as we understand them. (Ely et al .,
thing else (such as DA, or even content 1997: 205 /6)
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thematic analysis. Such analyses do not CA), thematic analysis is not wedded to any
appear to fully subscribe to the theoretical pre-existing theoretical framework, and
commitments of a full-fat grounded theory, therefore it can be used within different
which requires analysis to be directed to- theoretical frameworks (although not all),
wards theory development (Holloway and and can be used to do different things
Todres, 2003). We argue, therefore, that a within them. Thematic analysis can be an
named and claimed thematic analysis essentialist or realist method, which reports
means researchers need not subscribe to experiences, meanings and the reality of
the implicit theoretical commitments of participants, or it can be a constructionist
grounded theory if they do not wish to method, which examines the ways in which
produce a fully worked-up grounded-theory events, realities, meanings, experiences and
analysis. so on are the effects of a range of discourses
The term thematic DA is used to refer to operating within society. It can also be a
a wide range of pattern-type analysis of contextualist method, sitting between the
data, ranging from thematic analysis within two poles of essentialism and construction-
a social constructionist epistemology (ie, ism, and characterized by theories, such as
critical realism (eg, Willig, 1999), which
where patterns are identified as socially
acknowledge the ways individuals make
produced, but no discursive analyse is
meaning of their experience, and, in turn,
conducted), to forms of analysis very
the ways the broader social context im-
much akin to the interpretative repertoire
pinges on those meanings, while retaining
form of DA (Clarke, 2005). Thematic decom-
focus on the material and other limits of
position analysis (eg, Stenner, 1993; Ussher
reality. Therefore, thematic analysis can be
and Mooney-Somers, 2000) is a specifically
a method that works both to reflect reality
named form of thematic DA, which iden-
and to unpick or unravel the surface of
tifies patterns (themes, stories) within data, reality. However, it is important that the
and theorizes language as constitutive of theoretical position of a thematic analysis is
meaning and meaning as social. made clear, as this is all too often left
These different methods share a search unspoken (and is then typically a realist
for certain themes or patterns across an account). Any theoretical framework carries
(entire) data set, rather than within a data with it a number of assumptions about the
item, such as an individual interview or nature of the data, what they represent in
interviews from one person, as in the case of terms of the the world, reality, and so
biographical or case-study forms of analy- forth. A good thematic analysis will make
sis, such as narrative analysis (eg, Murray, this transparent.
2003; Riessman, 1993). In this sense, they
more or less overlap with thematic analysis. A number of decisions
As thematic analysis does not require the Thematic analysis involves a number of
detailed theoretical and technological choices which are often not made explicit
82 V Braun and V Clarke
(or are certainly typically not discussed in might appear in relatively little of the data
the method section of papers), but which set. So, researcher judgement is necessary to
need explicitly to be considered and dis- determine what a theme is. Our initial
cussed. In practice, these questions should guidance around this is that you need to
be considered before analysis (and some- retain some flexibility, and rigid rules really
times even collection) of the data begins, do not work. (The question of prevalence is
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and there needs to be an ongoing reflexive revisited in relation to themes and sub-
dialogue on the part of the researcher or themes, as the refinement of analysis (see
researchers with regards to these issues, later) will often result in overall themes,
throughout the analytic process. The and sub-themes within those.)
method section of Taylor and Usshers Furthermore, the keyness of a theme is
(2001) thematic DA of S&M provides a not necessarily dependent on quantifiable
good example of research which presents measures / but rather on whether it cap-
this process explicitly; the method section tures something important in relation to
of Braun and Wilkinson (2003) does not. the overall research question. For exam-
ple, in Victorias research on representa-
What counts as a theme? tions of lesbians and gay parents on 26
A theme captures something important talk shows (Clarke and Kitzinger, 2004),
about the data in relation to the research she identified six key themes. These six
question, and represents some level of themes were not necessarily the most pre-
patterned response or meaning within the valent themes across the data set / they
data set. An important question to address appeared in between two and 22 of the 26
in terms of coding is: what counts as a talk shows / but together they captured an
pattern/theme, or what size does a theme important element of the way in which
need to be? This is a question of prevalence, lesbians and gay men normalize their
in terms both of space within each data item families in talk show debates. In this in-
and of prevalence across the entire data set. stance, her thematic analysis was driven by
Ideally, there will be a number of instances this particular analytic question. How she
of the theme across the data set, but more measured prevalence is relevant, as pre-
instances do not necessarily mean the valence can be determined in a number of
theme itself is more crucial. As this is different ways. Prevalence was counted at
qualitative analysis, there is no hard-and- the level of the data item (ie, did a theme
fast answer to the question of what propor- appear anywhere in each individual talk
tion of your data set needs to display show?). Alternatively, it could have been
evidence of the theme for it to be considered counted in terms of the number of different
a theme. It is not the case that if it was speakers who articulated the theme, across
present in 50% of ones data items, it would the entire data set, or each individual
be a theme, but if it was present only in occurrence of the theme across the entire
47%, then it would not be a theme. Nor is it data set (which raises complex questions
the case that a theme is only something that about where an instance begins and ends
many data items give considerable attention within an extended sequence of talk / see
to, rather than a sentence or two. A theme Riessman, 1993). Because prevalence was
might be given considerable space in some not crucial to the analysis presented, Vic-
data items, and little or none in others, or it toria chose the most straightforward form,
Using thematic analysis in psychology 83
how you do this within any particular to provide a more detailed and nuanced
analysis. account of one particular theme, or group of
There are various conventions for repre- themes, within the data. This might relate to
senting prevalence in thematic (and other a specific question or area of interest within
qualitative) analysis that does not provide a the data (a semantic approach / see below),
quantified measure (unlike much content or to a particular latent theme (see below)
analysis, Wilkinson, 2000) / for instance: across the whole or majority of the data set.
the majority of participants (Meehan et al ., An example of this would be Victorias talk
2000: 372), many participants (Taylor and show paper, discussed previously (Clarke
Ussher, 2001: 298), or a number of and Kitzinger, 2004), which examined nor-
participants (Braun et al ., 2003: 249). malization in lesbians and gay mens ac-
Such descriptors work rhetorically to counts of parenting.
suggest a theme really existed in the data,
and to convince us they are reporting Inductive versus theoretical thematic
truthfully about the data. But do they tell analysis
us much? This is perhaps one area where Themes or patterns within data can be
more debate is needed about how and why identified in one of two primary ways in
we might represent the prevalence of thematic analysis: in an inductive or bot-
themes in the data, and, indeed, whether, tom up way (eg, Frith and Gleeson, 2004),
if, and why prevalence is particularly im- or in a theoretical or deductive or top
portant. down way (eg, Boyatzis, 1998; Hayes,
1997). An inductive approach means the
A rich description of the data set, or a themes identified are strongly linked to the
detailed account of one particular aspect data themselves (Patton, 1990) (as such, this
It is important to determine the type of form of thematic analysis bears some simi-
analysis you want to do, and the claims larity to grounded theory). In this approach,
you want to make, in relation to your data if the data have been collected specifically
set. For instance, you might wish to provide for the research (eg, via interview or focus
a rich thematic description of your entire group), the themes identified may bear little
data set, so that the reader gets a sense of the relation to the specific questions that were
predominant or important themes. In this asked of the participants. They would also
case, the themes you identify, code, and not be driven by the researchers theoretical
analyse would need to be an accurate reflec- interest in the area or topic. Inductive
tion of the content of the entire data set. In analysis is therefore a process of coding
such an analysis, some depth and complex- the data without trying to fit it into a pre-
ity is necessarily lost (particularly if you are existing coding frame, or the researchers
writing a short dissertation or article with analytic preconceptions. In this sense, this
strict word limits), but a rich overall de- form of thematic analysis is data-driven.
84 V Braun and V Clarke
(which are sometimes specifically referred instead seeks to theorize the sociocultural
to as thematic DA (eg, Singer and Hunter, contexts, and structural conditions, that
1999; Taylor and Ussher, 2001)), where enable the individual accounts that are
broader assumptions, structures and/or provided. Thematic analysis that focuses
meanings are theorized as underpinning on latent themes tends to be more con-
what is actually articulated in the data. structionist, and it also tends to start to
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although in such instances, no analysis has (Ryan and Bernard, 2000: 780). Analysis
really been done at all! involves a constant moving back and for-
To sum up, thematic analysis involves the ward between the entire data set, the coded
searching across a data set / be that a extracts of data that you are analysing, and
number of interviews or focus groups, or a the analysis of the data that you are produ-
range of texts / to find repeated patterns of cing. Writing is an integral part of analysis,
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meaning. The exact form and product of not something that takes place at the end, as
thematic analysis varies, as indicated above, it does with statistical analyses. Therefore,
and so it is important that the questions writing should begin in phase one, with the
outlined above are considered before and jotting down of ideas and potential coding
during thematic analyses. Those appro- schemes, and continue right through the
aches which consider specific aspects, la- entire coding/analysis process.
tent themes and are constructionist tend to There are different positions regarding
often cluster together, while those that when you should engage with the literature
consider meanings across the whole data relevant to your analysis / with some
set, semantic themes, and are realist, often arguing that early reading can narrow your
cluster together. However, there are no hard- analytic field of vision, leading you to focus
and-fast rules in relation to this, and differ- on some aspects of the data at the expense
ent combinations are possible. What is of other potentially crucial aspects. Others
important is that the finished product con- argue that engagement with the literature
tains an account / not necessarily that can enhance your analysis by sensitizing
detailed / of what was done, and why. So you to more subtle features of the data
what does one actually do? We now provide
(Tuckett, 2005). Therefore, there is no one
what is, we hope, a straightforward step-
right way to proceed with reading for the-
by-step guide to conducting thematic ana-
matic analysis, although a more inductive
lysis.
approach would be enhanced by not enga-
ging with literature in the early stages of
analysis, whereas a theoretical approach
Doing thematic analysis: a step-by-step requires engagement with the literature
guide prior to analysis.
We provide an outline guide through the
Some of the phases of thematic analysis are six phases of analysis, and offer examples to
similar to the phases of other qualitative demonstrate the process.7 The different
research, so these stages are not necessarily phases are summarized in Table 1. It is
all unique to thematic analysis. The process important to recognize that qualitative ana-
starts when the analyst begins to notice, lysis guidelines are exactly that / they are
and look for, patterns of meaning and not rules, and, following the basic precepts,
issues of potential interest in the data / will need to be applied flexibly to fit the
this may be during data collection. The research questions and data (Patton, 1990).
endpoint is the reporting of the content Moreover, analysis is not a linear process of
and meaning of patterns (themes) in the simply moving from one phase to the next.
data, where themes are abstract (and often Instead, it is more recursive process, where
fuzzy) constructs the investigators identify movement is back and forth as needed,
[sic] before, during, and after analysis throughout the phases. It is also a process
Using thematic analysis in psychology 87
1. Familiarizing yourself Transcribing data (if necessary), reading and re-reading the data, noting down
with your data: initial ideas.
2. Generating initial codes: Coding interesting features of the data in a systematic fashion across the entire
data set, collating data relevant to each code.
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3. Searching for themes: Collating codes into potential themes, gathering all data relevant to each
potential theme.
4. Reviewing themes: Checking if the themes work in relation to the coded extracts (Level 1) and the
entire data set (Level 2), generating a thematic map of the analysis.
5. Defining and naming Ongoing analysis to refine the specifics of each theme, and the overall story the
themes: analysis tells, generating clear definitions and names for each theme.
6. Producing the report: The final opportunity for analysis. Selection of vivid, compelling extract
examples, final analysis of selected extracts, relating back of the analysis to the
research question and literature, producing a scholarly report of the analysis.
that develops over time (Ely et al ., 1997), research will become apparent / the read-
and should not be rushed. ing and re-reading of data is time-consum-
ing. It is, therefore, tempting to skip over
Phase 1: familiarizing yourself with your this phase, or be selective. We would
data strongly advise against this, as this phase
When you engage in analysis, you may have provides the bedrock for the rest of the
collected the data yourself, or they may have analysis.
been given to you. If you collected them During this phase, it is a good idea to start
through interactive means, you will come to taking notes or marking ideas for coding
the analysis with some prior knowledge of that you will then go back to in subsequent
the data, and possibly some initial analytic phases. Once you have done this, you are
interests or thoughts. Regardless, it is vital ready to begin, the more formal coding
that you immerse yourself in the data to the process. In essence, coding continues to be
extent that you are familiar with the depth developed and defined throughout the en-
and breadth of the content. Immersion tire analysis.
usually involves repeated reading of the
data, and reading the data in an active way / Transcription of verbal data
searching for meanings, patterns and so on. If you are working with verbal data, such as
It is ideal to read through the entire data set interviews, television programmes or poli-
at least once before you begin your coding, tical speeches, the data will need to be
as ideas and identification of possible pat- transcribed into written form in order to
terns will be shaped as you read through. conduct a thematic analysis. The process of
Whether or not you are aiming for an transcription, while it may seen time-con-
overall or detailed analysis, are searching suming, frustrating, and at times boring, can
for latent or semantic themes, or are data- or be an excellent way to start familiarizing
theoretically-driven will inform how the yourself with the data (Riessman, 1993).
reading proceeds. Regardless, it is impor- Further, some researchers even argue
tant to be familiar with all aspects of your it should be seen as a key phase of
data. At this phase, one of the reasons why data analysis within interpretative qualita-
qualitative research tends to use far smaller tive methodology (Bird, 2005: 227), and
samples than, for example, questionnaire recognized as an interpretative act, where
88 V Braun and V Clarke
meanings are created, rather than simply a ing and interpretative skills needed to ana-
mechanical act of putting spoken sounds on lyse the data (Lapadat and Lindsay, 1999). If
paper (Lapadat and Lindsay, 1999). your data have already been, or will be,
Various conventions exist for transforming transcribed for you, it is important that you
spoken texts into written texts (see Edwards spend more time familiarising yourself with
and Lampert, 1993; Lapadat and Lindsay, the data, and also check the transcripts back
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1999). Some systems of transcription have against the original audio recordings for
been developed for specific forms of analysis accuracy (as should always be done).
/ such as the Jefferson system for CA (see
Atkinson and Heritage, 1984; Hutchby and Phase 2: generating initial codes
Wooffitt, 1998). However, thematic analysis, Phase 2 begins when you have read and
even constructionist thematic analysis, does familiarized yourself with the data, and have
not require the same level of detail in the generated an initial list of ideas about what
transcript as conversation, discourse or even is in the data and what is interesting about
narrative analysis. As there is no one way to them. This phase then involves the produc-
conduct thematic analysis, there is no one set tion of initial codes from the data. Codes
of guidelines to follow when producing a identify a feature of the data (semantic
transcript. However, at a minimum it re- content or latent) that appears interesting
quires a rigorous and thorough ortho- to the analyst, and refer to the most basic
graphic transcript / a verbatim account of segment, or element, of the raw data or
all verbal (and sometimes nonverbal / eg, information that can be assessed in a mean-
coughs) utterances.8 What is important is ingful way regarding the phenomenon
that the transcript retains the information (Boyatzis, 1998: 63). See Figure 1 for an
you need, from the verbal account, and in a example of codes applied to a short segment
way which is true to its original nature (eg, of data. The process of coding is part of
punctuation added can alter the meaning of analysis (Miles and Huberman, 1994), as you
data / for example I hate it, you know. I do are organising your data into meaningful
versus I hate it. You know I do, Poland, groups (Tuckett, 2005). However, your
2002: 632), and that the transcription con- coded data differ from the units of analysis
vention is practically suited to the purpose of (your themes), which are (often) broader.
analysis (Edwards, 1993). Your themes, which you start to develop in
As we have noted, the time spent in the next phase, are where the interpretative
transcription is not wasted, as it informs analysis of the data occurs, and in relation to
the early stages of analysis, and you will which arguments about the phenomenon
develop a far more thorough understanding being examined are made (Boyatzis, 1998).
of your data through having transcribed it. Coding will, to some extent, depend on
Furthermore, the close attention needed to whether the themes are more data-driven
transcribe data may facilitate the close read- or theory-driven / in the former, the
themes will depend on the data, but in the lost (Bryman, 2001); and (c) remember that
latter, you might approach the data with you can code individual extracts of data in
specific questions in mind that you wish to as many different themes as they fit into /
code around. It will also depend on whether so an extract may be uncoded, coded once,
you are aiming to code the content of the or coded many times, as relevant. Note that
entire data set, or whether you are coding to no data set is without contradiction, and a
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identify particular (and possibly limited) satisfactory thematic map that you will
features of the data set. Coding can be eventually produce / an overall conceptua-
performed either manually or through a lization of the data patterns, and relation-
software programme (see, eg, Kelle, 2004; ships between them9 / does not have to
Seale, 2000, for discussion of software smooth out or ignore the tensions and
programmes). inconsistencies within and across data
Work systematically through the entire items. It is important to retain accounts
data set, giving full and equal attention to that depart from the dominant story in the
each data item, and identify interesting analysis, so do not ignore these in your
aspects in the data items that may form coding.
the basis of repeated patterns (themes)
Phase 3: searching for themes
across the data set. There are a number of
Phase 3 begins when all data have been
ways of actually coding extracts. If coding
initially coded and collated, and you have a
manually, you can code your data by writ-
long list of the different codes that you have
ing notes on the texts you are analysing,
identified across the data set. This phase,
by using highlighters or coloured pens to
which re-focuses the analysis at the broader
indicate potential patterns, or by using level of themes, rather than codes, involves
post-it notes to identify segments of data. sorting the different codes into potential
You may initially identify the codes, and themes, and collating all the relevant coded
then match them with data extracts that data extracts within the identified themes.
demonstrate that code, but it is important in Essentially, you are starting to analyse your
this phase to ensure that all actual data codes and consider how different codes
extracts are coded, and then collated to- may combine to form an overarching theme.
gether within each code. This may involve It may be helpful at this phase to use visual
copying extracts of data from individual representations to help you sort the differ-
transcripts or photocopying extracts of ent codes into themes. You might use tables,
printed data, and collating each code to- or mind-maps, or write the name each code
gether in separate computer files or using (and a brief description) on a separate piece
file cards. If using computer software, you of paper and play around with organizing
code by tagging and naming selections of them into theme-piles. A thematic map of
text within each data item. this early stage can be seen in Figure 2 (the
Key advice for this phase is: (a) code for as examples in Figures 2 /4 come from the
many potential themes/patterns as possible analysis presented in Braun and Wilkinson,
(time permitting) / you never know what 2003 of womens talk about the vagina).
might be interesting later; (b) code extracts This is when you start thinking about the
of data inclusively / ie, keep a little of the relationship between codes, between
surrounding data if relevant, a common themes, and between different levels of
criticism of coding is that the context is themes (eg, main overarching themes and
90 V Braun and V Clarke
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Figure 2 Initial thematic map, showing five main themes (final analysis presented in Braun and
Wilkinson, 2003)
sub-themes within them). Some initial You end this phase with a collection of
codes may go on to form main themes, candidate themes, and sub-themes, and all
whereas others may form sub-themes, and extracts of data that have been coded in
others still may be discarded. At this stage, relation to them. At this point, you will start
you may also have a set of codes that do not to have a sense of the significance of
seem to belong anywhere, and it is perfectly individual themes. However, do not aban-
acceptable to create a theme called mis- don anything at this stage, as without
cellaneous to house the codes / possibly looking at all the extracts in detail (the
temporarily / that do not seem to fit into next phase) it is uncertain whether the
your main themes. themes hold as they are, or whether some
Figure 3 Developed thematic map, showing three main themes (final analysis presented in Braun and
Wilkinson, 2003)
Using thematic analysis in psychology 91
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Figure 4 Final thematic map, showing final two main themes (see Braun and Wilkinson, 2003).
need to be combined, refined and separated, rework your theme, creating a new theme,
or discarded. finding a home for those extracts that do not
currently work in an already-existing
Phase 4: reviewing themes theme, or discarding them from the analy-
Phase 4 begins when you have devised a set sis. Once you are satisfied that your candi-
of candidate themes, and it involves the date themes adequately capture the
refinement of those themes. During this contours of the coded data / once you
phase, it will become evident that some have a candidate thematic map / you
candidate themes are not really themes (eg, are ready to move on to level two of this
if there are not enough data to support them, phase. The outcome of this refinement
or the data are too diverse), while others process can be seen in the thematic map
might collapse into each other (eg, two presented in Figure 3.
apparently separate themes might form Level two involves a similar process, but
one theme). Other themes might need in relation to the entire data set. At this
to be broken down into separate themes.
level, you consider the validity of indivi-
Pattons (1990) for dual criteria judging
dual themes in relation to the data set, but
categories / internal homogeneity and ex-
also whether your candidate thematic map
ternal heterogeneity / are worth consider-
accurately reflects the meanings evident in
ing here. Data within themes should cohere
the data set as a whole. To some extent,
together meaningfully, while there should
what counts as accurate representation
be clear and identifiable distinctions be-
tween themes. depends on your theoretical and analytic
This phase involves two levels of review- approach. However, in this phase you re-
ing and refining your themes. Level one read your entire data set for two purposes.
involves reviewing at the level of the coded The first is, as discussed, to ascertain
data extracts. This means you need to read whether the themes work in relation to
all the collated extracts for each theme, and the data set. The second is to code any
consider whether they appear to form a additional data within themes that has been
coherent pattern. If your candidate themes missed in earlier coding stages. The need for
do appear to form a coherent pattern, you re-coding from the data set is to be expected
then move on to the second level of this as coding is an ongoing organic process.
phase. If your candidate themes do not fit, If the thematic map works, then you
you will need to consider whether the moves on to the next phase. However, if
theme itself is problematic, or whether the map does not fit the data set, you need
some of the data extracts within it simply to return to further reviewing and refining
do not fit there / in which case, you would of your coding until you have devised a
92 V Braun and V Clarke
satisfactory thematic map. In so doing, it is you do not just paraphrase the content of
possible that you will identify potential the data extracts presented, but identify
new themes, and you will need to start what is of interest about them and why.
coding for these as well, if they are of For each individual theme, you need to
interest and relevent. However, a word conduct and write a detailed analysis. As
of warning: as coding data and generating well as identifying the story that each
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about the names you will give them in the study to study. As a first step, we recom-
final analysis. Names need to be concise, mend looking at published examples of
punchy, and immediately give the reader a thematic analysis, particularly of the speci-
sense of what the theme is about. fic version you are planning to use (this is
made somewhat more difficult in that the-
Phase 6: producing the report matic analysis is often not a named method,
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Phase 6 begins when you have a set of fully but you can find examples, eg, Ellis and
worked-out themes, and involves the final Kitzinger, 2002; Kitzinger and Willmott,
analysis and write-up of the report. The 2002; Toerien and Wilkinson, 2004). In
task of the write-up of a thematic anal- order to provide a sense of the sorts of
ysis, whether it is for publication or for a questions you should be asking of your data,
research assignment or dissertation, is to and the sorts of analytic claims you should
tell the complicated story of your data in a be seeking to make, we will discuss a
way which convinces the reader of the merit particularly good example of an inductive
and validity of your analysis. It is important thematic analysis, which emphasizes un-
that the analysis (the write-up of it, includ-
derstanding mens experiences in relation to
ing data extracts) provides a concise, coher-
the broader social context (see Frith and
ent, logical, non-repetitive and interesting
Gleeson, 2004).
account of the story the data tell / within
Frith and Gleeson (2004) aim to ex-
and across themes. Your write-up must
plore how mens feelings about their
provide sufficient evidence of the themes
bodies influence their clothing practices,
within the data / ie, enough data extracts to
and they use data gathered in qualitative
demonstrate the prevalence of the theme.
questionnaires from 75 men to answer
Choose particularly vivid examples, or ex-
this question. They report four themes:
tracts which capture the essence of the
practicality of clothing choices; lack of
point you are demonstrating, without un-
necessary complexity. The extract should be concern about appearance; use of cloth-
easily identifiable as an example of the ing to conceal or reveal the body; use of
issue. However, your write-up needs to do clothing to fit cultural ideals. Each theme
more than just provide data. Extracts need is clearly linked back to the overall
to be embedded within an analytic narrative research question, but each is distinct.
that compellingly illustrates the story you They provide a clear sense of the scope
are telling about your data, and your analy- and diversity of each theme, using a
tic narrative needs to go beyond description combination of analyst narrative and
of the data, and make an argument in illustrative data extracts. Where relevant,
relation to your research question. they broaden their analysis out, moving
from a descriptive to an interpretative
level (often relating their claims to exist-
ing literature). For example, in men
Pinning down what interpretative value practicality, they make sense of
analysis actually entails mens accounts in relation to gender
norms and stereotypes, linking the ac-
It is difficult to specify exactly what inter- counts individual men provided to the
pretative analysis actually entails, particu- expectations that men / as members of
larly as the specifics of it will vary from society / face. What they do, as analysts,
94 V Braun and V Clarke
is relate the patterns of meaning in mens does not require the same detailed theore-
responses to an academic analysis of how tical and technical knowledge that ap-
gender operates. In so doing, they de- proaches such as DA or CA do. It is
monstrate the dual position that analysts relatively easy to conduct a good thematic
need to take: as both cultural members analysis on qualitative data, even when you
and cultural commentators. Their discus- are still learning qualitative techniques.
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sion section makes broader analytic However, there are a number of things that
statements about the overall story that can result in a poor analysis. In this section
the themes tell us about mens relation- we identify these potential pitfalls, in the
ship with clothing. This story reveals hope that they can be avoided.
that men deliberately and strategically The first of these is a failure to actually
use clothing to manipulate their appear- analyse the data at all! Thematic analysis is
ance to meet cultural ideals of masculi- not just a collection of extracts strung
nity (Frith and Gleeson, 2004: 45), in a together with little or no analytic narrative.
way more traditionally associated with Nor is it a selection of extracts with analytic
women. This analysis makes an impor- comment that simply or primarily para-
tant contribution in that it challenges phrases their content. The extracts in the-
perceived wisdom about clothing/appear- matic analysis are illustrative of the analytic
ance and masculinity. points the researcher makes about the data,
As this example demonstrates, your ana- and should be used to illustrate/support an
lytic claims need to be grounded in, but go analysis that goes beyond their specific
beyond, the surface of the data, even for a content, to make sense of the data, and tell
semantic level analysis. The sort of ques- the reader what it does or might mean / as
tions you need to be asking, towards the end discussed above. A second, associated pit-
phases of your analysis, include: What does fall is the using of the data collection
this theme mean? What are the assump- questions (such as from an interview sche-
tions underpinning it? What are the im- dule) as the themes that are reported. In
plications of this theme? What conditions
such a case, no analytic work has been
are likely to have given rise to it? Why
carried out to identify themes across the
do people talk about this thing in this
entire data set, or make sense of the pattern-
particular way (as opposed to other
ing of responses.
ways)? and What is the overall story the
The third is a weak or unconvincing
different themes reveal about the topic?.
analysis, where the themes do not appear
These sorts of questions should guide the
to work, where there is too much overlap
analysis once you have a clear sense of your
between themes, or where the themes are
thematic map.
not internally coherent and consistent. All
aspects of the theme should cohere around a
central idea or concept. This pitfall has
Potential pitfalls to avoid when doing occurred if, depending on what the analysis
thematic analysis is trying to do, it fails adequately to capture
the majority of the data, or fails to provide a
Thematic analysis is a relatively straight- rich description/interpretation of one or
forward form of qualitative analysis, which more aspects of the data. A weak or un-
Using thematic analysis in psychology 95
convincing analysis can also stem from a The fifth involves a mismatch between
failure to provide adequate examples from theory and analytic claims, or between the
the data / for example, only one or two research questions and the form of thematic
extracts for a theme. This point is essen- analysis used. A good thematic analysis
tially about the rhetorics of presentation, needs to make sure that the interpretations
and the need for the analysis to be convin- of the data are consistent with the theoretical
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cing to someone who has not read the entire framework. So, for instance, if you are work-
data set: The analysis of the material. . . is ing within an experiential framework, you
a deliberate and self-consciously artful crea- would typically not make claims about the
tion by the researcher, and must be con- social construction of the research topic, and
structed to persuade the reader of the if you were doing constructionist thematic
analysis, you would not treat peoples talk
plausibility of an argument (Foster and
of experience as a transparent window on
Parker, 1995: 204). In so doing, one avoids
their world. Finally, even a good and inter-
(the appearance of) what Bryman (1988) has
esting analysis which fails to spell out
referred to as anecdotalism in qualitative
its theoretical assumptions, or clarify how it
research / where one or a few instances of a was undertaken, and for what purpose, is
phenomenon are reified into a pattern or lacking crucial information (Holloway and
theme, when it or they are actually idiosyn- Todres, 2003), and thus fails in one aspect.
cratic. This is not to say that a few instances
cannot be of interest, or revealing; but it is
important not to misrepresent them as an
overarching theme. What makes good thematic analysis?
The fourth pitfall is a mismatch between
the data and the analytic claims that are One of the criticisms of qualitative research
made about it. In such an (unfounded) from those outside the field is the percep-
analysis, the claims cannot be supported tion that anything goes. For instance, this
by the data, or, in the worst case, the data sentiment is echoed in the first sentence of
extracts presented suggest another analysis Laubschagnes (2003) abstract: For many
or even contradict the claims. The re- scientists used to doing quantitative studies
searcher needs to make sure that their the whole concept of qualitative research is
interpretations and analytic points are con- unclear, almost foreign, or airy fairy / not
real research. However, although quali-
sistent with the data extracts. A weak
tative research cannot be subjected to the
analysis does not appear to consider other
same criteria as quantitative approaches, it
obvious alternative readings of the data, or
does provide methods of analysis that
fails to consider variation (and even contra-
should be applied rigorously to the data.
diction) in the account that is produced. A
Furthermore, criteria for conducting good
pattern in data is rarely, if ever, going to be qualitative research / both data collection
100% complete and non-contradicted, so an and analysis / do exist (eg, Elliott et al .,
analysis which suggests that it is, without a 1999; Parker, 2004; Seale, 1999; Silverman,
thorough explanation, is open to suspicion. 2000; Yardley, 2000). The British Psycholo-
It is important to pick compelling examples gical Society offers relatively succinct on-
to demonstrate the themes, so give this line guidelines for assessing quality in qua-
considerable thought. litative research (see http://www.bps.org.
96 V Braun and V Clarke
Transcription 1 The data have been transcribed to an appropriate level of detail, and the transcripts
have been checked against the tapes for accuracy.
Coding 2 Each data item has been given equal attention in the coding process.
3 Themes have not been generated from a few vivid examples (an anecdotal approach),
but instead the coding process has been thorough, inclusive and comprehensive.
4 All relevant extracts for all each theme have been collated.
5 Themes have been checked against each other and back to the original data set.
6 Themes are internally coherent, consistent, and distinctive.
Analysis 7 Data have been analysed / interpreted, made sense of / rather than just paraphrased
or described.
8 Analysis and data match each other / the extracts illustrate the analytic claims.
9 Analysis tells a convincing and well-organized story about the data and topic.
10 A good balance between analytic narrative and illustrative extracts is provided.
Overall 11 Enough time has been allocated to complete all phases of the analysis adequately,
without rushing a phase or giving it a once-over-lightly.
Written report 12 The assumptions about, and specific approach to, thematic analysis are clearly
explicated.
13 There is a good fit between what you claim you do, and what you show you have
done / ie, described method and reported analysis are consistent.
14 The language and concepts used in the report are consistent with the epistemological
position of the analysis.
15 The researcher is positioned as active in the research process; themes do not just
emerge.
Using thematic analysis in psychology 97
Table 3 Advantages of thematic analysis allow the researcher to make claims about
language use, or the fine-grained function-
Flexibility.
Relatively easy and quick method to learn, and do. ality of talk.
Accessible to researchers with little or no experience of Finally, it is worth noting that thematic
qualitative research. analysis currently has no particular kudos
Results are generally accessible to educated general
public. as an analytic method / this, we argue,
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Useful method for working within participatory re- stems from the very fact that it is poorly
search paradigm, with participants as collaborators. demarcated and claimed, yet widely used.
Can usefully summarize key features of a large body of
data, and/or offer a thick description of the data set. This means that thematic analysis is fre-
Can highlight similarities and differences across the quently, or appears to be, what is simply
data set. carried out by someone without the knowl-
Can generate unanticipated insights.
Allows for social as well as psychological interpreta- edge or skills to perform a supposedly more
tions of data. sophisticated / certainly more kudos-bear-
Can be useful for producing qualitative analyses suited ing / branded form of analysis like
to informing policy development.
grounded theory, IPA or DA. We hope this
paper will change this view as, we argue, a
rigorous thematic approach can produce an
the method itself. Further, the flexibility of insightful analysis that answers particular
the method / which allows for a wide range research questions. What is important is
of analytic options / means that the poten- choosing a method that is appropriate to
tial range of things that can be said about your research question, rather than falling
victim to methodolatry, where you are
your data is broad. While this is an advan-
committed to method rather than topic/
tage, it can also be a disadvantage in that it
content or research questions (Holloway
makes developing specific guidelines for
and Todres, 2003). Indeed, your method of
higher-phase analysis difficult, and can be
analysis should be driven by both your
potentially paralysing to the researcher try-
research question and your broader theore-
ing to decide what aspects of their data to
tical assumptions. As we have demon-
focus on. Another issue to consider is that a
strated, thematic analysis is a flexible
thematic analysis has limited interpretative
approach that can be used across a range
power beyond mere description if it is not
of epistemologies and research questions.
used within an existing theoretical frame-
work that anchors the analytic claims that
Notes
are made.
Other disadvantages appear when the- 1. Boyatzis (1998) provides a much more
matic analysis is considered in relation to detailed account of thematic analysis. However,
some of the other qualitative analytic meth- we do not feel that it is a particularly accessible
ods. For instance, unlike narrative or other account for those unfamiliar with qualitative
biographical approaches, you are unable to approaches. Moreover, his approach differs
from ours in that, although he acknowledges
retain a sense of continuity and contradic-
the subjective dimension of qualitative analysis,
tion through any one individual account, his approach is ultimately, if often implicitly,
and these contradictions and consistencies located within a positivist empiricist paradigm.
across individual accounts may be reveal- 2. Deys (1993) account of on qualitative data
ing. In contrast to methods similar to DA analysis, which aims to identify shared techni-
and CA, a simple thematic analysis does not ques across the diverse range of qualitative
98 V Braun and V Clarke
methods, and demonstrate how to do qualitative 6. The definition by Boyatzis (1998) of latent
analysis, reinforces this point in that his focus is and manifest is somewhat narrower than our
largely thematic / but not claimed as such. identification of latent and semantic, and he
3. Some authors, such as Potter (1997: 147 / identifies thematic analysis as incorporating
48) argue that one should not simply provide both latent and manifest aspects. However, this
recipes for qualitative methods, such as DA, results from the fact that he associates the
because a large part of doing discourse analysis process of interpretation with latent analysis /
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is a craft skill, more like bike riding or sexing a whereas we would argue that it should also be an
chicken than following the recipe for a mild important element of a semantic approach.
chicken rogan josh. . . This makes it hard to 7. We are assuming that you will be working
describe and learn. While we do not disagree with a good quality data corpus and data set.
We would argue that good data are defined by a
that the skills needed for qualitative analyses of
particular set of criteria regarding what, why,
all types need to be learned, others, such as
and how they were collected, and offer rich,
McLeod (2001), argue that by not discussing the
detailed and complex accounts of the topic.
how to of analysis, we keep certain methods
Good data do not just provide a surface over-
mysterious (and thus elitist). Instead, if we want view of the topic of interest, or simply reiterate a
to make methods democratic and accessible / commonsense account. The challenge for the
and indeed, to make qualitative research of all novice researcher is to interact with research
forms more understandable to those not trained participants in such a way that they generate
in the methods, and arguably thus more popular rich and complex insights. Producing a good
/ we need to provide concrete advice on how to analysis of poor quality data is a far more
actually do it. We are not questioning the demanding task for the analyst, although it can
importance of non-recipe forms of training, potentially be performed by a skilled and ex-
but while recipes necessarily diminish the perienced analyst.
complexity of certain methods, they are impor- 8. See Poland (2002) for a discussion of the
tant for making methods accessible. problems with the idea of a verbatim transcript,
4. Foster and Parker (1995) suggest one and what is left out, and retained, through this
way to acknowledge the creative and active role process.
of the analyst is to use the first person when 9. What we mean by thematic map is similar
writing. to, but less detailed than, the codebook Ryan
5. Content analysis is another method that and Bernard (2000) refer to, which involves a
can be used to identify patterns across qualitative detailed account of the hierarchical relationship
data, and is sometimes treated as similar to between codes, as well as a description of each,
thematic approaches (eg, Wilkinson, 2000). How- their criteria, exemplars and counter / examples,
ever, content analysis tends to focus at a more and other such details. Like Boyatziss (1998)
account of a thematic code, this model is then
micro level, often provides (frequency) counts
applied to (and revised in relation to) the data.
(Wilkinson, 2000), and allows for quantitative
See Figures 2 /4 for visual representations of a
analyses of initially qualitative data (Ryan and
thematic maps and its refinement. Another ex-
Bernard, 2000). Thematic analysis differs from
ample of a thematic map / this time in table
this in that themes tend not to be quantified form / can be found in Frith and Gleeson (2004).
(although sometimes they may be; and Boyatzis
(1998) suggests thematic analysis can be used to
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