Large N

Arnab Rudra

Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics,

University of Cambridge

Contents
1 Introduction: 2

2 SU(N ) Feynman diagram in the Large N limit: 3

2.1 Scaling of coupling constant with N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Double line notation : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Rules for playing in the Large N limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Meson phenomenology in the Large N limit: 9

3.1 Meson (mass) spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Meson Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 Attractiveness of Large N and similarity with phenomenology: . . . . . . . . 13

4 Large N factorization and master field 14

4.1 Zero-fluctuation : Classical limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2 Master field and its computational power: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

5 Baryons in Large N 18
5.1 New divergence and its source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.2 Theory of non-relativistic baryons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1
6 tHoofts model of 2-D QCD 21
6.1 Action of QCD2 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.2 Light cone coordinates: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.3 Choice of gauge: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.4 Reduced Lorentz Index Structure: more simplifications . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.5 Dressed quark propagator: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.6 Greens function for two quark bi-linears : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.6.1 The Hamiltonian (positive-definiteness & spectrum): . . . . . . . . . 29
6.6.2 Confinement: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.7 Quark-anti quark scattering amplitude: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.8 A few clarifications: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.8.1 Contrast to Schwinger model (QED in 1+1 dimensions): . . . . . . . 34
6.8.2 Classical confinement in 1+1 dimension: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

7 Conclusion: 35

8 Acknowledgment: 35

9 Appendix: 36
9.1 SU(N ) vs U(N ) in the Large N limit: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
9.2 Polology: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

1 Introduction:
Experimental observations over the last few decades have strongly indicated that SU(3) gauge
theory of quarks and gluons is the underlying theory for Hadronic physics. But a complete
analytic understanding of QCD is still missing and we have to assume many essential features
(as evident from experimental data) like confinement, dynamical mass generation, chiral
symmetry breaking.
One may think of solving the theory approximately in terms of an expansion parameter.
From our understanding of QED we may tend to think that the obvious candidate for an
expansion parameter is the free coupling constant g. But renormalization group analysis
suggests that g is not a free parameter as it can be absorbed into defining the scale of the
masses. So it seems that QCD lacks any free parameter for the expansion.
In 1974 tHooft[1] suggested to generalize SU(3) to SU(N ) and to consider expansion in
the power of 1/N . Subsequent studies showed that QCD simplifies a lot in the Large N
limit (more precisely, in the limit N ). Despite this simplification we are yet to solve
it analytically in 3+1 dimensions. Still, qualitative arguments show that many aspects of
Hadronic phenomenology can be explained in this Large N expansion and we can, at least,
get some conceptual understanding of the original theory.
We start in sec. 2 with a discussion of pure SU(N ) Yang-Mills theory. A special choice
of the coupling constant enables us to take a Large N limit. Then we will show that only
those Feynman diagrams that can entirely be drawn on a plane, contribute in the Large N

2
limit and the Large N expansion is indeed a topological expansion. With these tools we will
discuss meson phenomenology in sec 3. Large N mesons are non-interacting and devoid of
any exotic meson states. This is a great success of Large N theory which explains many
features of phenomenology appropriately. Sec 4 contains ingenious idea of Master Field.
We know that in the h 0 limit the path integral is dominated by the classical path.
Similarly in the N limit the Quantum Theory reduces to computation in a single gauge
field configuration, known as Master Field. We will then discuss the key features of Master
Field. The diagrammatic technique (that we will use for mesons) fails for baryons. The key
difference between SU(N ) mesons and baryons is that mesons are always 2-particle bound-
states whereas the number of quarks (anti-quarks) making a baryon increases linearly with
N . This fact disables our diagrammatic technique. In sec 5 we will discuss how to take a well-
defined Large N limit for baryons and will use it develop a theory for non-relativistic baryons.
All these ideas are largely logical derivation rather than actual analytical calculation. We
have already mentioned that the analytic solution of the Large N QCD in 3+1 dimension is
still unknown. Instead we will study QCD in 1+1 dimension (sec 6) where we can do explicit
calculations. Though the model is unrealistic still it is worth studying as it gives evidence of
consistency of those ideas that we have developed in the section 2 and section 3 .

2 SU(N ) Feynman diagram in the Large N limit:

In this section we will try to show how to take Large N limit for Yang Mills theory and then
we will derive various interesting results in this limit.

2.1 Scaling of coupling constant with N

Consider pure SU(N ) yang mills theory. The action is
1  a b 
S= F F (1)
4 b a
where
a
Fb = Aab Aab + ig[A , A ]ab (2)
We know that there are only two interaction vertices in pure (not coupled to matter)
SU(N ) 1 gauge theory: three gluon vertex (proportional to g) & four gluon vertex (propor-
tional to g 2 )
a c b
b
a c

a c a c
b b d d

1
Actually we will consider U(N ) gauge field. We can show in the Large N limit SU(N )and U(N ) has
same dynamics (See appendix 9.1)

3
 First, consider a low order Feynman diagram. Lets look at the contribution of one loop
gluon vacuum polarization diagram to the gluon propagator.
a
a a
c c
b b
b
2
Clearly, we have N choices for c index. So the diagram is of the order
of g N . Now,
to get a finite contribution as N we will take g to scale like 1/ N so that g 2 N
remains fixed. It can be shown that in this particular limit a particular class of Feynman
diagram contributes 2 . First we will try to derive this result and then we will consider its
consequences.

2.2 Double line notation :

Now, lets evaluate the combinatorial factor of a diagram as we are looking for a perturbative
expansion in 1/N .
For the time being we will concentrate on the combinatorial features. Note that a gauge
field has same index structure as that of a quark-anti-quark pair. Loosely speaking, Aij
= q i qj .
So to keep track of combinatorial factors we can replace a gauge field by a quark-anti-quark
pair, ie. for combinatorial purposes,
a a
=
b b
This is tHoofts ingenious double-line representation.
Consider an example to understand its usefulness. Consider the diagram
a
a a
c c
b b
b
now using double line notation this diagram becomes

a
a a
c
b
b
b
So using this notation the index structure of a Feynman diagram is very explicit and
manifestly clear and hence we can easily count the powers of N arising due to combinatorial
2
First correction from 4 gluon vertex comes from two loop diagram and it is proportional to
a

a a
c c
d d
b b

g 4 N 2 (consistent with our choice of rescaling g) b

4
factors. Consider, the diagram for q i qi
i

Now the contracted indices imply there are N choices of i and hence any closed loop in
the double line diagram contributes a factor N .
Let us now consider the following two diagrams:

(a)

(b)
[Note again the usefulness of Double-line notation again . In diagram(b) it is very difficult
to keep track of gauge indices unless we use double-line notation]
 4
Now the Large N counting for the diagram (a) is N 2 (1/ N ) = 1 (N for each
 4
closed colour loop and 1/ N for each vertex) whereas it is N (1/ N ) = 1/N for the
diagram (b) .
Clearly the diagram (b) is suppressed O(1/N ) with respect to diagram (a) and hence
dont contribute in the limit N . Also observe that the second diagram cannot be
drawn entirely on a plane. Its non planar.

2.3 Rules for playing in the Large N limit

With the observation in sec 2.2, we claim [4]:

Only planar diagrams (diagrams that can be drawn entirely on a plane) survive in the
large N limit.

5
To prove this claim we consider the Lagrangian (slightly modified version of the well-known
Yang-Mills Lagrangian)3
1 1 b a a (i Aab ) b m
a a ]
L= [ F Fb + (3)
g2 4 a
where
a
Fb = Aab Aab + i[A , A ]ab (4)
This is not the usual form of the QCD Lagrangian but rescaling gives back the original
Lagrangian :

A gA ,

g .

The advantage for using this particular form of the Lagrangian is that any vertex has
same g 2 (and hence N ) dependence. So we dont have to worry about the difference among
3-Gluon vertex, 4-Gluon vertex and gluon-2 fermion vertex.
Now, noting that g scales like 1/ N in the N limit, we rewrite g as / N where
is a constant in the Large N limit. So the action is
N 1 b a a (i Aab ) b m
a a ].
L= 2
[ Fa Fb + (5)
4
Now the gluon propagator inverse of the quadratic part of the gauge field Lagrangian
1/N ,
Any vertex v N,
Quark propagator inverse of quadratic part of the Dirac Lagrangian 1/N.
But lets consider diagrams involving gluons only; we first re-draw it using double line
notation and then fill in any index loop with little plaquettes.For example, consider the
following Feynman diagram (and its corresponding double line graph) -
D
D A

A
A

D
B C B C
B
C
Polygonization
If we identify
each interaction vertex as the vertex of a polygon,
3
We will use this modified form of the Lagrangian for this particular proof only as it has certain advantages
(discussed later). Also we can easily go back to more usual form just by rescaling (and obviously redefinition
of fields doesnt change the physics).

6
 each propagator in the Feynman diagram as an edge of a polygon and
any closed colour loop (filled up with plaquettes) as a surface then
we immediately discover that we have polygonized the Feynman diagrams (Two such iden-
tifications have been shown for the above drawn diagram). Clearly each Feynman diagram
is a 2-D surface and each double line graph induces a triangulation of a 2-D surface. For
example the above drawn Feynman diagram is equivalent to a tetrahedron.
Now with this identification we can easily find the N dependence of a diagram. Any
diagram is N a where
a=number of interaction vertices + number of closed loop number of propagator
=number of vertex of the induced polygon V + number of faces F number of edges E
=Euler characteristics of the 2-D surface () (it is a topological invariant)
So from the perspective of N -dependence all those Feynman diagram having same topol-
ogy have the same N dependence. Hence the Large N expansion is equivalent to a topological
expansion (remember we are now interested in dependence on N only). Note that tetrahe-
dron has a topology of a sphere. Any Double line Graph is equivalent to a sphere with 2
handles.
Clearly the diagrams with maximum contributes in the large N limit and the maximum
value of is
(polygons that have the topology of a sphere have = 2 ) so the only diagrams that
survive in the Large N limit have the topology of a sphere. But these are the diagrams
(like the above drawn diagram) that can entirely be drawn in a plane (ie. Planar diagram4 ).
Hence only the planar diagram contribute in the Large N limit. (Also note that any non
planar diagram has topology of a sphere with at least one handle and hence suppressed by
at least by a factor of 1/N 2 )
Let us now consider diagrams that contain a quark loop. Note for any diagram containing
an internal quark loop there is a corresponding diagram involving gauge boson.
a
a a a a
c
c
b b b b b

a a a a
c
c
b b b b
From the perspective of the N dependence everything is same for the above two diagrams
except the c loop in the second diagram
and hence the diagram with internal quark loop has 1/N suppression with respect to
the diagram containing gauge boson loop. Similarly for any diagram containing an internal
quark loop, there is always another diagram which is identical to the first diagram except
the quark loop is replaced by a gluon loop. So,
4
to draw any diagram (having the topology of a sphere) in plane, just remove a face and project it into
the plane; the boundary of the removed face becomes the external colour loop [Notice the Tetrahedron drawn
above]

7
 There should no internal quark loop in the Large N limit (in the topological language
each quark loop induces a hole on the 2-d surface and hence decreases by 1 )
missing colour loop = Hole
Sphere with a hole

The only class of diagrams that are left to be considered are the ones that are generated
by quark bi-linears. We claim :

In the large N limit the leading order contribution to the vacuum expectation value of
the quark bi-linear comes from the planar diagrams that have only quarks at the edges
(also devoid of any internal quark loop).

Lets consider a few diagrams:

(a) (b)

(c)
Now lets investigate the Large N dependence of the above diagrams: First two diagrams
are of O(N ) (second diagram has an extra colour loop but it also contains two new vertices)
whereas diagram is of O(1/N ) (one colour loop but 4 vertices). So diagram (c) is suppressed
by 1/N 2 .
In case of diagram (c) any boundary of the diagram necessarily contains a gluon propa-
gator. By considering this simple example we can say that whenever gluon appears in the
boundary the diagram must contain a portion like (d) {ie. two points (say p, q) on the
boundary that are necessarily joined by gluon lines}

8
 p q
p q

(d) (e)
and it is suppressed by 1/N 2 [ just replace the portion (d) by (e)].
[Here also note that the leading order diagram, generated by quark bi-linears, are O(N )
{just consider the diagram (a)}]

Large N perturbation: So in the Large N perturbation theory the amplitude of any

process is

ai N i
i
where ai is the sum of all Feynman diagram having the topology characterized by i and
in the Large N limit we have to sum over the planar diagrams only5 . In spite of this great
simplification of SU(N ) gauge theory in the Large N limit we are unable to do the sum over
all these planar diagrams in 3 + 1 dimensions and hence cant solve the theory analytically.
Nevertheless, with the assumption of confinement and using the fact that in the Large N
limit only the planar diagrams contribute we can derive a picture which is very close to the
picture that we get from experimental evidences.

3 Meson phenomenology in the Large N limit:

Let us look at the properties of the mesons (of SU(N ) gauge field) in the Large N limit.

3.1 Meson (mass) spectrum

Consider the vacuum expectation value of local quark bi-linear J(x) like ( q q, q q).
Now from the discussion in the above section, any Feynman diagram generated by J(x)s
(in the leading order of N ) are (i) planar (ii) devoid of any internal quark loop and (iii) the
boundary of the diagrams contains quarks only. Equipped with these facts we claim
J(x) acting on vacuum creates only one meson state.
Before proving this first note that (as already assumed) the particle spectrum of the theory
contains only colourless states. Now lets consider a typical planar diagram for the expecta-
tion value of J(k)J(k)
5
Note that for real world QCD, N is 3. So we want to calculate perturbation expansion in powers of 1/3
which seems to be too large to have a valid expansion. But we expect this expansion to be a valid expansion
since in QED we calculate perturbation expansion in powers of e = .3028 and QED has produced many
accurate results (which has been confirmed experimentally). Actually, in QED calculation we found that the
expansion parameter turns out to be e2 /4 = 1/137 . So the mere largeness of e or 1/N does not invalidate
perturbation expansion.

9
 J(k) J(-k)

Now to know the particle spectrum of the diagram we have to cut the diagram.

l
k
k
j
j

Starting from the bottom the gauge index structure is qj Ajk Akl q l . Clearly any subset of
these quantities cannot be colourless. Now consider

J(k) J(-k)
l
k
k
j
j

Starting from the bottom the gauge index structure is qj Ajk q k ql q l . This diagram has two
colourless pieces- qj Ajk q k & ql q l but it is suppressed in the large N limit as it contains internal
quark loop.
With this experience from diagram drawn above we will try to justify the claim.
Lets consider colourless state. All its upper indices are contracted with all its lower
indices = (for any colourless state) the number of colour lines crossing the cut from the
left = the number of colour lines crossing the cut from the right. Let us consider a case where
the colour lines can be partitioned into two sub-sets such that each subset is colourless
Consider the following diagram (we havent drawn the whole diagram; only a portion of
the diagram is sufficient to show)

10
 Cut

1st Partition
2nd Partition

As the outermost two lines (being a portion of the boundary of the diagram) must be
quarks (or anti quarks), the index structure = the intermediate state is either qi Aij q j qk q k
or qi q i qj q j qk q k .
Now q i qj indicates that cut goes over a quark loop. But according to our previous dis-
cussion diagrams containing any internal quark loops dont contribute in the Large N limit.
Hence, diagram contains only single particle state. So , hJ(k)J(k)i has only single particle
poles and no branch cuts:
X a2n
hJ(k)J(k)i = . (6)
n
k 2 m2n
( mn s are the meson masses)

Claim: Number of meson states is infinite.

Proof : From asymptotic freedom we know that hJ(k)J(k)i behaves like 1/k 2 for large k
6
. Such a behavior of the left hand side is expected iff n ie. the sum is over infinite
terms. Hence proved.

3.2 Meson Interaction

Now let us investigate how the mesons would interact in the Large N limit. Consider any
n-point correlation function of quark bi-linears. The logic that we have discussed in the
previous section also holds for any n-point correlation function of quark-bi-linears. Any cut
along the diagram yields only a single colourless state. Production of multiple colourless
states necessarily involves internal quark loop(s) which is suppressed in the Large N limit.
So scattering amplitudes in any channel contains only single particle poles and no branch
6
In an asymptotically free theory, the coupling constant decreases with energy and at a sufficient high
energy the theory behaves like a free theory. So at high energies hJ(k)J(k)itakes the value of (free Fermionic
propagator)2
 2
1 1
hJ(k)J(k)i =
k k2
[for high momentum we can neglect the mass term in the Fermionic propagator]

11
cuts (which is a signature for production of multiparticle state). For example consider 3 point
correlation function of quark bi-linears hJ(p)J(q)J(r)i. It can contain terms like
A
(p2 l2 )(q 2 m2 )(r2 n2 )
where A is a non-singular term. This kind of term in the scattering amplitude indicates
the existence of a vertex where 3 particles meet (3-meson interaction vertex).
J(p) J(q)

J(r)
Similarly 4 point correlation function of quark bi-linears hJ(p)J(q)J(r)J(s)i contains
poles in the all the 4 momentum
C
(p2 l2 )(q 2 m2 )(r2 n2 )(s2 a2 )
(C is a non-singular term ) which indicates the existence of a 4-meson vertex .
J(p) J(s)

J(q) J(r)
4 meson vertex
But polology7 infers existence of a diagram like
J(p) J(r)

J(q) J(s)
[pole structure is
B
(p2 l2 )(q 2 m2 )((p + q)2 b2 )(r2 n2 )(s2 a2 )
B is a non-singular term]
(we will also get all the crossed channel diagrams)
So in the language of effective field theory we will get only tree-level diagrams (in the
Large N limit)8 .
7
See appendix 9.2
8
Now as we dont know a proper analytical method to derive the Effective Lagrangian (governing meson
phenomenology) from the QCD Lagrangian, for any n-point function, we will consider all possible tree level
diagrams, for sake of generality. It may happen that in the actual calculation some of these vertices (say four
meson vertex) dont occur or due to some symmetry a sub class of these diagrams dont contribute. The
whole point of this analysis is that even after considering every possible vertices, the derived picture fits very
well with the picture that we obtain from experiments.

12
 To get the Large N dependence of the meson interaction vertices we modify our action
S S + i bi Bi . Now this modification dont change the physics as bi s are just Lagrange
Multipliers and thus have no dynamics. But note that with this modified action we will
get new vertices of O(). So to get same N dependence this new vertices (and thus to
use same diagrammatic logic that we have developed previously) we rescale bi to get S
S + N ibi Bi where bi s are constant in the Large N limit.
1 nW
hBi1 ...Bin i = . (7)
N n bi1 ...bin
9
now
nW
O(N ),
bi1 ...bin
so hBi1 ...Bin i O(N 1n ). Now hBi1 Bi2 i is the meson propagator. To have N -independent
1 0
meson
amplitude we normalize Bi
N 2 Bi = Bi .
0 0 n 0 0 0
Bi1 ...Bin N 1 2 for example Bi1 Bi2 Bi3 1N ,


D E

C
3 meson interaction vertex
of effective field theory
n
So all meson-meson interaction vertex are suppressed (O(N 1 2 )) in the Large N limit
and hence the mesons are free and stable in this limit.

3.3 Attractiveness of Large N and similarity with phenomenology:

One of the key motivation for studying Large N is that its striking similarity with phe-
nomenology. Even if we cant do any analytic computation we can explain much of phe-
nomenology just by using Large N arguments with the assumption of Confinement.

1. Mesons are stable in the Large N limit.

2n
2. Any n-point meson vertex is O(N 2 ). So the first correction in 1/N comes from the 3-
point vertex. That means any meson decay is dominated by two particle decay channel.
Interestingly the phenomenological evidence supports the fact.

3. Meson states are just qq. Any exotic meson states qq qq are suppressed (Exotic mesons
must contain internal quark loops which is suppressed O(1/N ) in Large N limit) which
resembles the mesons we observe in the experiments.
9
the leading order contribution for the correlation functions of quark bi-linears comes from planar diagram
with no internal quark loop and boundary of the diagrams contains quarks only; such diagrams are of O(N )

13
 4. Also we have seen that in the effective field theory any correlation function is dominated
by tree level diagrams. Surprisingly, according to the successful Regge Phenomenology
the whole Hadronic physics can be interpreted as the tree level interaction of Hadrons.

4 Large N factorization and master field

Lets consider a gauge-invariant operator, say O(x) = c(k, N )T r(1 (x)...k (x)) where we fix
the normalization by requiring hOOi has finite norm in the Large N limit.
example of such operator : T r(F F ) = Fa
b
Fba .
These operators in the Large N limit show an important property, known as Large N
factorization[7]. If O1 (x) and O2 (x) are two irreducible gauge invariant operator then in
the Large N limit hO1 O2 i = hO1 ih O2 i. To illustrate first note the following example (say
X = Aab Ab
a )

<X^2>
<X>

Hence hX 2 i hXi2 is

Note both hX 2 i and hXi2 has 4 colour sum whereas hX 2 i hXi2 has 2. Everything else is
the same (all of them have 2 gluon propagator and no vertex) . Now any radiative correction
doesnt alter the N dependence unless it makes the diagram non-planar10 and non-planar
diagrams are already suppressed.
So hX 2 i hXi2 is suppressed to O(1/N 2 ) and hence dont contribute in the Large N
limit.
Now with this example lets try to argue it for a general gauge invariant operator.
now, gauge invariant (operator) all the gauge indices are contracted in the double
line notation the number of colour line entering is equal to the number of lines going out.
10
more precisely, unless it changes the topology of the diagram

14
 ie, O(x) is pictorially

(Note we have drawn a typical gauge invariant operator with total 5 upper and 5 lower
gauge indices and hence have 5 legs. Any arbitrary gauge invariant operator with n upper
and n lower gauge indices will have n legs)
Also for the time being we will consider gauge invariant operator that cannot be further
decomposed into two or more gauge invariant operator (the reason for this will become clear
soon)
We will try to understand this property (Large N factorization) using diagrammatic
technique. Note that to get the connected piece of A(x) and B(y) we have to contract at
least 2 indices of A(x) with 2 indices B(y) ie, diagrammatically,

B(y)
A(x)

[here we have demonstrated with a single pair of gauge indices; we havent drawn all other
indices of A and B]
But the indices of each gauge-invariant operator can be contracted to itself.

B(y)
A(x)

Clearly
hO1 O2 iconnected 1

hO1 ih O2 i N
and hence suppressed in the Large N limit. So hO1 O2 i = hO1 ih O2 i.
This result can be generalized for any number of irreducible gauge invariant operator (say
X, Y, Z), hXY Zi = hXi hY i hZi .
This Large N factorization clearly indicates that we need not to consider any composite
gauge invariant operator (operators that can be broken into two or more gauge invariant
operators).

4.1 Zero-fluctuation : Classical limit

Using Large N factorization we have h(X hXi)2 i = 0. Complex numbers show this property
and any quantum mechanical operator (unless it has constant eigenvalue on the whole Hilbert
space, in which case the operator is equivalent to a Complex number) always show non-zero
fluctuation. So, in this particular limit the gauge invariant operators behaves like ordinary
complex number.

15
Consequences From the Path-integral definition we know
4
1
hXi = dA X(A )exp 4 i d xT r(F F ) G(A ) (8)

11
Basically we integrate over distinct gauge-configuration. We can also think it to be an
integral over a distribution, it is an average value over all possible gauge configuration. Now
Large N factorization =
hX n i = hXin (9)
So every order fluctuation of any gauge invariant operator vanishes. Thus the distribution
is effectively non-zero at a single point, that is to say that the Path integral is same as
evaluating at some gauge field configuration (to be determined). So we claim,

In the Large N limit the field theoretic vacuum expectation value of gauge invariant
operator reduces to evaluating them at a single gauge configuration

We will prove it via the method of contradiction. Suppose in the effective description we
have to consider at least two distinct gauge Configuration say A1 and A2 . Then there should
be at least one gauge invariant observable (say X) which takes distinct values at these two
configuration (otherwise in the effective description the entire computation can be done just
using any of these two configuration) and also X have a certain non-zero probability to be in
the configuration A1 and A2 = X has non-zero mean square fluctuation !!! (Contradiction)
So there exists a (unique up to a gauge transformations) gauge field configuration such
that the entire field theoretic computation in the Large N limit effectively reduces to com-
putation at this gauge field configuration. This gauge field configuration is known as Master
Field (AM ).

4.2 Master field and its computational power:

Note that the claim in section 4.1 indicates the existence of such a Master field configuration
but it says nothing about how to calculate it . Actually we still dont know how to calcu-
late the Master field for QCD in (3 + 1) dimensions. Nevertheless, on the basis of general
arguments we can put some constraints on AM .

1. Translational invariance of Greens function = AM is translationally invariant (up to

a gauge transformation). Now the translation group acts transitively on spacetime. So
performing an appropriate gauge transformation we can have AM M
(x) = A (0), x
3,1
R .

2. Now in this gauge any Lorentz transformation can at most be a global gauge transfor-
mation. So rotation is also equivalent to global gauge transformation. Hence AM (0)
transforms as a vector operator under some representation of the Lorentz group.
11
G(A ) is the gauge fixing term

16
Notice such a behavior (path integral is dominated by single configuration) in Large N limit
is similar to taking ~ 0 limit where the path integral reduces to determining dynamical
quantities on the classical path. But it is worth mentioning that if AM can be obtained by
extremizing any effective action then the action cannot be the classical action. Because, the
minimum of the classical action is AM = 0 = No effect of the gauge fields in the Large N
limit, it is a free theory. Clearly thats not the case.
Now lets see the computational simplification of the theory once we know the master
field.
We know Feynman diagrams are due to perturbative expansions. Clearly, if a theory is
exactly solvable then a whole class of Feynman diagram (perturbative expansion) is replaced
by a single diagram. To clarify this point lets consider the action of massive free scalar
field
4 2 2
Z[J] = dexpi d x( m ) (10)

We know the theory is integrable. But instead of treating as the part of integrable part
consider perturbative expansion in m2 . Diagrammatically,
+ + + ... =
propagator of massive particle
propagator of massless particle

Binomial expansion reveals this fact

( 2 )
m2 m2

1 1 21 1 21 21 1 1
+ m + m m + ... = 1+ 2 + + ... = . (11)
p2 p2 p2 p2 p2 p2 p2 p p2 p2 m2

As a result we can replace the infinite number of Feynman diagram (due to perturbation in
m2 ) by a single diagram. So, whenever we can calculate a perturbation sum exactly, we can
replace a whole class of Feynman diagram by a single diagram.
Now, consider the generating functional of QCD

D m+J)
+iSQCD [A ]+i(
Z[J] = dddA exp G(A ) (12)

According to arguments of Master Fields, for any gauge invariant operator F (A ) , we

can write

dA F (A )G(A )exp+iSQCD [A ] = F (AM
) (13)

Applying this result to QCD generating functional we get

 
D m+J)
+iSQCD [A ]+i( +i( D M m+J)
Z[J] = dd dA exp G(A ) = ddexp

(14)

17
 where DM = iAM . In the language of Feynman diagrams the whole class planar
diagrams involving gluons can be replaced by a single loop diagram in a background field, ie
free fermions in a constant background field ! For example consider the vacuum expectation
value of two quark bilinears:

+all possible planar digrams =

involving gluons

One loop in Constant background Field

5 Baryons in Large N
In SU(N ) gauge theory, baryons are colour singlet states, composed of antisymmetric com-
bination of N quarks[3]. So the structure of the a baryon itself depends on the gauge group
which in turn implies the constituents increases linearly with N and we have to take it into
account. (This is radically different from the structure of a meson which is composed of a
quark-anti quark pair irrespective of the value of N ) . So the Large N limit of baryons is
not straightforward (it is not obvious whether the tools for meson phenomenology will be
applicable here or not).

5.1 New divergence and its source

...
Baryon propagation
(first order correction)
Let us consider the propagation of a baryon and try to compute the first order correction.
N -quarks propagate
 in space-time and a gluon is exchanged between any 2 quarks. So we
2
get a factor of 1/ N from the interaction vertices. There is no closed colour loop (ie
the colour structure of the gluon is completely determined by the quarks which exchange the
gluon). But in the case of baryons there is a new addition to this combinatorial game which
comes from the fact that the baryons are made of N -quarks and the gluon can be exchanged
between any two quarks. So no. of choices: N C2 = N (N21) . Hence the Large N dependence
is O(N ).
So every new gluon exchange between quarks introduces another N factor and thus each
diagram gets more divergent due to more powers of N and it seems that the Large N limit

18
does not exist for the theory of baryons. At this moment lets stop and look behind. First
remember that to take a sensible Large Nlimit we rescaled g . In other words the N coming
from the colour sum was absorbed by (1/ N ) in the rescaled g. So even in the case of mesons
a straightforward extension to take N does not make any sense 12 . Now here in the
theory of baryons we have introduced another potentially divergent quantity - the number
of quarks making a Baryon and also we havent rescaled any other quantity due to this. So
we have to investigate whether the divergence, appearing in Large N baryons, arises due to
this New divergence that we have put by hand.
Lets try to find an expression for the Baryon mass MB in terms of the constituent
quantities.
Baryon mass (MB ) = measure of the energy content of the system of N quarks= quark
masses + quark kinetic energy + quark potential energy = N M + N T + 12 N 2 N1 V =
N (M + T + 21 V )
where M & T are respectively the mass & kinetic energy of a quark and the total potential
energy = total pair of quarkspotential energy of a pair. Now potential energy of a pair
O(g 2 ) = O(1/N ). So we can write MB = N M (1 + g 2 )
Now, lets consider the low energy approximation of Baryon propagator:
2 )t
expiMB t = expiN M (1+g = expiN M t (1 iM tN g 2 + O(N 2 ))

Clearly the new divergence that we have faced in our diagrammatic analysis comes from the
divergence that we have put by hand (the number of quarks). And we need to develop a
theory, separating this divergence.

5.2 Theory of non-relativistic baryons

We are assuming that quarks are heavy and are governed by non-relativistic Quantum me-
chanics. The Hamiltonian is

2 g2
 
1
H =N M + i i<j (15)
2M N |xi xj |
(Hamiltonian for N fermions in pairwise Coulomb potential.) Now each quark is in the
field of (N 1) other quarks and we can consider the field experienced by a quark as a
background field with small perturbation due to every other quark. Now as the force (and
hence the perturbation with respect to the back ground) on a quark due to any other quark
12
(Its also intuitively clear that any polynomial with positive powers (also, the coefficient of each power
occurs with same sign) diverges when we take any one variable to keeping every other variable fixed) ie.
an
f (x) = an xn ; n > 0, >0
n an1
diverges when take the limit x . So to have a finite limit we should rescale an s. For example, the
generating functional Z(J) for meson phenomenology contains polynomial terms of g and N (that means
coefficient of the polynomial of N contains powers of g ) and a suitable way to take the limit N is to
scale g as 1/N

19
is O(g 2 ) = O(1/N ) we can neglect the perturbation in Large N limit and consider the quarks
to be in a constant background field.
[Statistical mechanical arguments: Consider N quarks to be a N -particle interacting
system. Now from statistical mechanics after sufficient time the distribution of the particles
becomes stationary distribution. Hence, irrespective of the dynamics of each individual quark
the total field at any point is stationary.
Now every constituent of this statistical ensemble follow the same distribution = each
quark experiences same potential.]
According to our previous arguments we will now consider the N quarks to be non in-
teracting particle in a constant background field. Hence, we can take wave function of the
system (N interacting quark) as the direct product of wave functions of each individual quark
N
Y
(x1 , x2 , ..., xN ) = (xi ), (16)
i=1

where each (xi ) satisfies Schrodinger equation with the constant background potential (As
each quark is in the same back ground potential and hence the wave function of each quark
solves the same Schrodinger equation and thus it is the same for each quark). We further
assume that the wave functions ((xi )) are normalized.
Lets put this wave function in the equation of the system. The exact solution of the
wave function extremizes the action (we will use this fact to derive the 1-quark Schrodinger
equation)
If |i is an exact wave function QN then h|H E|i is stationary. If our assumption is
correct then (x1 , x2 , ..., xN ) = i=1 (xi ) will also extremize h|H E|i. Let the energy
per quark be  (For any arbitrary solution there is no reason that each quark have same
energy. But again using our knowledge of statistical mechanics we can say that the system
with arbitrary initial state quickly evolves to the most probable state and thus each quark
should have energy). Thus,

?
h|H E|i N M + N d3 x
2M

1 2 g2 3
? ?
3 (x) (x) (y)(y)
+ N ( ) d xd y N  d3 x? , (17)
2 N |x y|
[Here we have used that (xi )s are normalized and for Large N , N C2 = N 2 /2]
Its important to note that N factors out from the variational equation and thus the
solution of this equation is independent of N . Varying with respect to

2 (y)? (y)
(x) g d3 y
2
= (x). (18)
2M |x y|
1
Now we divide both sides by and taking Laplacian (note 2 |xy| = 4(x y)) we get
 
1 2 1 2
+ 4g 2 ? = 0. (19)
2M

20
Solving this equation we can determine the wave function for Non relativistic Baryons.
Its worth mentioning again that this equation and hence it is solution are independent of
N.

6 tHoofts model of 2-D QCD

We already have mentioned earlier that even after Large N simplification, QCD in 3 + 1
dimensions is yet to solved analytical. Nevertheless tHooft showed many interesting prop-
erties of QCD by considering the same theory in 1 + 1 dimension [2] (also written as QCD2 ).
Though the model is not realistic still it is worth knowing the model because it shows one of
the key feature of QCD, the nonexistence of single particle quark state & confinement. The
existence of confinement in 1 + 1 dimension confirms our hypothesis that confinement is not
contradictory to Large N limit. Also considering our analytical limitation in 3 + 1 dimension
this model will serve as laboratory for better understanding of a confining theory (with the
obvious hope that with our better understanding of confinement in 1 + 1 we can extend these
to 3 + 1 dimension)

6.1 Action of QCD2 :

The action is
1 a b
LQCD = Fb Fa + j (iD mj )j , (20)
4
where,

A = Aa T a ,
a g
Fb = Aab Aab + i [A , A ]ab
N
g
D = + i A .
N
Fermions () are in the fundamental representation of the colour group and j = 1, ..., Nf
indicates the flavor degree of freedom.
Note: the coupling was chosen to be g/ N obviously to accommodate a large N approx-
imation with g fixed.

6.2 Light cone coordinates13 :

We define light-cone coordinates as
1
x = (x0 x1 ) (21)
2
13
We will use light cone coordinates for our computations as it has certain advantages (justified later)

21
 So
ds2 = (dx0 )2 (dx1 )2 = 2dx+ dx
which implies

g+ = g+ = 1 = g + = g +
also

( + )2 = ( )2 = 0, { + , } = 2
We also define
1 1
P = (P0 P1 ), A = (A0 A1 ).
2 2

6.3 Choice of gauge:

We choose Light cone gauge
A = A+ = 0
It is advantageous for two reasons:
(i) The field strength F+ becomes linear in the gauge potential (No gluon self-interaction)

A = A+ = 0 = F+ = A+
(ii) The theory remains Lorentz invariant even after gauge fixing (This happens in 1+1
dimensions only; in any higher dimension Lorentz boost in the transverse directions breaks
the Lorentz invariance )
So we get
F+ = A+ = F+ (22)

1  k (i mk g + A+ )k
LQCD = T r ( A+ )2 +

(23)
2 N

Simplification: Characteristics of 1+1 dimensions At this point we understand the

reason for simplification of QCD in 1+1 dimensions. The 2-D Yang-Mills in the light cone
gauge is especially simple, since the role of the gluon is just to provide an instantaneous
Coulomb force between the quark and there is no gauge boson self-interaction (This happens
only in 1+1). Furthermore, in the 2-D there is no transverse degree of freedom, and no
propagating modes at all in the gauge sector (There is no electromagnetic radiation in 1 + 1
dimensions).

22
6.4 Reduced Lorentz Index Structure: more simplifications
Due to our choice of gauge at every interaction vertex, only the matrix + appears. Thus if
we consider a quark line joining two interaction vertices then its components proportional to
+ and m do not contribute, since

1 0
+ + + +
= 2 0

1

( + )2 = 0
Hence, all the Lorentz-index structure of our Feynman diagrams is trivial. The photon
propagator has only one non-zero component and the interaction vertices is proportional to
+ only. Also a single component (proportional to ) of quark propagator gives us non-zero
contribution. So we strip off this invariant Lorentz index structure. Hence the gauge boson
propagator is
i
D = 2
(24)
k
the interaction vertex is
g + 2g
i i (25)
N N
and the undressed quark propagator is

i ( + p+ + p + m) ip
iS0 (p) = (26)
2p+ p m2 + i 2p+ p m2 + i

6.5 Dressed quark propagator:

Now we want to calculate the dressed quark propagator [iS(p)].
Consider a typical diagram contributing to dressed quark propagator.

Here note that

1. the planar diagrams (without any internal fermion loop) survive in the Large N limit

2. gauge boson self-interaction is absent in light-cone gauge.

23
simplifies the calculation a lot; For the leading order diagrams, gluon line that leaves the
quark line first must return at last. This fact is evident from sec 2.3. From sec 2.3 We know
that, in the large N limit the leading order contribution to the vacuum expectation value of
the quark bi-linear comes from the planar diagrams that have only quarks at the edges (also
devoid of any internal quark loop).
Also note the following differences:

(c)
(a) (b)
Allowed
Allowed Forbidden
diagram (a) is same as (c)

So the Feynman diagram for the dressed quark propagator can be summarized in the
following two diagrammatic equation (Note the above two facts very crucial, we dont have
a similar equation 3 + 1 dimensions)
dressed quark propagator undressed quark propagator

= +

+ + ...

graphs for quark propagator

So from the diagram
S0 p
S(p) = S0 (1 + S0 + (S0 )2 + ...) = = 2
(27)
1 S0 2p+ p m + i p (p)
Now

2 dk+ dk 1
i(p) = 4g S(p k) 2
(28)
(2)2 k

2 dk+ dk 1 (p k )
= 4g 2
. (29)
(2) k p [2(p+ k+ ) (p k)] m2 + i
2

Now from the expressions it is clear that we can shift

p+ k+ k+

in the integration = (p) is independent of p+ , it is a function of p only .

so,

2 dk i(p k ) 1
(p) = 4g 2 2
dk+ . (30)
(2) k p [2(p+ k+ ) (p k)] m2 + i

24
using
 
dx P
= dx i(x) = i, (31)
x i x
[P is the Cauchy Principal value ]
we get

p dp+ 1 dp+
= a 1 = i sgn(p ). (32)
2p+ p a + i 2 p+ 2p + i 2p  2

g2 1
(p) = dk sgn(p k ) 2 . (33)
2 k
here note that the integration is infrared divergent, and need some cut off scheme.
tHoofts regularization:
We shall take 0 < < |k | < as our integral region. But this regularization is clearly
not gauge-invariant and we can restore gauge invariance by taking 0 limit

g2 1
(p) = dk sgn(p k ) 2
2 k
p
g2
 
1 1
= dk 2 dk 2
2 p k k
[assuming p > 0 and introducing the infrared cut-off ]
  p
g2

1 1 1
= dk 2 dk 2 + dk 2
2 p k k k
g2 1
  
1 1 1
= + .
2 p p
If we assume p < 0 then we will get

g2
  
1 1 1 1
(p) = + + + .
2 p p
So combining the above two cases, we can write

g2
 
sgn(p ) 1
(p) = + . (34)
p

25
No physical quark state: So the dressed propagator becomes
ip
S(p) = g 2 |p |
(35)
2p+ p M 2 + i
where

g2
M 2 = m2
. (36)

Because of the infrared divergence we obtained the propagator depending on the cut-off
(). Now to restore gauge invariance we should take 0 limit. In the 0 limit the pole
shifts towards k+ which is an indication that that single quark states are not physical
states (also notice that, in the limit 0 , S(p) 0).
[Here note that M 2 may be negative but it is not a big reason to worry about since single
quark state is not a physical state]

6.6 Greens function for two quark bi-linears :

The Greens function two quark bi linear in the Large N limit is the sum of planar graphs
with two insertions. For example, a typical graph is

graphs contributing to dressed quark propagator

+ +

graphs for quark bi-linears

Here again the fact that gluon lines cannot cross each other and they start and end on
the fermion lines only (due to the constraints put by planarity of the diagrams in the Large
N limit and the absence of gluon interaction in the Light-cone gauge) simplifies the graphs
a lot and we can summarize all planar graphs as :

+ + ++ + ++ + + ...

From the above drawn diagram it is evident that if the propagator has a meson pole then
the ladder diagrams have to obey the following graphical identity
[Note the following identity is the graphical expression for Bethe-Salpeter equation]

26
 p-q p-k p-q

p p
q-k =
q k q

Bethe-Salpeter equation
The blob
is the Fourier transform
 of the matrix element

(p, q) = meson|T (x)(0)|O with external legs of a quark of mass m1 , momentum p
and an anti-quark of mass m2 & momentum (p q)

2 d2 k 1
(p, q) = 4ig S(p q)S(q) 2
(p, k) (37)
(2) (k p )2
[the 1/N coming from the coupling constant is cancelled by the closed colour loop]
now we define

(p, q ) = dq+ (p, q). (38)

g2 1
(p, q ) = 2 i dq+ S(p q)S(q) dk (p, k ). (39)
(k q )2
notice that the two integrations separate
 2   
g 1
(p, q ) = 2 i dq+ S(p q)S(q) dk (p, k ) . (40)
(k q )2
Now using the expression for dressed quark propagator
p 1 1
S(p) = g 2 |p |
= M2 g2
(41)
2p+ p M2 + i 2 (p+ ) + (i )sgn(p )
2P 2

[  is small , we take /p

= ; also note that S(p) = S(p)] we get
 2   2 
g g
I1 = 2 i dq+ S(p q)S(q) = 2 i dq+ S(q p)S(q)

1
g2 M22 g2

= i dq+ q+ p+ + sgn(q p )(i )
(2)2 2(q p ) 2
1
M12 g2

(q+ ) + (i )sgn(q )
2q 2
This integral is non zero iff

sgn(q p ) = sgn(q ),
[q lies between 0 and p ]

27
 otherwise the contribution from the two poles cancel each other. Assuming

sgn(q p ) = sgn(q ),

and p > 0
M12 g2
we get the contribution from pole q+ = 2q
+ 2
[in that case sgn(q p ) = 1]
1
g2
 2
M1 M22 g2
I1 = (q )(p q ) + + p+ (42)
2 2q 2(p q )

Introducing infra-red cut off ( tHoofts regularization )

1 1
I2 = dk 2
(p, k ) = dk (p, k + q ) (43)
(k q ) (k )2

2 1
= (p , q ) + P dk (p , k + q ) (44)
(k )2
putting the values of I1 & I2 we get

M12 M22 g2
 
p+ (p , q )
2q 2(p q )

g2
 
2 1
= (q )(p q ) (p , q ) + P dk (p + k , q )
2 (k )2
p
M12 M22 g2
 
(p , k )
= 2p+ (p , q ) = P dk (45)
q (p q ) 0 (k q )2
Here it is important to note that the infrared cut-off has disappeared .
now let us define

2
2p+ = , q = xp , k = yp , (46)
p
we get
1
2 M12 M22 g2
 
(y)
(x) = p P dy 2 , (47)
p xp (1 x)p 0 p (x y)2
 2 1
M22 g2

2 M1 (y)
(x) = + (x) P dy (48)
x 1x 0 (x y)2
Also the from integral I1 we know vanishes if q does not lie between 0 and p ; ie (x)
vanishes if x does not lie [0, 1] and within the interval the above equation is valid.

28
6.6.1 The Hamiltonian (positive-definiteness & spectrum):
We have already note that M12 , M22 may be negative but we will show that meson masses are
always positive.
In the Hibert space of square integrable functions defined on [0, 1] the Hamiltonian
 2 1
M22 g2

M1 (y)
H(x) = + (x) P dy (49)
x 1x 0 (x y)2
is positive definite :
first note that
1  
dy 1 1
P = +
0 (x y)2 x 1x
so,
1 1
1 {(x) (y)}{ (x) (y)}
P dx dy
2 0 0 (x y)2
[expanding and using the fact that x, y are dummy integration variable ]
1 1 
(y) (y) (x) (y)

=P dx dy
0 0 (x y)2

1  1 1
(x) (y)

1 1
= dx(x) (x) + dx dy .
0 x (1 x) 0 0 (x y)2
Using this identity and Mi2 = m2i g 2 / we get from the above equation
1 1  2
m22

m1
dx [ (x)H(x)] = dx + (x) (x)+
0 0 x 1x
1
g2 1 {(x) (y)}{ (x) (y)}
dx dy .
2 0 0 (x y)2
So the Hamiltonian is positive definite (assuming m2i > 0).
The wave function (x) vanishes outside [0, 1]. At x = 0 (x = 1) the solution may behave
like x+ ((1 x)+ )
Now, as
f (y)
y 0, f y = 2
dy cot()x1 (50)
(y x)
hence if assume x+1 as x 0 we get
 2
M22 g2

M1
x2 +1
= + x+1 1 x1 1 {cot(1 )} (51)
x (1 x)

29
comparing the most important terms we get

M12
1 cot(1 ) + = 0. (52)
g2

Thus we get a relation between the exponent of x and renomalized quark mass. [We get
a similar relation from the x 1 limit . ]
Clearly, (, H) = (H, ). So the Hamiltonian is positive definite in the Hilbert space
of square-integrable function on the interval (0, 1) which vanishes at the boundary.
The Hamiltonian has
1. Complete set orthonormal eigenfunctions:

k k (x)k (x0 ) = (x x0 ), (53)

and 1
?m (x)n (x)dx = mn . (54)
0
2. Positive definiteness of the Hamiltonian implies no Tachyonic state in the spectrum
unless the original quarks are Tachyonic.
3. (x) vanishes outside [0, 1] and at the boundary. This confirms the spectrum to be
discrete; no continuum of states. Hence quark and anti-quark are bound together to form
discrete spectrum of mesons (bound states). (We already know there exists no free quark
state.)
4. Ground state wave-function: if m21 = 0 = m22 then the Hamiltonian has 0 eigenstate.
The wave function is the constant wave-function 0 (x) = constant.

1
? g2 1 1
|(x) (y)|2
dx [ (x)(x)H(x)] = dx dy = 0.
0 2 0 0 (x y)2
We will evaluate other eigenstates.

6.6.2 Confinement:
Now, consider
1
eiwy
P dy (55)
0 (x y)2
This function is periodic and hence the main contribution comes from y close to x. So we
can approximate
1
eiwy eiwy
P 2
dy = P 2
dy = |w|eiwx (56)
0 (x y) (x y)

30
Meson Spectrum: lets approximate M1 , M2 ' 0 (eqn 48). So the eigenfunction can be
approximated as

n (x) = sin(nx) (57)

(this is appropriate with boundary condition, (0) = (1) = 0 ). Hence

2n = g 2 n. (58)
For high energy states14 we can neglect the quark mass term and hence our approximation
is valid. Note
1. the spectrum is discrete (which indicates confinement)
2. the discrete mass spectrum lies along a straight line. This is the well known from
phenomenology (Linear Regge Trajectory).

6.7 Quark-anti quark scattering amplitude:

We will now consider quark-anti quark scattering amplitude[5] T 0 = (4/N )T 15
. We can
write the full meson scattering amplitude as the following recursive relation16 .
k
p p' p p'
p'
p
= p-p'
T' + p-k T'

r-p r-p' r-p'

r-p r-k
r-p r-p'

Quark-antiquark scattering amplitude

[In the diagram we have shown colour indices not momentum-flow; all momentum flows
from left of the diagram towards right]

4 4ig 2 g2 1 1
T (p, p0 , r) = + 4i d2 kS(k)S(k r) T (k, p0 , r) (59)
N N (p p0 )2 2 2
(k p ) N

[in the second term, the 1/N coming from the coupling constant is cancelled by the closed
colour loop; also we have stipped off factors due to external legs]
14
Near the origin (for small n) the two approximations (we have taken the region of integration to be
infinite and we have neglected the mass term) are not valid. So we expect deviation from this spectrum.
15
From our knowledge of planar diagrams, we know the scattering amp (2 fermion 2 fermion) is of
O(1/N ) (Here we are considering only the leading order in N ); for example the N dependence of the first
diagram is 1/N . (4 is suitable for simplifying our calculation and since it is just a redefinition it does not
change the physics)
16
We have done a similar thing for the greens function of two quark bi-linears in sec 6.6 (Bethe-Salpeter
equation). Here the logic is pretty much the same

31

similar to our previous analysis, we define (p , p0 , r) = dp+ S(p)S(p r)T (p, p0 , r) and
thus we get
(p , p0 , r) =

g2 2
 
1
i 2 dp+ S(p)S(p r) + 2
d kS(k)S(k r) T (k, p0 , r)
(p p0 )2 (k p )2

g2 2
 
1
= i 2 dp+ S(p)S(p r) + dk (k , p0 , r) .
(p p0 )2 (k p )2

Again the integral clearly factors out

g2 2
  
0 0 1
(p , p , r) = i 2 dp+ S(r)S(p r) + dk (k , p , r) ,
(p p0 )2 (k p )2
(60)
using our previous results in section (6.6)
1
g2
 2
M1 M22 g2
(p , p0 , r) = (p )(r p ) + + r+
2 2p 2(r p )

2
 
2 1
0 2
+ (p , p0 , r) + P dk 0
(k + p , p , r) . (61)
(p p ) (k )2
again the infrared cut-off cancells from the both side and we get

r
M12 M22 g2 g2 (k , p0 , r)
 
0
+ 2r+ (p , p , r) = + P dk . (62)
p (r p ) (p p0 )2 0 (k q )2

now let us define

2 0 0
2r+ = , p = xr , p = x r , k = yp (63)
r
we get

1
2 M12 M22 g2 g2 (y, x0 , r)
 
0
(x, x , r) = 2 r P dy 2
(64)
r xr (1 x)r r (x x0 )2 0 r (x y)2

This is the equation that we have obtained by considering the full quark-antiquark scat-
tering amplitude.

32
Solution: So we have obtained
1
g2 g2 (y, x0 , r)
M12 M22 (x, x0 , r) =
 2 
P dy , (65)
r (x x0 )2 0 (x y)2
using the same technique as above (sec 6.6.1) we rewrite it as

1
2 0 g2 g2 [(x, x0 , r) (y, x0 , r)]
m21 m22
 
(x, x , r) = + dy , (66)
r (x x0 )2 0 (x y)2
or

1
2 0 g2  2 2
 0 g2 [(x, x0 , r) (y, x0 , r)]
(x, x , r) + = m1 + m 2 (x, x , r) + dy , (67)
r (x x0 )2 0 (x y)2

also we have
1
 2 g2 [n (x) n (y)]
n m21 m22 n (x) =

dy . (68)
0 (x y)2

Ansatz: lets put

1
0 g 2 1 n (x)?n (y)
(x, x , r) = n 2 dy . (69)
r rn2 r 0 (x0 y)2

[r2 = 2r+ r = 2 ]
Here note that
1
 2 2
 0
 2 2
 g 2 1 n (x)?n (y)
m1 + m2 (x, x , r) = m1 + m2 n 2 dy (70)
r rn2 r 0 (x0 y)2
1 [2 (x) + g2 1 dz [n (x)n (z)] ]? (y)
g 2 1 n n 0 (xz)2 n
= n 2 2
dy 0 2
r rn r 0 (x y)

1 1 1
g 2 2 1 n (x)?n (y) g4 1 [n (x) n (z)]?n (y)
= n 2 n2 dy 0
+ n dy dz ,
r rn r 0 (x y) 2 2 2
r rn r 0 0 (x z)2 (x0 y)2

and 1
g2 [(x, x0 , r) (y, x0 , r)]
dy =
0 (x y)2

1  1 1
g 2 1 n (x)?n (z) n (y)?n (z)
 
4 1
g dy n 2 dz dz
0 (x y)2 r rn2 r 0 (x0 z)2 0 (x0 z)2

33
 1  1
g 2 1 [n (x) n (y)]?n (z)
 
4 1
= g dy n 2 dz
0 (x y)2 r rn2 r 0 (x0 z)2
1 1
4 g 2 1 [n (x) n (y)]?n (z)
= g n 2 dy dz .
r rn2 r 0 0 (x y)2 (x0 z)2
hence adding these two we get the right hand side ,

 2 2
 0 g 2 1 [(x, x0 , r) (y, x0 , r)]
m1 + m2 (x, x , r) + dy
0 (x y)2
1
g 2 2n 1 n (x)?n (y)
= n 2 dy
r rn2 r 0 (x0 y)2
1 1
2 1 n (x)?n (y) 2 g 2 1 n (x)?n (y)
= +g n dy n 2 dy
r 0 (x0 y)2 r rn2 r 0 (x0 y)2
1
2 1 n (x)?n (y)
= +g n dy 0 y)2
+ 2 (x, x0 , r)
r 0 (x
From the property of the eigenfunctions
1 1
{n n (x)?n (y)} (x y) 1
dy = dy =
0 (x0 y)2 0 (x0 y)2 (x x0 )2
Using this we get the desired result.

1
g2 [(x, x0 , r) (y, x0 , r)] 1 1
m1 + m22 (x, x0 , r) + + 2 (x, x0 , r)
 2
= +g 2

dy
0 (x y)2 r (x x0 )2
So we have found the solution of the equation that we have obtained by considering
quark-antiquark scattering amplitude. Using this solution we can evaluate full scattering
amplitude [5, 6].

6.8 A few clarifications:

6.8.1 Contrast to Schwinger model (QED in 1+1 dimensions):
Since any internal quark loop is suppressed in the Large N limit one can, in the large N limit
neglect pair creation. (Also gluon self-interaction is absent in light-gauge). So there is no
vertex correction to the gluon propagator in the leading order. This the in radical contrast
with Schwinger model[11] 2-D QED where we get massive gauge bosons. The pair creation
(which is forbidden in Large N limit) gives appropriate radiative corrections to shift the pole
of the gauge boson propagator. But the difference is not contradictory to Large N expansion
since Schwinger model correspond to N = 1 and hence 1/N perturbative expansion is not a
good approximation for Schwinger model.

34
6.8.2 Classical confinement in 1+1 dimension:
Note that classically QCD in 1+1 dimensions is confining as the potential is linear on the
distance. Still it is worth doing all the quantum mechanical calculations since,
1. Sometimes quantum mechanics alters the classical nature (for example even if the
classical Lagrangian has minimum at zero field configuration, Quantum radiative corrections
may result in spontaneous symmetry breaking). Here we have shown that the Quantum
correction doesnt change the confining nature.
2. Classically quarks are confined but single quark states are still physical. Classical
confinement means any colour charged particle cannot escape to infinity. But quantum
mechanically it is a bit different since we have to show that the spectrum of the Hamiltonian
lacks any single quark state and contains only colourless multi-quark bound states.
3. Also the spectrum of these bound states is discrete which is clearly different from the
classical spectrum.

7 Conclusion:
We have seen that Large N QCD is successful in explaining many essential features of SU(3)
QCD. Though the number of dynamical degrees of freedom increases with N but it is a
striking fact that the theory gets simpler in this particular limit and we have to consider
only a sub-class of diagrams. The planarity of the Feynman diagram with the assumption of
confinement proved to be sufficiently powerful to explain much of meson phenomenology. We
have seen that entire Large N computation is equivalent to a computation in a single gauge
field configuration (Master Field). Master field is a very useful and innovative idea which can
reduce much of our computation. For Large N gauge theory it is matrix. To compute
the Master field we have to sum over all the planar diagrams and this is still an open problem
of Large N QCD in 3 + 1 dimensions ([13] addresses this problem for a simpler model). Then
we have discussed Large N theory for baryons where the diagrammatic technique fails and we
have treat it in a different manner. Some of these logical deductions have tested analytically
for a simpler model: Large N SU(N ) gauge theory in 1 + 1 dimensions.
Large N expansion has many more attractive application. Using Large N expansion
we can show the chiral (U (n) U (n)) symmetry breaking to diagonal U (n) [12]. Due the
fact that Large N expansion is indeed a topological expansion, there were speculations of its
possible connection with the loop expansion of closed string scattering amplitude. A concrete
realization of this connection, known as the AdS/CFT correspondence, was first put forward
by Juan Maldacena . In the context of AdS/CFT conjecture we know many details of the
map between IIB string theory (in the AdS space) and N = 4 SU(N ) gauge theory [9, 10].
At present, this map and hence Large N theories is one of the key area of research.

8 Acknowledgment:
I am thankful to Dr David Tong for various helpful suggestions.

35
9 Appendix:
9.1 SU(N ) vs U(N ) in the Large N limit:
Since SU(N ) is traceless,so the number of SU(N ) gauge bosons is N 2 1 whereas it is N 2
for U(N ). But note that in the Large N limit N 2 1 N 2 .
Also, considering the SU(N ) gauge boson propagator.

a 1
Ab (x)Acd (y) = (da bc ba dc )D (x y)

(71)
N
the term proportional to 1/N is just to ensure the tracelessness. Clearly the contribution
of U(N ) trace part is suppressed by O(1/N ) and hence does not contribute in the Large N
limit.

9.2 Polology:
Here we will try to show that (for m > n) whenever possible, any n-point correlation function
appears as a sub-diagram in the m-point correlation function[8].
Consider any n-point function

d4 x1 d4 xn eip1 x1 eipn xn hT {A1 (x1 ) An (xn )}i G(p1 pn ) (72)

Ai s are ordinary field appearing in the Lagrangian. Now to evaluate G(p1 pn ) we have to
consider all possible time ordering.
Lets consider the time ordering x01 , , x0r > x0r+1 , , x0n . Then

hT {A1 (x1 ) An (xn )}i = hT {A1 (x1 ) Ar (xr )} T {Ar+1 (xr+1 ) An (xn )}i
we will now insert complete set of intermediate states for evaluating this matrix element.
Among these complete set there are single particle state |pi ( |pi is any single particle state,
may or may not be same as the particle A(x) |0i ) as well. Now if

h0 |T {A1 (x1 ) Ar (xr )}| pi hp |T {Ar+1 (xr+1 ) An (xn )}| 0i =

6 0

then

h0 |T {A1 (x1 ) Ar (xr )}| pi =

6 0
and

h0 |T {Ar+1 (xr+1 ) An (xn )}| pi =

6 0
So whenever possible any lower-point correlation function appears as a sub-diagram in
the higher point correlation function. Diagrammatically if

36
 r r+1

r+2

and

2 n
1
exists then
r
r+1 r
r+1
r+2 r+2

contains

2
n 2
1 n
1
Similarly crossing symmetry implies any pole appearing in any one channel must also
appear in all crossed channel [8].

References
[1] G. t Hooft, A planar diagram theory for strong interactions, Nucl. Phys. B 72, 461
(1974).
[2] G. t Hooft, A two-dimensional model for mesons, Nucl. Phys. B 75, 461 (1974).
[3] E. Witten, Baryons in the 1/N expansion. Nucl. Phycs B160 (1979)
[4] S. Coleman, Aspects of Symmetry, selected Erice lectures of Sidney Coleman, Cam-
bridge, UK, Cambridge Univ. Press (1985).
[5] C. G. Callan, N. Coote and D. J. Gross, Two-dimensional Yang-Mills theory: a model
of quark confinement, Phys. Rev. D 13, 1649 (1976).
[6] M.B Einhorn, Confinement, form factors, and deep-inelastic scattering in two-
dimensional quantum chromodynamics,Phys. Rev. D 14, 3451 (1976)
[7] E. Witten, in Recent Development in gauge Theories, 1979 Cargese Lectures edited by
G. t Hooft et al. Pleum (1980)
[8] S Weinberg, The Quantum Theory of Fields (Volume 1), Cambridge University Press
(1996)
[9] Juan Maldacena, The large N limit of superconformal field theories and supergravity
[hep-th/9711200]
[10] O. Aharony, S. S. Gubser, J. M. Maldacena, H Ooguri and Y. Oz, Phys. Rept. 323, 183
(2000) [arXiv:hep-th/9905111].

37
[11] M Peskin, D Schroeder, An introduction to Quantum Field Theory. [sec 19.1 Vacuum
polarization diagrams]

[12] S. Coleman, E Witten, Chiral-symmetry breaking in Large N Chromodynamics, Phys.

Rev. Lett. 45, 100 (1980)

[13] E. Brzin, C. Itzykson, G. Parisi and J. B. Zuber, Planar diagrams, Communications

in Mathematical Physics Volume 59, Number 1, (35-51)

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