MAE 570

AeroPropulsion

Non-Isentropic Flow:
Rayleigh Flow
Non-Isentropic Compressible Flow
So far we have limited our consideration mostly to isentropic flow
(no heat transfer and no irreversibilities such as friction).

Curious phenomena can occur with compressible flows.

Examples:
fluid acceleration because of friction,
fluid deceleration in a converging duct,
fluid temperature decrease with heating, and
the formation of abrupt discontinuities in flows across which fluid
properties change appreciably.
Nonisentropic Flow
Actual fluid flows are generally
nonisentropic.
We consider
1. Frictionless flow of an ideal gas with heat
transfer (diabatic) through a constant area duct
(Rayleigh flow).
2. Adiabatic flow of an ideal gas through a constant
area duct with friction (Fanno flow).
Rayleigh Flow: Frictionless
Duct flow with Heat Transfer
Many compressible flow problems involve heat transfer. These include
chemical reactions in combustion, nuclear reactions, evaporation, and
condensation as well as heat gain or heat loss through the duct wall.

Such problems are difficult to analyze exactly since they may involve
significant changes in chemical composition during flow, and the conversion
of latent, chemical, and nuclear energies to thermal energy.
A simplified model is Rayleigh flow.

Rayleigh flows: Steady one-dimensional flow of an ideal gas with

constant specific heats through a constant-area duct with heat transfer, but
with negligible friction.
Frictionless flow with Heat Transfer

Combustion Chamber

Combustion may be modeled as heat gain through the duct wall.

Frictionless Flow with Heat Transfer
Some heat transfer processes of interest include:
Combustion,
Evaporation or condensation of liquid drops traveling with the stream,
Flux of electric current through a fluid or finite conductivity (Joule heating),
Wall heat transfer.

In these flows the stagnation temperature of a moving stream changes.

In any real flow, frictional effects are always present, especially near solid
boundaries. Wall heat transfer and wall friction are so closely related that it
is not realistic to discuss the former without at the same time talking about
the latter.

The study of frictionless flow in a constant-area duct in which a T0, change

occurs illustrates some important features of the real flows.
Frictionless flow with Heat Transfer
Governing Equations

Subscript 1 indicates initial conditions.

Continuity Equation:
1u1 2u2

x-Momentum Equation:
p1 1u12 p2 2u22

Energy Equation:
u22 u12
q c p (T2 T1 ) Control volume for flow in a constant-
2
area duct with heat transfer and negligible
q h02 h01 c p (T02 T01 ) friction.

Entropy Change:
T p Consider a gas with properties R, , and cp.
s2 s1 c p ln 2 R ln 2 For a specified inlet state 1, the inlet
T1 p1 properties p1, T1, 1, u1, and s1 are known.
The exit properties p2, T2, 2, u2, and s2 can
be determined from the above equations.

8
Frictionless flow with Heat Transfer

p0 is stagnation pressure at any point in

the fluid.
Note stagnation properties change as
Stagnation pressure ratio: heat is added.
Frictionless flow with Heat Transfer
Frictionless flow with Heat Transfer

Flow between points (1) and (2)

2
T2 1 M 2
M 2
1

T1 1 M 2
2
M 1

p2 1 M 12

p1 1 M 22

2
2 1 M 2
M1
2

1 1 M 1
2
M2
Frictionless flow with Heat Transfer
The critical state corresponding to M = 1 serves as a convenient reference
point in compressible flow. Taking state 2 to be the sonic state (M2 = 1, and
superscript * is used) and state 1 to be any state (no subscript), the
property relations

p 1 T M (1 ) * (1 ) M 2

p 1 M 2
*
T *
1 M 2 1 M 2
Frictionless flow with Heat Transfer

Similar relations can be obtained for dimensionless stagnation temperature

and stagnation pressure as follows:

T0 T0 T T *

T0 T T * T0*
*

p0 p0 p p*
*

p0 p p* p0*

Here the fluid properties are presented as a function of a single argument, the
local Mach number.
Given particular entrance conditions, T01, p01, M1, we can obtain the exit
conditions after a given change in stagnation temperature as follows:
1) The value M1 fixes the value of T01/T0* and thus the value T0*, since we
know T01.
2) The exit state is then fixed by T02/T0*, determined by

Then M2, p2/p*, and p02/p0* are all fixed by the value of T02/T0* (for a given
value of ).
Frictionless flow with Heat Transfer
Example
A combustion chamber consists of tubular combustors of 15-cm diameter.
Compressed air enters the tubes at 550 K, 480 kPa, and 80 m/s. Fuel with heating
value of 42,000 kJ/kg is injected into the air and is burned with an air-fuel mass ratio
of 40. Approximating combustion as a heat transfer process to air, determine the
temperature, pressure, velocity, and Mach number at the exit of the combustion
chamber.
17
18
The maximum value of stagnation temperature T0* occurs at M = 1, and its
value can be determined for M = 0.1702 from Figure 3.4 or by calculation
using the equation below:

T0
*
0.1291
T0

T01 553.3 K
T
0
*
4284 K
0.1291 0.1291

The stagnation temperature ratio at the exit state and the Mach number
corresponding to it are

T02 1598 K
*
0.3730 M 2 0.314
T0 4284 K

19
Using M1 = 0.1702

Using M2 = 0.314

Then the exit temperature, pressure, and velocity are determined to be

u2 M 2 RT2 0.3142 1.4 (287 J/kg.K) 1570 K 249.6 m / s

As Fig. 3.4 shows, increasing
the stagnation temperature
drives the Mach number toward
unity whether the flow is
supersonic or subsonic.

After the Mach number has

approached unity in a given
duct, further increase in
stagnation enthalpy is possible
only if the initial conditions
change. The flow is said to be
thermally choked.
The stagnation pressure always drops when energy is added to the stream
and rises when energy is transferred from the stream.

Thus, whether the flow is subsonic or supersonic, there may be significant

loss of stagnation pressure due to combustion in a moving stream.

Conversely, cooling tends to increase the stagnation pressure.

Choked Rayleigh Flow
Subsonic Rayleigh flow in a duct may accelerate to sonic velocity (M = 1) with
heating.

What happens if we continue to heat the fluid? Does the fluid continue to
accelerate to supersonic velocities? The fluid at the critical state of M = 1 cannot
be accelerated to supersonic velocities by heating. Therefore, the flow is choked.

This is analogous to not being able to accelerate a fluid to supersonic velocities in

a converging nozzle by simply extending the converging flow section.

If we keep heating the fluid, we will simply move the critical state further
downstream and reduce the flow rate since fluid density at the critical state will
now be lower.

Therefore, for a given inlet state, the corresponding critical state fixes the
maximum possible heat transfer for steady flow.
Choked Rayleigh Flow
Subsonic Rayleigh flow in a duct may accelerate to sonic velocity (M = 1) with
heating.

What happens if we continue to heat the fluid? Does the fluid continue to
accelerate to supersonic velocities? The fluid at the critical state of M = 1 cannot
be accelerated to supersonic velocities by heating. Therefore, the flow is choked.

This is analogous to not being able to accelerate a fluid to supersonic velocities in

a converging nozzle by simply extending the converging flow section.

If we keep heating the fluid, we will simply move the critical state further
downstream and reduce the flow rate since fluid density at the critical state will
now be lower.

Therefore, for a given inlet state, the corresponding critical state fixes the
maximum possible heat transfer for steady flow.
T-s diagram for Rayleigh flow
Draw T-s curve using:

Solve above equations simultaneous => T s diagram

Point a on the Rayleigh line: ds/dT = 0.

Effect of heating in Rayleigh Flow

The stagnation temperature and fluid

velocity changes between points a and
b when the fluid is heated or cooled.

Heating results in flow acceleration to a maximum Mach number of 1 at point a.

Note: between points b and a along the Rayleigh line, heating the fluid results in a
temperature decrease and cooling the fluid leads to a temperature increase.

Along the lower portion of the Rayleigh curve flow is supersonic. Flows may or may
not be choked. The amount of heating or cooling determines what happens.
Effect of heating in Rayleigh Flow
Entropy increases with heating and decreases with cooling.
Along the upper portion of the line, which includes point b, the flow is subsonic.

As with Fanno flows, an abrupt deceleration from supersonic flow to subsonic

flow across a normal shock wave can also occur in Rayleigh flows.
Example
Consider a Mach 2.5 flow of air entering a constant-area duct. Heat is added
to this flow in the duct; the amount of heat added is equal to 30 percent of the
total enthalpy at the entrance of the duct. Calculate the Mach number at the
exit of the duct. Comment on the fluid dynamic significance of this problem,
where the exit Mach number does not depend on the number for the actual
heat added, but rather only on the dimensionless ratio of heat added to the
total enthalpy of the inflowing gas.
 q c p T02 T01
Since q is the heat added and cpT01 is the total enthalpy of the gas
entering the duct, the equation can be written as:

T0
* M 2.5 0.7101
q T02 T02 T0 T0*
1 * 1
c pT01 T01 T0 T01

Since the amount of heat added is equal to 30 percent of the total enthalpy
entering:

*
q T02 T0 T02 1
0.3 * 1 0.3 * 1
c pT01 T0 T01 T0 0.7101

T02
*
(1 0.3)(0.7101) 0.923 This corresponds to M2 = 0.923
T0
 T02 q T01
*
q T02 T0
* 1 1
c pT01 T0 T01 T0 c pT01 T0*
*

From Figure 3.4, T0/T0* decreases for increasing Mach number above M=1. So,
adding heat that is small compared to the incoming total enthalpy has a minute
effect on the exit Mach number.
Example
Consider air entering a heated duct at p1 = 1 atm and T1 = 288 K. Ignore the effects of
friction. Calculate the amount of heat per unit mass (in joules per kilogram) necessary
to choke the flow at the exit of the duct, as wellas the pressure and temperature at the
duct exit, for an inlet Mach number of (a) M1 = 2.0 and (b) M1 = 0.2.
 p1 T1 T01
M1 2.0 0.3636 0.5289 0.7934
p* T* T0*

Isentropic flow properties chart:

T01
M1 2.0 1.8
T1
T0* T01 1
T T1
0
*
(1.8)(288 K ) 653.4 K
T01 T1 0.7934

In order to choke the flow at the exit (M2 = 1), the above
T0* must be the stagnation temperature at the exit. T0* T02 ; p2 p*
At the inlet

T02
T02 T1 (1.8)(288 K ) 518.4 K
T1
R 1.4(287 J /(kg K ))
q c p (T02 T01 ) (T02 T01 ) (653.4 518.4) K 135.7 103 J / kg
1 1.4 - 1
Example

A fuel-air mixture, assumed thermodynamically equivalent to air with = 1.4, enters a

duct combustion chamber at V1 = 250 ft/s, Pi = 20 lbf/in2 absolute, and T1 = 530R.
The heat addition by combustion is 400 Btu per pound of mixture. Compute (a) the exit
properties V2, p2 and T2 and (b) the total heat addition which would have caused a sonic
exit flow.

First convert the heat addition to a change in T0 of the gas:

a RT (1.4 1717)T 49 T

At the exit section we can now compute

Using above equation

With inlet and exit Mach numbers known, we can tabulate the velocity,
pressure, and temperature ratios as follows:

(b) The maximum heat addition allowed without choking would drive the
exit Mach number to unity:
Frictionless Flow with Heat Transfer
Example 11.57
Standard atmospheric air [T0 = 288 K, po = 101 kPa(abs)] is drawn steadily through an
isentropic converging nozzle into a frictionless diabatic (q = 500 kJ/kg) constant area
duct. For maximum flow, determine the values of static temperature, static pressure,
stagnation temperature, stagnation pressure, and flow velocity at the inlet [section (1)]
and exit [section (2)] of the constant area duct. Sketch a temperatureentropy
diagram for this flow.
Frictionless Flow with Heat Transfer
Example
Standard atmospheric air [ T0 = 288 K, po = 101 kPa(abs)] is drawn steadily through an
isentropic converging nozzle into a frictionless diabatic (q = 500 kJ/kg) constant area
duct. For maximum flow, determine the values of static temperature, static pressure,
stagnation temperature, stagnation pressure, and flow velocity at the inlet [section (1)]
and exit [section (2)] of the constant area duct. Sketch a temperatureentropy
diagram for this flow.

For maximum flow, the Rayleigh flow is choked.

T01 = T0 = 288 K p01 = p0 = 101 kPa (abs)

For the isentropic nozzle:

q 500,000J / kg
q = h02 h01 = cp(T02 T01) T02 T01 288K 786 K
cp 1004J / kg.K
For choked flow: T02 = T0a

T01 T01 288

0.37
T02 T0 a 786

From figure for Rayleigh Flow or solving for Ma in above equation: Ma1 =
0.31,

From figure for Rayleigh Flow or solving:

p1/pa = 2.1 T1/Ta = 0.42 V1/Va = 0.2 p01/p0a = 1.19

p01
p02 p0 a 84.9 kPa(abs)
1.19
With Ma1 = 0.31: Figure for isentropic flow (D1) gives:

p1/p01 = 0.94
T1/T01 = 0.98

p1 = 0.94 x 101 kPa (abs) = 95 kPa (abs) T1 = 0.9811 x 288 = 282 K

V1 Ma1 RTk 0.31 286.9 2821.4 104 m / s

p1 95
p2 pa kPa(abs) 45 kPa(abs)
2.1 2.1

T1 283
T2 Ta K 674 K
0.42 0.42

V1 104
V2 Va m / s 520 m/s
0 .2 0 . 2
 To sketch a T-s diagram we obtain s2 s1 from

T2 p 674 45
s2 s1 c p ln R ln 2 (1004J / kg.K ) ln 286.9 J / kg.K ln 1090J / kg.K
T1 p1 282 95
Rayleign Flow T-s Diagram
Steady, one-dimensional, and frictionless flow of an ideal gas through the
constant area duct.

Application of linear momentum equation to a finite control volume:

Area = constant,
so V = constant

This equation is used to determine temperature

corresponding to the local pressure in a
Rayleigh flow.
T-s diagram for Rayleigh flow
Draw T-s curve using:

Differentiating momentum equation: dp = -VdV

dp = -VdV

Point a on the Rayleigh line: ds/dT = 0.

T-s diagram for Rayleigh flow
Point b on the Rayleigh line dT/ds = 0

At point b, flow is subsonic (Mab < 1.0), since

k > 1 for any gas.
Effect of heating in Rayleigh Flow
Energy equation:

By using dh = cpdT = RkdT/(k - 1)

Subsonic (Ma < 1) Rayleigh flow: heating (q > 0) increases fluid velocity while
cooling (q < 0) decreases fluid velocity.
Supersonic (Ma >1) Rayleigh flow: heating decreases fluid velocity and fluid cooling
increases fluid velocity.
Effect of heating in Rayleigh Flow

The stagnation temperature and fluid

velocity changes between points a and
b when the fluid is heated or cooled.

Heating results in flow acceleration to a maximum Mach number of 1 at point a.

Note: between points b and a along the Rayleigh line, heating the fluid results in a
temperature decrease and cooling the fluid leads to a temperature increase.

Along the lower portion of the Rayleigh curve flow is supersonic. Flows may or may
not be choked. The amount of heating or cooling determines what happens.
Effect of heating in Rayleigh Flow
Entropy increases with heating and decreases with cooling.
Along the upper portion of the line, which includes point b, the flow is subsonic.

As with Fanno flows, an abrupt deceleration from supersonic flow to subsonic

flow across a normal shock wave can also occur in Rayleigh flows.