Pollution Control Handbook for Oil and Gas Engineering

Abbreviations

Glossary

Abatement

refers to the reduction or elimination of pollution.

Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI)

refers to the highest daily amount of a substance that may be consumed over a lifetime without adverse effects.

Acid Deposition

a comprehensive term for the various ways acidic compounds precipitate from the atmosphere and deposit onto surfaces. It can include: 1) wet deposition by means of acid rain, fog, and snow; and 2) dry deposition of acidic particles (aerosols).

Acid Rain

rain which is especially acidic (pH <5.2). Principal components of acid rain typically include nitric and sulfuric acid. These may be formed by the combination of nitrogen and sulfur oxides with water vapor in the atmosphere.

Active Depressurization Technology

vapor intrusion mitigation method that creates a driving force for air flow from the building into the subsurface by lowering the pressure below the slab, thereby reducing vapor intrusion (soil gas entry into a building).

Actual Emissions

the actual rate of emissions of a pollutant from an emissions unit calculated using the unit’s actual operating hours, production rates, and types of materials processed, stored, or combusted during the selected time period.

Acute Exposure

one or a series of short-term exposures generally lasting less than 24 hours.

Acute Health Effect

health effect that occurs over a relatively short period of time. The term is used to describe brief exposures and effects which appear promptly after exposure.

Add-On Control Device

refers to an air pollution control device such as carbon absorber or incinerator that reduces the pollution in exhaust gas. The control device usually does not affect the process being controlled and thus is add-on technology, as opposed to a scheme to control pollution through altering the basic process itself.

Adsorber

an emissions control device that removes VOCs from a gas stream as a result of the gas attaching (adsorbing) onto a solid matrix such as activated carbon.

Advection

as it pertains to soil gas, refers to bulk movement in the vadose zone induced by spatial differences in soil gas pressure. The direction of advective vapor transport is always toward the direction of lower air pressure.

Adverse Health Effect

health effect from exposure to air contaminants that may range from relatively mild temporary conditions, such as eye or throat irritation, shortness of breath, or headaches to permanent and serious conditions, such as birth defects, cancer or damage to lungs, nerves, liver, heart, or other organs.

Aerobic

describes a process or activity requiring oxygen. Compare with anaerobic.

Aerosol

particles of solid or liquid matter that can remain suspended in air from a few minutes to many months depending on the particle size and weight.

Afterburner

an air pollution abatement device that removes undesirable organic gases through incineration.

Air Basin

a land area with generally similar meteorological and geographic conditions throughout. To the extent possible, air basin boundaries are defined along political boundary lines and include both the source and receptor areas. As an example, the state of California is currently divided into 15 air basins.

Air Material Separator

a broad term for a device designed to separate powders from the air in which it is transported. Most commonly, this would be a cyclone or dust collector.

Air Monitoring

sampling for and measuring of pollutants present in the atmosphere.

Air Quality Increment

level to which air quality in an attainment area is allowed to degrade in siting a new or modifying an existing stationary source under the prevention of significant deterioration program. The size of the increment depends on the classification of the area. Degradation up to the increment is allowed only to the extent that a national ambient air quality standard is not violated.

Air Quality Index (AQI)

a numerical index used for reporting severity of air pollution levels to the public. It replaces the formerly used Pollutant Standards Index (PSI). Like the PSI, the AQI incorporates five criteria pollutants – ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide – into a single index. The new index also incorporates the 8-hour ozone standard and the 24-hour PM2.5 standard into the index calculation. AQI levels range from 0 (Good air quality) to 500 (Hazardous air quality). The higher the index, the higher the level of pollutants and the greater the likelihood of health effects. The AQI incorporates an additional index category – unhealthy for sensitive groups – that ranges from 101 to 150. In addition, the AQI comes with more detailed cautions.

Air Quality Manager

a qualified individual employed by the local, state, or federal government to manage air quality.

Air Quality Standard (AQS)

prescribed level of a pollutant in the outside air that should not be exceeded during a specific time period to protect public health. Established by both federal and state governments.

Airshed

a subset of air basin, the term denotes a geographical area that shares the same air because of topography, meteorology, and climate.

Alternative Fuels

fuels such as methanol, ethanol, natural gas, and liquid petroleum gas that are cleaner burning and help to meet mobile and stationary emission standards. These fuels may be used in place of less clean fuels for powering motor vehicles.

Allowable Emissions

the emissions rate that represents a limit on the emissions that can occur from an emissions unit. This limit may be based on a federal, state, or local regulatory emission limit determined from state or local regulations and/or 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Parts 60, 61, and 63.

Ambient Air

air occurring at a particular time and place outside of structures. Often used interchangeably with outdoor air.

Ambient Standards

limit the concentration of a given pollutant in the ambient air. Ambient standards are not emissions limitations on sources, but usually result in such limits being placed on source operation as part of a control strategy to achieve or maintain an ambient standard.

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

a nonprofit organization that provides a forum for producers, consumers and representatives of government and industry to write laboratory test standards for materials, products, systems and services. ASTM publishes standard test methods, specifications, practices, guides, classifications and terminology.

Ammonia (NH3)

pungent colorless gaseous compound of nitrogen and hydrogen that is very soluble in water and can easily be condensed into a liquid by cold and pressure. Ammonia reacts with NOx to form ammonium nitrate – a major PM2.5 component in the Western United States.

Anaerobic

describes a process or activity requiring the absence of oxygen. Compare with aerobic.

AP-42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors

published since 1972 as the primary compilation of U.S. EPA’s emission factor information. It contains emission factors and process information for more than 200 air pollution source categories. A source category is a specific industry sector or group of similar emitting sources. The emission factors have been developed and compiled from source test data, material balance studies, and engineering estimates. The Fifth Edition of AP-42 was published in January 1995. Since then EPA has published supplements and updates to the 15 chapters available in Volume I, Stationary Point and Area Sources. The latest emissions factors are available at EPA’s website http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/index.html.

Area Sources

these are smaller sources that do not qualify as point sources under the relevant emissions cutoffs. Area sources encompass more widespread sources that may be abundant, but that, individually, release small amounts of a given pollutant. These are sources for which emissions are estimated as a group rather than individually. Examples typically include dry cleaners, residential wood heating, auto body painting, and consumer solvent use. Area sources generally are not required to submit individual emissions estimates.

Area-Wide Sources

sources of pollution where the emissions are spread over a wide area, such as consumer products, fireplaces, road dust and farming operations. Area-wide sources do not include mobile sources or stationary sources.

Aromatic

type of hydrocarbon, such as benzene or toluene. Some aromatics are toxic.

Asbestos

mineral fiber that can pollute air or water and cause cancer or asbestosis when inhaled. The U.S. EPA has banned or severely restricted its use in manufacturing and construction and has imposed limits on the amount of asbestos in serpentine rock that is used for surfacing applications.

Asthma

chronic inflammatory disorder of the lungs characterized by wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and cough.

Atmospheric Discharge

refers to the release of vapors and gases from pressure-relieving and depressuring devices to the atmosphere.

Attainment Area

A geographical area identified to have air quality as good as, or better than, the national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS). An area may be an attainment area for one pollutant and a nonattainment area for others.

Auto-ignition temperature

minimum temperature at which a fuel-air mixture ignites.

Autorefrigeration

the reduction in temperature as a result of pressure drop and subsequent flashing of light hydrocarbon liquids.

Average emission factor

defined by EPA as the per component mass emission rate applicable to populations of sources, not individual component measurements (Source: EPA-450/3-86-002).

Bakken Crude

a light, sweet oil that exhibits a statistically higher true vapor pressure than the slightly heavier, blended sweet and sour oils that are stored at the U.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR).

Background Levels

concentration of a chemical already present in an environmental medium due to sources other than those under study. Two types of background levels may exist for chemical substances: (a) Naturally occurring levels of substances present in the environment, and (b) Anthropogenic concentrations of substances present in the environment due to human associated activities (e.g., automobiles, industries).

Back Pressure

back pressure is the sum of the superimposed and build-up back pressures. The pressure that exists at the outlet of a pressure relief device is as a result of the pressure in the discharge system.

Baghouse

an air pollution control device that traps particulates by forcing gas streams through large permeable bags usually made of glass fibers.

Balanced Safety Relief Valve

a pressure relief valve which incorporates means of minimizing the effect of back pressure on the operational characteristics (opening pressure, closing pressure, and relieving capacity).

Banking

a provision in air district permit regulations that allows a facility to accumulate credits for reducing emissions beyond regulatory limits (emission reduction credits) and then use or sell those credits at a later date.

Best Available Control Measure (BACM)

term used to describe the best measures (according to U.S. EPA guidance) for controlling small or dispersed sources of particulate matter and other emissions from sources such as roadway dust, woodstoves, and open burning.

Best Available Control Technology (BACT)

a control technology standard used in preconstruction permit programs. The term is used in the federal prevention of significant deterioration permitting program with a definition found in the federal Clean Air Act and the Code of Federal Regulations. In some states like California, however, it is often used to describe control technology requirements in new source review rules. Usually, definitions used by individual state air pollution control districts are equivalent to or even more stringent than the federal new source review requirement for control technology and more akin to the lowest achievable emission rate definition used in the federal Clean Air Act.

Best Available Retrofit Control Technology (BARCT)

an emission limitation that is based on the maximum degree of reduction achievable, taking into account environmental, energy, and economic impacts by each class or category of source. This is a control technology requirement for existing sources that is similar to but potentially more stringent than reasonably available control technology (RACT). It applies to existing sources with emissions exceeding specified thresholds. The emission thresholds vary with classification of the air quality jurisdiction, e.g., moderate, serious, severe and extreme, in accordance with criteria in the California Clean Air Act.

Biodegradation

refers to decomposition or breakdown of a substance through the action of microorganisms (such as bacteria or fungi).

Biogenic Source

biological sources such as plants and animals that emit air pollutants such as volatile organic compounds. Examples of biogenic sources include animal management operations, and oak and pine tree forests.

Biomass

refers to plant materials, such as crops, crop residues, algae, wood waste materials from timbering and lumbering operations, construction and demolition waste, municipal solid waste and sewage sludge (or biosolids). The specific definition of biomass can depend upon state laws or regulations.

Biomass Gasification

refers to the conversion of biomass or biosolids (sewage) into a gas that can be used to produce electricity and products. Biomass gasification differs in several aspects from traditional gasification. The plants are generally smaller in scale, use air instead of oxygen (or use plasma gasification) and require that the biomass be dried before being gasified. See Gasification.

Blanketing (or Padding)

technique of maintaining an atmosphere that is either inert or fuel-enriched in the vapor space of a container or vessel.

Blowdown

the difference between the set pressure and the closing pressure of a pressure relief valve, expressed as a percentage (%) of the set pressure.

Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion (BLEVE)

an explosion and fire that is the result of a vessel failure in a fire and release of a pressurized liquid rapidly. A pressure wave, a fire ball, vessel fragments and burning liquid droplets are usually the result.

Bonding

electrical connection between two electrically conductive objects that minimizes any difference in electrical potential between them.

British Thermal Unit (Btu)

a measure of the heating value of a fuel. It is the amount of heat required to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit at atmospheric pressure. The higher the number of Btu’s per pound of material, the higher the heating value. For example, the heating value of bituminous coal is typically 10,000-12,500 Btu per pound, while municipal solid waste is in the range of 4,000-5,500 Btu per pound. Many thermal equipment like furnaces, boilers and gasifiers are typically designed or rated by the heat input in Btu per hour.

Brownfield

term which refers to a parcel of real estate that is abandoned or inactive or may not be operated at its fully beneficial use and on which expansion or redevelopment is contemplated or reasonably expected; distinguished from greenfield because expansion or redevelopment may be complicated by the presence of vapor-forming chemicals in the subsurface environment.

Built-up Back Pressure

the pressure in the discharge header which develops as a result of flow after a safety relief valve opens.

Burning to detonation

refers to the phenomenon which can take place when an explosive substance is confined in a tube and ignited at one end. The gas generated from the chemical decomposition of the explosive mixture becomes trapped, resulting in an increase in pressure at the burning surface; this in turn raises the linear burning rate. In detonating explosives the linear burning rate is raised so high by pressure pulses generated at the burning surface that it exceeds the velocity of sound, resulting in a detonation.

Burning velocity

velocity at which a fuel-air mixture issuing from a burner burns back to the burner.

Cancer

a group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled invasive growth of body cells leading to the formation of malignant tumors that tend to grow rapidly and spread (i.e., metastasize).

Cap

An enforceable limit on total emissions for the facilities covered under the cap-and-trade program. The cap is set for each compliance period of the program by the state and emissions are reduced as the cap declines over time.

Cap-and-Trade

a regulatory approach used to control pollution by setting a firm cap on allowed emissions while employing market mechanisms to achieve emissions reductions while driving costs down. In a cap-and-trade program, a limit, or cap is put on the amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted.

Capillary Fringe

refers to the porous material just above the ground water table which may hold water by capillarity (a property of surface tension that draws water upwards) in the smaller void spaces.

Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS)

the process of capturing CO2 from a stationary source, followed by compressing, transporting and injecting it into a suitable geologic formation where it will be sequestered.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

colorless, odorless gas that occurs naturally in the Earth’s atmosphere. Significant quantities are also emitted into the air by fossil fuel combustion.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

colorless, odorless gas resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels. CO interferes with the blood’s ability to carry oxygen to the body’s tissues and results in numerous adverse health effects. Over 80% of the CO emitted in urban areas is contributed by motor vehicles. CO is a criteria air pollutant.

Carbon Sequestration

the process of removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere by storing it in a carbon reservoir other than the atmosphere. Sequestration enhances carbon storage in trees and soils, preserves existing tree and soil carbon and reduces emissions of CO2, methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O).

Carcinogen

cancer-causing substance.

CAS Registry Number

Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number (CAS) is a numeric designation assigned by the American Chemical Society’s Chemical Abstract Service and uniquely identifies a specific compound. This entry allows one to conclusively identify a material regardless of the name or naming system used.

Catalyst

substance that can increase or decrease the rate of a chemical reaction between the other chemical species without being consumed in the process.

Catalytic Converter

motor vehicle pollution control device designed to reduce emissions such as oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide. Catalytic converters have been required equipment on all new motor vehicles sold in California since 1979.

CGS (cm-g-s) System

uses the same base units as the SI system but expresses masses and grams in terms of cm and g instead of kg and m. The CGS system has its own set of derived units, but commonly basic units are expressed in terms of cm and g, and then the derived units from the SI system are used. In order to use the SI units, the masses must be in kilograms, and the distances must be in meters. This is very important to remember, especially when dealing with force, energy, and pressure equations. See Units of Dimension and SI System.

Chatter

abnormal rapid reciprocating motion of the movable parts of a pressure relief valve in which the disc contacts the seat.

Chronic Exposure

long-term exposure, usually lasting one year to a lifetime.

Chronic Health Effect

health effect that occurs over a relatively long period of time (e.g., months or years). (See also acute health effect.)

Class I Substances

defined in Title VI of the Clean Air Act Amendments include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform. According to the CAAA, all of these compounds must be phased out of production by the year 2000 with the exception of methyl chloroform, which must be phased out of production by the year 2002. Provisions are also made that allow for acceleration of this phaseout.

Class II Substances

defined in Title VI of the Clean Air Act Amendments include hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). These substances must be phased out of production by 2015.

Class I Area

within the context of the prevention of significant deterioration program, all state air quality jurisdictions are divided into three classes of air quality protection. Class I areas are special areas of natural wonder and scenic beauty, such as national parks, national monuments, and wilderness areas, where air quality should be given special protection. Class I areas are subject to maximum limits on air quality degradation called air quality increments (often referred to as PSD increments). These air quality increments are more stringent than national ambient air quality standards (more so in Class I areas than Class II areas).

Class II Area

within the context of the prevention of significant deterioration program, all state air quality jurisdictions are divided into three classes of air quality protection. Initially, all other air quality jurisdictions were designated as Class II areas. Like Class I areas, Class II areas are subject to maximum limits on air quality degradation called air quality increments (often referred to as PSD increments). These air quality increments are more stringent than national ambient air quality standards (more so in Class I areas than Class II areas).

Class III Area

within the context of the prevention of significant deterioration program, all state air quality jurisdictions are divided into three classes of air quality protection. Initially, all non-Class I air quality jurisdictions were designated as Class II areas. Air quality jurisdictions in both of these designations are subject to maximum limits on air quality degradation called air quality increments (often referred to as PSD increments). These air quality increments are more stringent than national ambient air quality standards (more so in Class I areas than Class II areas). However, if desired by local constituents, a Class II area may be redesignated to a Class III area which has no air quality increments. In Class III areas, air quality may be degraded to levels correspondent to national ambient air quality standards.

Clean Air Act (CAA)

the CAA regulates air pollution. It includes national emission standards for new stationary sources within particular industrial categories. It also includes the National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs), which are designated to control the emissions of particular hazardous air pollutants (HAPS). NESHAPs specific to oil and gas production were promulgated in 1999. The CAA includes a Risk Management Program. This program requires stationary sources with more than a threshold quantity of a regulated substance (designated in the regulations) to develop and implement a risk management program (RMP). The RMP must include a hazard assessment, a prevention program, and an emergency response program. Specific information can be obtained from:

40 CFR Parts 50-99

Control Technology Center, Office of Air Quality, Planning and Standards (OAQPS), EPA, General Information: 919 541-0800; Publications: 919 541-2777

RCRA Call Center (CAA §112(r) questions): 800 424-9346

Internet Access: www.epa.gov/oar/oaq_caa.html

Oil and Gas Production NESHAPs Rule: <www.epa.gov/ttn/uatw/oilgas/oilgaspg.html>

Cleaner-Burning Gasoline

gasoline fuel that results in reduced emissions of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, reactive organic gases, and particulate matter, in addition to toxic substances such as benzene and 1,3-butadiene.

Closed Disposal System

disposal system which is capable of containing pressure that is different from atmospheric pressure.

Coefficient of Haze (COH)

a measurement of the quantity of dust and smoke in the atmosphere in a theoretical 1,000 linear feet of air. A COH of less than three is considered clean air and more than five is of some concern. COH readings of 20 or more can occur in urban areas.

Coalbed Methane

methane is generated during coal formation and is contained in the coal microstructure. Typical recovery entails pumping water out of the coal to allow the gas to escape. Methane is the principal component of natural gas. Coalbed methane can be added to natural gas pipelines without any special treatment.

Coefficient of Haze (COH)

measurement of the quantity of dust and smoke in the atmosphere in a theoretical 1,000 linear feet of air. A COH of less than three is considered clean air and more than five is of some concern. COH readings of 20 or more can occur in urban areas.

Combustible Metal

term refers to any metal, composed of distinct particles or pieces, regardless of size, shape, or chemical composition that will burn.

Combustible Metal Dust

term refers to any finely divided metal 420 μm (microns) or smaller in diameter (that is, material passing a U.S. No. 40 standard sieve) that presents a fire or explosion hazard. Any time a combustible dust is processed or handled, the potential for explosion or fire exists. The degree of hazard will vary depending on the type of combustible dust, conditions, the amount of material present, and processing methods used.

Combustion

the act or instance of burning some type of fuel such as gasoline to produce energy. Combustion is typically the process that powers automobile engines and power plant generators.

Complete (Vapor Intrusion) Pathway

the vapor intrusion pathway is referred to as complete for a building or collection of buildings when five conditions are met under current conditions: (1) a subsurface source of vapor-forming chemicals is present underneath or near the building(s); (2) vapors form and have a route along which to migrate (be transported) toward the building(s); (3) the building(s) is (or are) susceptible to soil gas entry, which means openings exist for the vapors to enter the building(s) and driving forces exist to draw the vapors from the subsurface into the building(s); (4) one or more vapor-forming chemicals comprising the subsurface vapor source(s) is (or are) present in the indoor environment; and (5) the building(s) is (or are) occupied by one or more individuals when the vapor-forming chemical(s) is (or are) present indoors.¹

Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA or Superfund)

Superfund authorizes the U.S. EPA to respond to releases, or threatened releases, of hazardous substances that might endanger public health, welfare, or the environment. It also grants EPA the authority to force parties responsible for environmental contamination to clean it up or to reimburse response costs incurred by EPA. CERCLA also contains hazardous substance release reporting regulations that require facilities to report to the National Response Center (NRC) any release of a hazardous substance that exceeds the specified quantity for that substance. Specific information can be obtained from:

40 CFR Parts 300-399

RCRA Call Center: 800 424-9346

Internet Access: www.epa.gov/superfund

Conditioning (of crude oils)

term refers to processing conducted, typically at or near the well site, to remove crude oil impurities prior to transport. Impurities include gases, water, and solids that were produced with the crude oil. Although a fairly limited range of equipment is employed to effect removal of gases from crude oils, the equipment can be operated at varying levels of rigor to meet specifications for transport and sale. Variations in oil reservoir conditions, well-site processing operations, residence time in storage tanks, and transportation method (truck, pipeline, or rail) may all influence crude oil composition and properties.

Continuous Emissions Monitoring (CEM)

any monitoring effort that continuously measures (i.e., measures with very short averaging times) and records emissions. In addition to measuring and recording actual emissions during the time of monitor operation, CEM data can be used to estimate emissions for different operating periods and longer averaging times. The term continuous monitoring system means the total equipment, required under the emission monitoring sections used to sample and condition (if applicable), to analyze, and to provide a permanent record of emissions or process parameters. The term continuous emissions monitoring system (CEMS) refers to the total equipment that may be required to meet the data acquisition and availability requirements used to sample, condition (if applicable), analyze, and provide a record of emissions. A continuous monitoring system (CMS) is a comprehensive term that may include, but is not limited to, continuous emissions monitoring systems, continuous opacity monitoring systems, continuous parameter monitoring systems, or other manual or automatic monitoring that is used for demonstrating compliance with an applicable regulation on a continuous basis as defined by the regulation. Continuous opacity monitoring system (COMS) means a continuous monitoring system that measures the opacity of emissions. Continuous parameter monitoring system means the total equipment that may be required to meet the data acquisition and availability requirements of this part, used to sample, condition (if applicable), analyze, and provide a record of process or control system parameters. The continuous emissions monitoring system consists of all the equipment used to acquire data to provide a record of emissions and includes the sample extraction and transport hardware, sample conditioning hardware, analyzers, and data recording/processing hardware and software.

Continuous Sampling Device

an air analyzer that measures air quality components continuously.

Control Techniques Guidelines (CTG)

guidance documents issued by U.S. EPA that define reasonably available control technology (RACT) to be applied to existing facilities that emit excessive quantities of air pollutants; they contain information both on the economic and technological feasibility of available techniques.

Conventional Safety/Relief Valve

a closed-bonnet pressure relief valve whose bonnet is vented to the discharge side of the valve. The valves performance characteristics-opening pressure, closing pressure, lift, and relieving capacity are directly affected by changes of the back pressure on the valve.

Conversion coating

process of changing a metal’s surface characteristics by applying a reactive chemical to the metal’s surface or by reacting the metal in a chemical bath. The desired result is improved coating adhesion, increased corrosion resistance, or both. Aluminum surfaces are treated with various conversion coatings depending upon the anticipated environmental conditions or performance requirements such as corrosion, electrochemical insulation, and abrasion. Conversion coatings are also used to enhance bond and paint adhesion. Typical treatments include chromate phosphates, chromate oxides, anodizing, and non-chromate formulations. Cadmium surfaces require either a phosphate or a chromate conversion coating prior to painting. The phosphate conversion is designed to be painted; the chromate conversion is designed to add corrosion resistance to the cadmium and it may also be painted. Magnesium must be treated with a conversion coating or anodized before painting to prevent corrosion and to prevent environmental damage by abrasion. Magnesium coatings utilize sodium dichromate solutions. Titanium must be treated with a conversion coating or anodized to protect it from corrosion and to improve adhesion bonding strength. Emersion baths for applying a conversion coating to titanium typically contain sodium phosphate, potassium fluoride, and hydrofluoric acid. The chemicals used in these processes are toxic.

Cost-Effectiveness

the cost of an emission control measure assessed in terms of dollars per pound, or dollars per ton, of air emissions reduced.

Criteria Pollutants

these are carbon monoxide (CO), lead (Pb), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), volatile organic compounds (VOC), and particulate matter of aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to 10 micrometers (PM10). The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were mandated by the Clean Air Act of 1970, and are based on criteria including adverse health or welfare effects. NAAQS are currently used to establish air pollutant concentration limits for the six air pollutants listed above that are commonly referred to as criteria pollutants.

Crude Oils

crudes comprise a complex mixture of primarily liquid hydrocarbons with dissolved gases and trace amounts of suspended water and inorganic sediments. From an elemental standpoint, an average crude oil contains 84% carbon, 14% hydrogen, 1%-3% sulfur, 1% nitrogen, 1% oxygen, and 0.1% minerals and salts. Organic compounds in crudes are primarily straight and branched-chain alkanes, cycloalkanes, cycloparaffins, and aromatics. Composition of crude oils varies widely across producing regions, and even within given geologic formations. Composition and properties can also change within a given stream as the oil moves from the reservoir to the refinery as a result of sequential conditioning, stabilization and commingling steps.

Cyclone

an air pollution control device that removes larger particles – generally greater than one micron – from an air stream through centrifugal force.

Data Quality Indicators (DQIs)

qualitative and quantitative descriptors used to interpret the degree of acceptability or utility of data to the user. The principal data quality indicators are accuracy, comparability, completeness, and representativeness.

Data Quality Objectives (DQOs)

qualitative and quantitative statements developed to ensure that data of known and appropriate quality are obtained to support decisions or actions. DQOs encompass all aspects of data collection, analysis, validation, and evaluation.

Deciview

measurement of visibility. One deciview represents the minimal perceptible change in visibility to the human eye.

Deflagration

a substance is classed as a deflagrating material when a small amount of it in an unconfined condition suddenly ignites when subjected to a flame, spark, shock, friction or high temperatures. Deflagrating explosives burn faster and more violently than ordinary combustible materials. The burning of a deflagrating explosive is therefore a surface phenomenon which is similar to other combustible materials, except that explosive materials do not need a supply of oxygen to sustain the burning. The propagation of an explosion reaction through a deflagrating explosive is based on thermal reactions. The explosive material surrounding the initial exploding site is warmed above its decomposition temperature causing it to explode. Explosives such as propellants exhibit this type of explosion mechanism. Transfer of energy by thermal means through a temperature difference is a relatively slow process and depends very much on external conditions such as ambient pressure. The speed of the explosion process in deflagrating explosives is always subsonic; that is, it is always less than the speed of sound.

Degreaser

equipment that removes grease, dirt, or unwanted materials from any part or product. Degreasers typically use aqueous or non-aqueous solvents, as liquid baths or condensing vapors, to remove such material.

Design Standards

impose certain hardware requirements. For example, a design standard might require that leaks from compressors be collected and diverted to a control device. Design standards are typically used when an emissions limit is not feasible.

Designation Value

the pollutant concentration used by air quality managers for designating attainment status of an air district with respect to the state and federal ambient air quality standards. Generally, the designation value is the highest concentration that remains after excluding certain qualifying values. For a specific pollutant, the designation value for the state and federal standards may not be the same.

Differential Scanning Calorimeter

the technique of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is very similar to DTA. The peaks in a DTA thermogram represent a difference in temperature between the sample and reference, whereas the peaks in a DSC thermogram represent the amount of electrical energy supplied to the system to keep the sample and reference at the same temperature. The areas under the DSC peaks will be proportional to the enthalpy change of the reaction. DSC is often used for the study of equilibria, heat capacities and kinetics of explosive reactions in the absence of phase changes, whereas DTA combined with TGA is mainly used for thermal analysis.

Differential thermal analysis (DTA)

a test method that involves heating (or cooling) a sample and an inert reference sample under identical conditions and recording any temperature difference which develops between them. Any physical or chemical change occurring to the test sample which involves the evolution of heat will cause its temperature to rise temporarily above that of the reference sample, thus giving rise to an exothermic peak on a DTA plot. Conversely, a process which is accompanied by the absorption of heat will cause the temperature of the test sample to lag behind that of the reference material, leading to an endothermic peak.

Diffusion

the random motion that affects the distribution of molecules when there are spatial differences in chemical concentrations in the fluid (e.g., soil gas, indoor air, groundwater). The net direction of diffusive transport is toward the direction of lower concentrations.

Diisocyanates

chemicals in auto body part painting operations, especially for clear coat applications, which are a leading cause of occupational asthma.

Dose

the amount of a pollutant that is absorbed. A level of exposure which is a function of a pollutant’s concentration, the length of time a subject is exposed, and the amount of the pollutant that is absorbed. The concentration of the pollutant and the length of time that the subject is exposed to that pollutant determine dose.

Dose-Response

the relationship between the dose of a pollutant and the response (or effect) it produces on a biological system.

Dry Flue Gas Desulfurization

also known as lime-spray drying (LSD); this is a dry scrubbing process that is generally used for low-sulfur coal. LSD FGD systems are typically located after the air preheaters, and the waste products are collected either in a baghouse or electrostatic precipitator. To achieve sulfur dioxide (SO2) reduction above 80% with good reagent use, the dry scrubber is generally followed by a baghouse. Flue gas is treated in an absorber by mixing the gas stream concurrently with atomized lime slurry droplets. The lime slurry is atomized through rotary cup spray atomizers or through dual fluid nozzles. Some of the water in the spray droplets evaporates, cooling the gas at the inlet from 300 °C or higher to 160 °F to 180 °F, depending on the relationship between approach to saturation and removal efficiency. The droplets absorb SO2 from the gas and react the SO2 with the lime in the slurry. The desulfurized flue gas, along with reaction products, unreacted lime, and the fly ash passes out of the dry scrubber to the baghouse. SO2 absorbed in the atomized slurry reacts with lime in the slurry to form calcium sulfite (CaSO3) in the following reaction:

Part of the CaSO3 reacts with oxygen in the flue gas to form calcium sulfate:

Preparation of the lime slurry reagent involves slaking lime in a conventional lime slaker with a high efficiency grit removal and lime recovery system. The slaked lime is held in an agitated tank for use. The slurry reagent is fed to the absorber to replenish lime consumed in the reaction, and the feed rate is typically controlled based on the removal efficiency required. The waste product contains CaSO3, CaSO4, calcium hydroxide, and ash. Applications include commercial units with coal sulfur as high as 2.0%. The dry FGD process has the following advantages when compared to wet limestone FGD technology: 1. The absorber vessel can be constructed of unlined carbon steel, as opposed to lined carbon steel or solid alloy construction for wet FGD. Typically, for units less than 300 MW, the capital cost is lower than for wet FGD. Typically, for units larger than 300 MW, multiple module requirements causes the dry FGD process to be more expensive than the wet FGD process. 2. Pumping requirements and overall power consumption are lower than for wet FGD systems. 3. Waste CaSO3, CaSO4, and calcium hydroxide are produced in a dry form and can be handled with conventional pneumatic fly ash handling equipment. 4. The waste is stable for landfilling purposes and can be disposed of concurrently with fly ash. 5. The dry FGD system uses less equipment than does the wet FGD system, resulting in fixed, lower operations and maintenance (O&M) labor requirements. 6. The pressure drop across the absorber is typically lower than for wet FGD. 7. High chloride levels improve (up to a point), rather than hinder, SO2 removal performance. 8. Sulfur trioxide (SO3) in the vapor above approximately 300 °F, which condenses to liquid sulfuric acid at a lower temperature (below acid dew point), is removed efficiently with a spray dryer-baghouse. Wet limestone scrubbers capture less than 25 to 40% of SO3 and would require the addition of a wet electrostatic precipitator to remove the balance or hydrated lime injection. The emission of sulfuric acid mist, if above a threshold value, may result in a plume visible after the vapor plume dissipates. 9. Flue gas following a spray dryer is unsaturated with water (30 °F to 50 °F above dew point), which reduces or eliminates a visible moisture plume. Wet limestone scrubbers produce flue gas that is saturated with water, which requires a gas-gas heat exchanger to reheat the flue gas to operate as dry stack. Due to the high costs associated with heating the flue gas, all recent wet FGD systems in the United States have used wet stack operations. 10. Dry FGD systems have the capability of capturing a high percentage of gaseous mercury in the flue gas if the mercury is in the oxidized form. Further, due to the nature of the filter cake present in the fabric filter associated with LSD, the LSD equipment with a fabric filter will tend to capture a higher percentage of oxidized mercury than would LSD equipment with an electrostatic precipitator. 11. There is no liquid waste from a dry FGD system, while wet limestone systems produce a liquid waste stream. In some cases, a wastewater treatment plant must be installed to treat the liquid waste prior to disposal. The wastewater treatment plant produces a small volume of waste, rich in toxic metals (including mercury) that must be disposed of in a landfill. A dry FGD system provides an outlet for process wastewater from other parts of the plant when processing residue for disposal.

Dry Natural Gas Production

this is the process of producing consumer-grade natural gas. Natural gas withdrawn from reservoirs is reduced by volumes used at the production (lease) site and by processing losses. Volumes used at the production site include (1) the volume returned to reservoirs in cycling, repressuring of oil reservoirs, and conservation operations; and (2) gas vented and flared. Processing losses include (1) nonhydrocarbon gases (e.g., water vapor, carbon dioxide, helium, hydrogen sulfide, and nitrogen) removed from the gas stream; and (2) gas converted to liquid form, such as lease condensate and plant liquids. Volumes of dry gas withdrawn from gas storage reservoirs are not considered part of production. Dry natural gas production equals marketed production less extraction loss.

Dust

any sample of solid particles with a median size smaller than 500 microns.

Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)

an air pollution control device that removes particulate matter from an air stream by imparting an electrical charge to the particles for mechanical collection at an electrode.

Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA)

EPCRA was designed to improve community access to information about potential chemical hazards and to facilitate the development of chemical emergency response plans by state and local governments. EPCRA regulations establish four types of reporting obligations for facilities that store or manage certain chemicals above specified quantities. Specific information can be obtained from:

40 CFR Parts 350-372

RCRA Call Center: 800 424-9346

Internet Access: www.epa.gov/opptintr/tri/ and www.epa.gov/swercepp

Emission Concentration Standards

these limit the mass emissions of a pollutant per volume of air. Emission concentration standards are expressed in terms such as grams per dry standard cubic meter (g/dscm) or other similar units.

Emission Factors

ratios that relate emissions of a pollutant to an activity level at a plant that can be easily measured, such as an amount of material processed, or an amount of fuel used. Given an emission factor and a known activity level, a simple multiplication yields an estimate of the emissions. Emission factors are developed from separate facilities within an industry category, so they represent typical values for an industry, but do not necessarily represent a specific source. Published emission factors are available in numerous sources.

Emission Inventory

an estimate of the amount of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere from major mobile, stationary, area-wide, and natural source categories over a specific period of time such as a day or a year.

Emission Offsets (also known as Emissions Trading)

a rule-making concept whereby approval of a new or modified stationary source of air pollution is conditional on the reduction of emissions from other existing stationary sources of air pollution. These reductions are required in addition to reductions required by best available control technology.

Emission Reduction Credit (ERC)

credit for the reduction of emissions from a stationary source. Normally, emission reduction credits have formal definitions in permitting or banking rules which specify minimum criteria that an emission reduction must comply with to be approved.

Emissions Reduction Standards

these limit the amount of current emissions relative to the amount of emissions before application of a pollution control measure. For example, an emission reduction standard may require a source to reduce, within a specified time, its emissions to 50% of the present value.

Emission Standards

general type of standard that limit the mass of a pollutant that may be emitted by a source. The most straightforward emissions standard is a simple limitation on mass of pollutant per unit time (e.g., pounds of pollutant per hour).

Emissions Unit

according to 40 CFR 51.165(a)(1)(vi) and 40 CFR 51.666 (b)(7) referring to permit requirements for NSR and PSD permitting requirements, Emissions unit means any part of a stationary source which emits or would have the potential to emit any pollutant subject to regulation under the Act.

Energy Content

amount of energy available for doing work. For example, the amount of energy in fuel available for powering a motor vehicle.

Engineering Estimate

a term commonly applied to the best approximation that can be made when the specific emission estimation techniques such as stack testing, material balance, or emission factor age are not possible. This estimation is usually made by an engineer familiar with the specific process, and is based on whatever knowledge may be available.

Enthalpy

the amount of heat content used or released in a system at constant pressure. Enthalpy is usually expressed as the change in enthalpy. The change in enthalpy is related to a change in internal energy (U) and a change in the volume (V), which is multiplied by the constant pressure of the system. Enthalpy (H) is the sum of the internal energy (U) and the product of pressure and volume (PV) given by the equation: H = U + PV. When a process occurs at constant pressure, the heat evolved (either released or absorbed) is equal to the change in enthalpy. Enthalpy is a state function which depends entirely on the state functions T, P and U. Enthalpy is usually expressed as the change in enthalpy (ΔH) for a process between initial and final states: ΔH = ΔU + ΔPV. If temperature and pressure remain constant through the process and the work is limited to pressure-volume work, then the enthalpy change is given by the equation: ΔH = ΔU + PΔV. At constant pressure the heat flow (q) for the process is equal to the change in enthalpy defined by the equation: ΔH = q. By looking at whether q is exothermic or endothermic one may determine a relationship between ΔH and q. If the reaction absorbs heat it is endothermic meaning the reaction consumes heat from the surroundings so q>0 (positive). Therefore, at constant temperature and pressure, by the above expression, if q is positive then ΔH is also positive. And the same goes for if the reaction releases heat, then it is exothermic, meaning the system gives off heat to its surroundings, so q<0 (negative). If q is negative, then ΔH will also be negative. See also Heat of Vaporization. Enthalpy can also be expressed as a molar enthalpy, ΔHm, by dividing the enthalpy or change in enthalpy by the number of moles. Enthalpy is a state function. This implies that when a system changes from one state to another, the change in enthalpy is independent of the path between two states of a system. If there is no nonexpansion work on the system and the pressure is still constant, then the change in enthalpy will equal the heat consumed or released by the system (q).

Environmental Management Information System

software that combines advanced tools for strategic planning (including stochastic risk analysis) and environmental impact assessment with real-time monitoring, online reporting, and operational control including emergency management options. Other embedded models address land use dynamics, air quality assessment and emission control, and coastal water quality.

Environmental Management System

a set of processes and practices that enable an organization to reduce its environmental impacts and increase its operating efficiency.

Epidemiology

the study of the occurrence and distribution of disease within a population.

Equation of State

refers to an equation relating the temperature, pressure, and volume of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium.

Equipment Standards

requires a specific type of equipment to be used in certain processes. Equipment standards are typically used in emissions estimates when an emissions limit is not feasible.

Ethanol

ethyl-alcohol, a volatile alcohol containing two carbon groups (CH3CH2OH). For fuel use, ethanol is produced by fermentation of corn or other plant products.

Exceedance

a measured level of an air pollutant higher than the national or state ambient air quality standards.

Exposure

the concentration of the pollutant in the air multiplied by the population exposed to that concentration over a specified time period.

Exposure Assessment

measurement or estimation of the magnitude, frequency, duration and route of exposure to a substance for the populations of interest.

Extraction Loss (Natural Gas Extraction)

the reduction in volume of natural gas due to the removal of natural gas liquid constituents such as ethane, propane, and butane at natural gas processing plants.

Flammable Limits (flammability limits)

the minimum and maximum concentrations of a combustible material in a homogeneous mixture with a gaseous oxidizer that will propagate a flame.

Flammable Range

the range of concentrations between the lower and upper flammable limits.

Flammability Limits

range of vapor concentration in the air that will support combustion. These are termed lower flammability limit (LFL) and upper flammability limit (UFL).

Flapper Valve

a check valve in the form of a hinged disk which permits flow in one direction only. An example of a flapper valve is the part on the bottom of a household toilet that opens to allow water to flow from the tank to the bowl. When closed, it creates a seal between the two spaces. For the homeowner or apartment dweller, a flapper valve is commonly one of the reasons that the water in a toilet may be running constantly. What generally happens is that the valve fails to close all the way. When a flapper valve is damaged and no longer works, it’s imperative to fix it immediately; especially when it is employed in a service that may lead to conditions that can contribute to fire and explosion. Flapper valves are often used in applications intended to allow any gases which build up to flow out through a vent stack and to seal against any outside air from entering into a vessel or confined area through a vent stack.

Flame Arrestors

a crimped ribbon aluminum or stainless steel flame cell to protect against rapid burn backs in low pressure situations. These passive safety devices are guaranteed to prevent flame fronts from propagating back through lines, destroying facilities, and causing injuries.

Flare Blow Off/Flame Lift-up

the lifting of flame front from the flare tip.

Flare Blow Out

the extinguishing of the flare flame.

Flare Stack

an elevated vertical stack found on oil wells or oil rigs, and in refineries, chemical plants and landfills used for burning off unusable waste gas or flammable gas and liquids released by pressure relief valves during unplanned overpressuring of plant equipment.

Flare System

a system that is intended to safely dispose of waste gases via combustion.

Flare Tips

structure at the very top of the flare which plays the role of maintaining optimum burn and control over all flow rates. Proper design of the tip ensures that the flare does not come into contact with the flame making the tips reliable and long lasting.

Flaring

the controlled burning of off gases in the course of routine oil and gas or chemical manufacturing operations. This burning or combustion is accomplished at the end of a flare stack or boom.

Flash Fire (Crude)

there are different scenarios in which delayed ignition of a vapor cloud does not result in an explosion; that is, there is not a rapid release of energy and, hence, there are no damaging overpressures. A burning vapor cloud can be referred to as a flash fire, which poses thermal and asphyxiation hazards, the extent of which depends on the size of the vapor cloud. In a flash fire the flame will start in the region of ignition and then propagate through the cloud at a speed that is affected by wind conditions. If the wind direction is counter to the direction of flame propagation, the flame speed can be decreased to the extent that it is intermittently halted. The burning can also be heterogeneous with regards to flame height and soot production, that is, there may be times and regions where a tall flame occurs, and other times where the flame is approximately the height of the vapor cloud and a combination of transparent and luminous flames occur.

Flash gas

refers to the gas or vapor that is generated when a gas and/or liquid stream experiences a decrease in pressure or an increase in temperature.

Flashpoint

temperature that results in a vapor concentration in air corresponding to the lower flammability limit. When this temperature is reached there will be a flash of flame without sustained burning. The fire point is the temperature at which sustained burning occurs and is higher than the flashpoint.

Flue Gas Desulfurization

technology that is commonly referred to as a wet scrubber. This is a proven and effective method of removing SO2 emissions from the exhaust of coal-fired power plants. During the combustion process, the sulfur naturally present in the coal combines with oxygen in the combustion air to form SO2. The SO2 is captured and removed by bubbling the exhaust gas through a mixture of lime or limestone and water before being exhausted into the atmosphere. Wet scrubbers are typically designed to remove about 95% or more of the SO2 from the exhaust gas, leaving a white plume water vapor that is commonly observed exiting the stack.

Fly Ash

air-borne solid particles that result from the burning of coal and other solid fuel.

Fossil Fuels

fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas; so-called because they are the remains of ancient plant and animal life.

Fuel Cell

an electrochemical cell which captures the electrical energy of a chemical reaction between fuels such as liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen and converts it directly and continuously into the energy of a direct electrical current.

Fugitive Dust

dust particles that are introduced into the air through certain activities such as soil cultivation, or vehicles operating on open fields or dirt roadways. A subset of fugitive emissions.

Fugitive Emissions

emissions not caught by a capture system which are often due to equipment leaks, evaporative processes and windblown disturbances.

Full-Lift Safety Valve

a safety valve in which the disc lifts automatically such that the actual discharge area is not determined by the position of the disc.

Fume

solid particles < 1 micron in diameter formed as vapors condense, or as chemical reactions take place.

Gasification

a thermo-chemical process in which carbonaceous (carbon-rich) feedstocks such as coal, petro-coke, biomass or municipal solid waste