Submission date: 1-26-2016

COMPLEX VARIABLE AND

TRANSFORM
Project report

SUBMITTED TO:
MAM SIDRA AYUB
SUBMITTED BY:
UW-15-ME-BSC-010
UW-15-ME-BSC-022
UW-15-ME-BSC-003
UW-15-ME-BSC-006
UW-15-ME-BSC-029

WAH ENGINEERING COLLEGE

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTEMENT
 Table of Contents
1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 2
1.2 Jean Fourier................................................................................................................. 2
Applications OF Fourier series.......................................................................................... 3
1.3 The Fast Fourier Transform:........................................................................................ 3
1.4 The Spectrum Analyzer:............................................................................................ 4
1.5 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING:................................................................................. 4
Fourier series in engineering analysis:............................................................................... 5
1.6 Periodic physical phenomena.................................................................................. 5
1.7 Periodical signals from an oscilloscope by Fourier series:.................................5
1.8 Periodic variation in four stroke combustion engine:..........................................6
1.9 Required conditions for Fourier series:..................................................................6
1.10 Convergence in fourier series:................................................................................. 6
1.11 Modern developments in Fourier series:................................................................6
1.12 Brief history:............................................................................................................... 7
1.13 What are Laplace transforms and why?.................................................................8
1.14 Finding Laplace transform?...................................................................................... 8
2 Laplace in Engineering:................................................................................................... 9
2.1 S -Domain equivalent circuits and impedances........................................................................9
2.2 Analysis, probability and astronomical stability:.................................................9
2.3 Stability of the Solar System:.............................................................................................. 9
2.4 Applications of the Laplace Transform:................................................................10
Future recommendations................................................................................................. 10
 Fourier series
1.1 Introduction
Fourier series are used in the analysis of periodic functions. A periodic function
Many of the phenomena studied in engineering and science are periodic in nature eg.
the current and voltage in an alternating current circuit. These periodic functions can
be analysed into their constituent components (fundamentals and harmonics) by a
process called Fourier analysis. We are aiming to find an approximation using
trigonometric functions for various square, saw tooth, etc waveforms that occur in
electronics. We do this by adding more and more trigonometric functions together. The
sum of these special trigonometric functions is called the Fourier Series.

1.2 Jean Fourier

Fourier was a French mathematician, who was taught by Lagrange and Laplace.
He almost died on the guillotine in the French Revolution. Fourier was a buddy of
Napoleon and worked as scientific adviser for Napoleon's army.He worked on theories
of heat and expansions of functions as trigonometric series... but these were
controversial at the time. Like many scientists, he had to battle to get his ideas
accepted.
Jean Baptiste Joseph
Fourier (1768 - 1830).

Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier 21 March 1768 16 May

1830) was French mathematician and physicist born in Auberry and best known for initiating the
investigation of Fourier series and their applications to problems of heat transfer and vibrations.
The Fourier transform and Fourier's law are also named in his honor. Fourier is also generally
credited with the discovery of the greenhouse effect.

When the French mathematician Joseph Fourier (17681830) was trying to solve a
problem in heat conduction, he needed to express a function as an infinite series of
sine and cosine functions.
Earlier, Daniel Bernoulli and Leonard Euler had used such series while investigating
problems concerning vibrating strings and astronomy. The series in Equation 1 is
called a trigonometric series or Fourier series and it turns out that expressing a
function as a Fourier series is sometimes more advantageous than expanding it as a
power series. In particular, astronomical phenomena are usually periodic, as are
heartbeats, tides, and vibrating strings, so it makes sense to express them in terms of
periodic functions.

nx nx
(
f ( x )=a 0+ an cos
n=1 L
+bn sin
L )
Where interval lies form ( to + )

a0= f ( x )dx

an=
f ( x )cosnx

bn=

f ( x ) sinnx
where n =1, 2, 3,..
Applications OF Fourier series:

THE FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM

THE SPECTRUM ANALYZER

DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING

ANALYTICAL APPLICATIONS

1.3 The Fast Fourier Transform:

The Fourier series is only capable of analyzing the frequency components of
certain, discreet frequencies (integers) of a given function. In order to study the case
where the frequency components of the sine and cosine terms are continuous, the
concept of the Fourier Transform must be introduced. The imaginary exponential form
of the Fourier Transform is defined as follows:

H()
Hn.(1)
Comparing equation (6) with the Fourier series given in equation (1), it is clear that
this is a form of the Fourier series with non-integer frequency components. Currently,
the most common and efficient method of numerically calculating the DFT is by using
a class of algorithms called Fast Fourier Transforms (FFTs). The first known discovery
of the FFT was by Gauss in 1805; however, the first modern rediscovery of the FFT
was done in 1942 by Danielson and Lanczos4. They were able to show one may divide
any DFT into a sum of two DFTs which each correspond to N 2 1 points.
The most useful part of this formula is that it can be used recursively, since each of
these He n and HO n terms may be independently expanded using the same
algorithm, each time reducing the number of calculations by a factor of 2. In fact, this
class of FFT algorithm shrinks the computation time from O(N2 ) operations to the
much more manageable O(N log2 N) operations. There are many different FFT
algorithms; the one presented here is simply the most common one, known as a
Cooley-Turkey FFT algorithm. There are other algorithms which can decrease
computation time by 20 or 30 percent (so-called base-4 FFTs or base-8 FFTs) 4 . Most
importantly, both classes of FFT algorithms are fast enough to embed into modern
digital oscilloscopes and other such electronic equipment. Thus, FFTs have many
modern applications, such as Spectrum Analyzers, Digital Signal Processors (DSPs),
and the numerical computation arbitrary-size multiplication operations.

1.4 The Spectrum Analyzer:

An important instrument to any experimentalist is the spectrum analyzer. This

instrument reads a signal (usually a voltage) and provides the operator with the
Fourier coefficients which correspond to each of the sine and cosine terms of the
Fourier expansion of the signal. Suppose an instrument takes a time-domain signal,
such as the amplitude of the output voltage of an instrument. Let us call this signal
V(t). Then the DFT of V(t) is

Which means that the previously described methods of the FFT apply to the function.
Thus, any digital oscilloscope that is sufficiently fast and equipped with a FFT
algorithm is capable of providing the user with the frequency components of the
source signal.
Spectrum Analyzers have many uses in the laboratory, but one of the most common
uses is for signal noise studies. As shown above, the FFT of the signal gives the
amplitudes of the various oscillatory components of the input. After normalization, this
allows for the experimentalist to determine what frequencies dominate their signal.
For example, if you have a DC signal, you would expect the FFT to show only very low
frequency oscillations (i.e., the largest amplitudes should correspond to f 0).
However, if you see a sharp peak of amplitudes around 60 Hz, you would know that
something is feeding noise into your signal with a frequency of 60 Hz (for example, an
AC leakage from your power source).
There are many advantages to doing DSP as opposed to doing analog signal
processing. To begin with, practically speaking, you can have a much more
complicated filtering function (the function that transforms the coefficients of the DFT)
with DSP than analog signal processing. While it is fairly easy to make a single band
pass, low pass, or high pass filter with capacitors, resistors, and inductors, it is
relatively difficult and time consuming to implement anything more complicated than
these three simple filters. Furthermore, even if a more complicated filter was
implemented with analog electronics, it is difficult to make even small modifications to
the filter (there are exceptions to this, such as FPGAs, but those are also more difficult
to implement than simple software solution). DSP is not limited by either of these
effects since the processing is (usually) done in software, which can be programmed
to do whatever the user desires.
1.5 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING:

We have already seen how the Fourier Series allows experimentalists to identify
sources of noise. It may also be used to eliminate sources of noise by introducing the
idea of the Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT). In general, the goal of an Inverse
Fourier Transform is to take the An (the ones that appear in eq (5) and use them to
reconstruct the original function, f(t).
Analytically, this is done by multiplying each An by e2ik then taking the sum over all
N
n

n. However, this is an inefficient algorithm to use when the calculation must be done
numerically. Just as there is a fast numerical algorithm for approximating the Fourier
coefficients (the FFT), there is another efficient algorithm, called the IFFT, which is
capable of calculating the Inverse Fourier Transform much faster than the brute-force
method.
In 1988, it was shown by Duhamel, Piron, and Etcheto 7 that the IFFT is simply.In other
words, you can calculate the IFFT directly from the FFT; you simply flip the real and
imaginary parts of the coefficients calculated by the original FFT. Thus, the IFFT
algorithms are essentially the same as the FFT algorithms; all one must do is flip the
numbers around at the beginning of the calculation.Since the IFFT inherits all of the
speed benefits of the FFT, it is also quite practical to use it in real time in the
laboratory. One of the most common applications of the IFFT in the laboratory is to
provide Digital Signal Processing (DSP). In general, the idea of DSP is to use
configurable digital electronics to clean up.

Fourier series in engineering analysis:

1.6 Periodic physical phenomena

There are so many physical phenomenon that goes unnoticed that life would be
so much different without them. From the smallest (quantum phenomenon) to the
biggest (cosmological - big bang), there are so many of them. Even one small change
to any of the physical constants (say, speed of light) would change so many things.
Sound is a wave that is carried through air and other materials. Without sound, we
would not have such beautiful music nor would we be able to communicate by talking
to each other.
1.7 Periodical signals from an oscilloscope by Fourier series:

The most useful application is in solving vibrations problems. Generally, vibrations

are difficult to model and you have to solve it using numerical techniques such as a
Fourier Series coupled with the Method..
Although the original motivation was to solve the heat equation, it later became
obvious that the same techniques could be applied to a wide array of mathematical
and physical problems.
Fourier series is applicable to any phenomenon which involves frequency, that is to
say any complex phenomenon involving a frequency spectrum can be solved using
FOURIER ANALYSIS.

Mechanical vibration is a subject you study during course have a few applications of fourier series. Some other
applications are:

1. Signal Processing. It may be the best application of Fourier analysis.

2. Approximation Theory . We use Fourier series to write a function as a
trigonometric polynomial.
3. Control Theory . The Fourier series of functions in the differential equation often
gives some prediction about the behavior of the solution of differential equation. They
are useful to find out the dynamics of the solution.
4. Partial Differential equation . We use it to solve higher order partial differential
equations by the method of separation of variables.

1.8 Periodic variation in four stroke combustion engine:

The synchronizing signal generator 215 the construction of which will be described
later is responsive to the pulse signal from the engine speed detector 105 via a line L
150b to produce a timing signal and supply it via a line L 215. In the speed regulating
unit 201, the timing signal is formed from the engine speed signal.

1.9 Required conditions for Fourier series:

The mathematical expression of the periodic function f(x) in one period must be
available
The function in one period is defined in an interval (c < x < c+2L) in which c = 0
or any arbitrarily chosen value of x, and L = half period
The function f(x) and its first order derivative f(x) are either continuous or
piece-wise continuous in c < x < c+2L

1.10Convergence in fourier series:
In engineering applications, the Fourier series is generally presumed to converge
everywhere except at discontinuities, since the functions encountered in engineering
are better behaved than the ones that mathematicians can provide as counter-
examples to this presumption. In particular, the Fourier series converges absolutely
and uniformly to s(x) whenever the derivative of s(x) (which may not exist
everywhere) is square integral. If a function is square-integral on the interval [x0, x0+P],
then the Fourier series converges to the function at almost every point. Convergence of
Fourier series also depends on the finite number of maxima and minima in a function
which is popularly known as one of the Dirichlet's condition for Fourier series . See Convergence of
Fourier series. It is possible to define Fourier coefficients for more general functions or
distributions, in such cases convergence in norm or weak convergence is usually of
interest.

1.11Modern developments in Fourier series:

The Fourier Series is useful in many applications ranging from experimental
instruments to rigorous mathematical analysis techniques. Thanks to modern
developments in digital electronics, coupled with numerical algorithms such as the
FFT, the Fourier series has become one of the most widely used and useful
mathematical tools available to any scientist.
Also, the Fourier Transform, which is very related to the Fourier Series, is used in the
Spectrum Analysis of signals. Some applications for this are in the Communications
Systems, Image and Video Processing, Biomedical Engineering (ECG, MRI), Oil
extraction (Seismology), Music Industry (Audio) and Power Quality Analysis.

Laplace transform:
1.12Brief history:

In mathematics the Laplace transform is an integral transform named after its

discoverer Pierre-Simon Laplace (/lpls/). It takes a function of a positive real
variable t (often time) to a function of a complex variable s (frequency). The Laplace
transform is very similar to the Fourier transform. While the Fourier transform of a
function is a complex function of a real variable (frequency), the Laplace transform of
a function is a complex function of a complex variable. Laplace transforms are usually
restricted to functions of t with t > 0. A consequence of this restriction is that the
Laplace transform of a function is a holomorphic function of the variable s. Unlike the
Fourier transform, the Laplace transform of a distribution is generally a well-
behaved function. Also techniques of complex variables can be used directly to study
Laplace transforms. As a holomorphic function, the Laplace transform has a power
series representation. This power series expresses a function as a linear superposition
of moments of the function. This perspective has applications in probability theory.
The Laplace transform is invertible on a large class of functions. The inverse Laplace
transform takes a function of a complex variable s (often frequency) and yields a
function of a real variable t (time). Given a simple mathematical or functional
description of an input or output to a system, the Laplace transform provides an
alternative functional description that often simplifies the process of analyzing the
behavior of the system, or in synthesizing a new system based on a set of
specifications.[1] So, for example, Laplace transformation from the time domain to the
frequency domain transforms differential equations into algebraic equations
and convolution into multiplication. It has many applications in the sciences and
technology.
The Laplace transform is named after mathematician and astronomer Pierre-Simon
Laplace, who used a similar transform (now called the z-transform) in his work on probability
theory.[2] The current widespread use of the transform (mainly in engineering) came
about during and soon after World War II [3] although it had been used in the 19th
century by Abel, Lerch, Heaviside, and Bromwich.
Laplace formulated Laplace's equation, and pioneered the Laplace transform which
appears in many branches of mathematical physics, a field that he took a leading role
in forming. The Laplacian differential operator, widely used in mathematics, is also
named after him. He restated and developed the nebular hypothesis of the origin of
the Solar System and was one of the first scientists to postulate the existence of black
holes and the notion of gravitational collapse.

1.13What are Laplace transforms and why?

This is much easier to state than to motivate! We state the definition in two ways, first
in words to explain it intuitively, then in symbols so that we can calculate transforms.
Definition 1 Given f, a function of time, with value f(t) at time t, the Laplace
transform of f is denoted f and it gives an average value of f taken over all positive
values of t such that the value f(s) represents an average of f taken over all possible
time intervals of length s.

This immediately raises the question of why to use such a procedure. In fact the
reason is strongly motivated by real engineering problems. There, typically we
encounter models for the dynamics of phenomena which depend on rates of change
of functions, eg velocities and accelerations of particles or points on rigid bodies,
which prompts the use of ordinary differential equations (ODEs). We can use ordinary
calculus to solve ODEs, provided that the functions are nicely behavedwhich means
continuous and with continuous derivatives. Unfortunately, there is much interest in
engineering dynamical problems involving functions that input step change or spike
impulses to systemsplaying pool is one example. Now, there is an easy way to
smooth out discontinuities in functions of time: simply take an average value over all
time. But an ordinary average will replace the function by a constant, so we use a kind
of moving average which takes continuous averages over all possible intervals of t.
This very neatly deals with the discontinuities by encoding them as a smooth function
of interval length s.
1.14Finding Laplace transform?

Formal definition
The Laplace transform of a function f(t), defined for all real numbers t 0, is the
function F (s),defined by

The meaning of the integral depends on types of functions of interest. A necessary

condition for existence of the integral is that must be locally integrable on [0,). For
locally integrable functions that decay at infinity or are of exponential type, the integral
can be understood as a (proper) Lebesgue integral. However, for many applications it is
necessary to regard it as a conditionally convergent improper integral at .

2 Laplace in Engineering:

2.1 S -Domain equivalent circuits and impedances

The Laplace transform is often used in circuit analysis, and simple conversions to the
s-Domain of circuit elements can be made. Circuit elements can be transformed into
impedances, very similar to phasor impedances. Here is a summary of equivalents:
2.2 Analysis, probability and astronomical stability:
Laplace's early published work in 1771 started with differential
equations and finite differences but he was already starting to think about the
mathematical and philosophical concepts of probability and statistics. [15] However,
before his election to the Academia in 1773, he had already drafted two papers that
would establish his reputation. The first, Mmoire sur la probability des causes par les
vnements was ultimately published in 1774 while the second paper, published in
1776, further elaborated his statistical thinking and also began his systematic work
on celestial mechanics and the stability of the Solar System. The two disciplines would
always be interlinked in his mind. "Laplace took probability as an instrument for
repairing defects in knowledge."[16] Laplace's work on probability and statistics is
discussed below with his mature work on the analytic theory of probabilities.
2.3 Stability of the Solar System:
Sir Isaac Newton had published his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 in
which he gave a derivation of Kepler's laws, which describe the motion of the planets,
from his laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation. However, though Newton had
privately developed the methods of calculus, all his published work used cumbersome
geometric reasoning, unsuitable to account for the more subtle higher-order effects of
interactions between the planets. Newton himself had doubted the possibility of a
mathematical solution to the whole, even concluding that periodic divine intervention was
necessary to guarantee the stability of the Solar System. Dispensing with the
hypothesis of divine intervention would be a major activity of Laplace's scientific life.
[17]
It is now generally regarded that Laplace's methods on their own, though vital to the
development of the theory, are not sufficiently precise to demonstrate the stability of the
Solar System,[18] and indeed, the Solar System is understood to be chaotic, although it
happens to be fairly stable.

2.4 Applications of the Laplace Transform:

Application in Circuit Analysis:

 1) Elements

Laplace transform methods are particularly valuable in handling differential equations

involving impulse and step functions. The problem in the Exercise below represents
the dynamics of a point, initially at rest, moving away from the origin along the y-axis
under a constant acceleration of value 10 for 0 t < 1 and an extra impulse
acceleration of size 10 is applied at t = 1. This is like a simple rocket boost, but can
you solve it any other way? We use the Dirac impulse function (t a) which is
nonzero at t = a, but zero elsewhere while having unit total area under it.
The most popular application of the Laplace transform is in electronic engineering,
but it has also been applied to the economic and managerial problems, and most
recently, to Materials Requirement Planning (MRP) Yu and Grubbstrom (2001)

Future recommendations:
The main objective to carry out this project to become faamiliarize with applications
of fourier and laplace transform in real life or in engineering field.fourier series are
commonly used in the field of mechanical vibration whereas the laplace is using in the
field of electrical engineering more.
It is common in engineering education to find the perspective that the Laplace
transform is just a theoretical and mathematical concept (outside of the real world)
without any application in others areas. The transforms are considered as a tool to
make mathematical calculations easier.