TENSILE TEST

Definition: carried out by applying longitudinal or axial load at a specific extension rate to a
standard tensile specimen with known dimensions (gauge length and cross sectional area
perpendicular to the load direction) till failure.

Engineering standards:

(ASTM B913, ASTM D76, ASTM D1876, ASTM D3822, ASTM D412, ASTM
D638, ASTM D828, ASTM E8

BS 5G 178, BS EN 1895

ISO 37, ISO 527, ISO 1924, ISO 13934

MIL-C-39029, MIL-T-7928

1. Principle

Tensile or tension testing is the application of uniaxial force to measure the

performance of a test sample, up to the point of yield or breaking, whether sharp or
gradual. In simple terms, it is pulling something apart in a straight line and seeing
how it changes. Even where performance to ultimate failure is not required,
characteristics of elongation, deformation and relaxation can be accurately recorded,
as in elastomers and springs. The sample under test may be a material sample, or a
manufactured product.

2. Main parameters:
Ultimate tensile strength,
Yield strength
% elongation,
% area of reduction
Young's modulus

3. Related equations

i. Stress and strain relationship

P
=
Ao
 L f L o L
=
Lo Lo

where is the engineering stress

is the engineering strain
P is the external axial tensile load
Ao is the original cross-sectional area of the specimen
Lo is the original length of the specimen
Lf is the final length of the specimen

The unit of the engineering stress is Pascal (Pa) or N/m2 according to the SI Metric
Unit whereas the unit of psi (pound per square inch) can also be used.

ii. Youngs modulus, E

- Engineering stress-strain relationship follows the Hook's Law and the slope of
the curve indicates the Young's modulus (E).

E=

- This is for examples: deflection in structural beams is considered to be crucial

for the design in engineering components or structures such as bridges,
building, ships, etc. The applications of tennis racket and golf club also require
specific values of spring constants or Young's modulus values.

iii. Yield strength

 Py
y=
Ao

- Yield point can be observed directly from the load-extension curve of the BCC
metals such as iron and steel or in polycrystalline titanium and molybdenum,
and especially low carbon steels.
-

iv. Ultimate Tensile strength

Pmax
ts =
Ao

- If the load is continuously applied, the stress-strain curve will reach the
maximum point, which is the ultimate tensile strength (UTS, TS). At this
point, the specimen can withstand the highest stress before necking takes
place. This can be observed by a local reduction in the cross-sectional area of
the specimen generally observed in the centre of the gauge length as
illustrated.

v. Fracture strength
P
fracture = fracture
Ao

vi. Tensile ductility

L
%Elongation= x 100
Lo
 A o A f A
%RA= x 100= x 100
Ao Ao

Where Af is the cross-sectional area of specimen at fracture

- The fracture strain of the specimen can be obtained by drawing a straight line
starting at the fracture point of the stress-strain curve parallel to the slope in
the linear relation. The interception of the parallel line at the x axis indicates
the fracture strain of the specimen being tested.

vii. Work hardening exponent

- material behaviour beyond the elastic region where stress-strain relationship is
no loner linear (uniform plastic deformation) can be shown as a power law
expression as follows
=K n
Where is the true stress
is the true strain
n is the strain-hardening exponent
K is the strength coefficient
- The strain-hardening exponent values, n, of most metals range between
0.1-0.5, which can be estimated from a slope of a log true stress-log true strain
plot up to the maximum load.

4. Methods/procedure
Each standard may contain a variety of test standards suitable for different
materials, dimensions and fabrication history. For instance, ASTM E8: is a
standard test method for tension testing of metallic materials and ASTM B557
is standard test methods of tension testing wrought and cast aluminium and
magnesium alloy products
a) The specimens provided are made of aluminium, steel and brass.
Measure and record specimen dimensions (diameter and gauge length)
in a table provided for the calculation of the engineering stress and
engineering strain. Marking the location of the gauge length along the
 parallel length of each specimen for subsequent observation of necking
and strain measurement.
b) Fit the specimen on to the universal Testing Machine (UTM) and carry
on testing. Record load and extension for the construction of stress-
strain curve of each tested specimen.
c) Calculate Young's modulus, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength,
fracture strain, % elongation and % area of reduction of each specimen
and record on the provided table.
d) Analyze the fracture surfaces of broken specimens using stereoscope,
sketch and describe the results.
5. Result

Details Aluminium Steel Brass

Elongation (%) 12% 15 53

Yield strength (MPa) 276 370 124-310

Ultimate tensile 310 440 469

strength (MPa)
Area of reduction 50
(%)

Young modulus (GPa) 205

IMPACT TEST

There two type of impact test:

a. Charpy impact test
- Standardized high strain-rate test to determine the amount of energy
absorbed by a material during fracture

b. Izod impact test

- ASTM standard method to determine the impact resistance of
material
Standard:

The ASTM International standard for Izod Impact testing of plastics is

ASTM D256

1. Principle

i. Charpy Impact test

Impact test a specially prepared notched specimen is fractured by a single

blow from a pendulum striker and energy required being a measure of
resistance to impact. Involves a pendulum swinging down from a specified
heighth0 to hit the specimen and fracture it. The height h to which the
pendulum rises after striking and breaking the specimen is a measurement
of the energy used in the breaking. If no energy were used, the pendulum
would swing to the same height started from the potential energy mgh0 at the
top of the pendulum swing before and after the collision would be the same.
The greater the energy used in the breaking, the greater the loss of energy
and so the lower the height to which the pendulum rises.

ii. Izod impact test

 In the Izod impact test, the test piece is a cantilever, clamped upright in a
blacksmith's iron, with a V notch at the level of the highest point of the clamp.
The test piece is hit by a striker carried on a pendulum which is permitted to
fall freely from a fixed height, to give a blow of 120 ft lb vitality. Subsequent
to cracking the test piece, the height to which the pendulum rises is recorded
by a slave contact pointer mounted on the dial, from which the absorbed
energy amount is record

2. Main parameters:
Toughness

3. Related equations
Impact toughness:
E = mgh- mgh [Nm or J]

4. Methods/procedure
Charpy impact test
a) Fit the striker with the central vertical edge in the striking
position, and secure it with safety lever.
b) Locate the pointer using the knurled knob to indicate the full
scale reading.
c) Release the pendulum, the pointer will indicate the value of the
lost energy.
d) Arrest the pendulum by using the brake.
e) Repeat step 1 and 2.
f) Place the test piece horizontally across the block with the notch
opposing the striker locating in centrally with the setting page.
g) Repeat step three, the pointer will indicate the impact value
(plus losses) of the test piece.
Izod impact test
a) Fit the striker with the horizontal tip in the striking position.
b) With safety lever in Izod position, raise the pendulum to the
170-J position.
c) Turn the maximum pointer, which is fitted to the chart glass,
anti-clockwise until it contacts the fixed pointer attached to the
pendulum. This is done by the knurled knob in the center of the
chart glass.
d) Release the pendulum by the left hand lever. After the
pendulum has passed the test piece it will carry the maximum
pointer round the chart and leave it indicating the lost energy
due to the friction and air resistance.
e) Repeat steps 1 to 3.
f) Insert the test piece with the notch facing the striker. Set for
correct height with the positioning gage.
g) Repeat step 4. The pointer will indicate the impact value (plus
losses) of the test piece on the 170-J chart.
h) Arrest the pendulum by catching the handle with the right hand.
Pull the pendulum back and raise the stop on the machine base
allowing the top to the rest on the stop.
 i) Release the broken test piece by moving the grip-locking lever
to the right.

5. Result
Charpy impact test
References

Metals Handbook, 9th ed., Mechanical Testing, Vol. 8, 1990.

G. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, SI ed., Mc Graw Hill, 1986.
N. Dowling, Mechanical Behaviour of Materials, Prentice Hall, 1993.
ASTM and TS Standards.
ASM Metals Handbook, 9th ed. Vol. 12.