Taxonomy

The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to

source, but the core of the discipline remains: the
conception, naming, and classification of groups of
organisms. Two other terms are related to taxonomy,
namely "systematic" and "classification"; their exact
relationship to taxonomy also varies from source to
source because the usage of the three terms in biology
originated independently.

I. Theory and practice of grouping individuals into

species, arranging species into larger groups, and
giving those groups names, thus producing a
classification
II. A field of science (and major component
of systematics) that encompasses description,
identification, nomenclature, and classification
III. The science of classification, in biology the
arrangement of organisms into a classification
IV. "The science of classification as applied to living
organisms, including study of means of formation of
species, etc."
V. "The analysis of an organism's characteristics for the
purpose of classification"
VI. "[Systematics] studies phylogeny to provide a
pattern that can be translated into the classification
 and names of the more inclusive field of taxonomy"
(listed as a desirable but unusual definition)
VII. The varied definitions either place taxonomy as a
sub-area of systematics (definition 2), invert that
relationship (definition 6), or appear to consider the
two terms synonymous.

There is some disagreement as to whether biological

nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy
(definitions 1 and 2), or a part of systematics outside
taxonomy. For example, definition 6 is paired with the
following definition of systematics that places
nomenclature outside taxonomy:
Systematics: "The study of the identification,
taxonomy and nomenclature of organisms, including
the classification of living things with regard to their
natural relationships and the study of variation and
the evolution of taxa".

Stages In Taxonomy
Alpha Taxonomy
The term "alpha taxonomy" is primarily used today to
refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and
 naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature,
the term had a different meaning, referring to
morphological taxonomy, and the products of research
through the end of the 19th century.
William Bertram Turrill introduced the term "alpha
taxonomy" in a series of papers published in 1935 and
1937 in which he discussed the philosophy and possible
future directions of the discipline of taxonomy.

Beta Taxonomy

Later authors have used the term in a different

sense, to mean the delimitation of species (not
subspecies or taxa of other ranks), using whatever
investigative techniques are available, and including
sophisticated computational or laboratory
techniques. Thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta
taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than
species.
An understanding of the biological meaning of
variation and of the evolutionary origin of groups of
related species is even more important for the
second stage of taxonomic activity, the sorting of
species into groups of relatives ("taxa") and their
arrangement in a hierarchy of higher categories. This
activity is what the term classification denotes; it is
also referred to as beta taxonomy.
 Gamma taxonomy It is the analysis of intra specific
variations and evolutionary studies that is study of
speciation.

Modern taxonomy
The aim of modern taxonomy is not only to describe
arrange and identify the organism in suitable category
but also to understand these evolutionary history and
mechanism previously approaches were mainly based upon the
observed character without interspecific difference presently
great attention is paid to the subgrouping of the species of the
species like subspecies and population modern systematic uses
data from many sources like fossil record , comparative homology
and comparative sequencing of nucleic acid (DNA AND RNA) . The
old morphological species is now called a biological one which
also include ecological , genetical biochemical and other
character.

Cytotaxonomy
Cytotaxonomy is the branch of biology dealing with
the relationships and classification of organisms
using comparative studies of chromosomes.
The number, structure, and behaviour of
chromosomes is of great value in taxonomy,
 with chromosome number being the most widely
used and quoted character. Chromosome numbers
are usually determined at mitosis and quoted as
the diploid number (2n), unless dealing with
a polyploid series in which case the base number or
number of chromosomes in the genome of the
original haploid is quoted. Another useful taxonomic
character is the position of
the centromere. Meiotic behaviour may show
the heterozygosity of inversions. This may be
constant for a taxon, offering further taxonomic
evidence. Cytological data is regarded as having
more significance than other taxonomic evidence.
It is classification based on information provided by
comparative cytological studies, number of
chromosomes, structure and meiotic behaviour of
chromosomes. It is known that fewer and larger
chromosomes have been formed in many cases by fusion
of smaller chromosomes. Herbaceous plants have larger
chromosomes than those of woody plants. Naturally,
herbaceous plants are more advanced than the woody
plants.
Human beings have 46 chromosomes while apes have
48. A reduction in number of chromosomes have been
achieved through whole arm translocation between two
acrocentric chromosomes. Apparently, humans have
evolved from ape-like ancestors. Pairing of chromosomes
during meiosis helps to bring out relationships between
species.
DNA is the essential material of hereditary if the DNA
composition of on species is known there evolutionary
history become quide apperent . It is believe that amount
of DNA per chromosome set is constant for each species ,
the discovery of hybridization between single
stranderd DNA component from different origin can occur
(schildkrant et.al) provide a physico chemical means for
accessing the genetic relatedness among species
(marmus et.al,1963) . In such study the DNA is extracted
from an organism and made to hybridize in vitro with the
cell line of other organism . These DNA match technique
are great important insolving complex taxonomic
problem.(Hoyer et al.1964) the technique of DNA DNA
hybridization provide a way of compairing the total
genome of two species these procedure can be used to
found evolutionary relationship between two species .The
technique can also be used to compare the genome of
mixed population of organism.
Chromosome painting is another technique which allow
the coparision of the entire genome it is done by
attracting florscent label to the DNA of individual
chromosome of one species and then exposing it to the
chromosome of other species .on taking up of the
florscent label the region of gene homology are
are hybridized and the painted chromosome are examine
under microscope . These method shows that this method
shows the human having six chromosome six having
hundred of gene in the major histocompactibility complex
have homologous gene in the chromosome five of
chimpanzee.

Chemotaxonomy
The system of classification is based on characteristics of
various chemical constituents of organisms like amino
acids, proteins, DNA sequences, alkaloids, crystals,
betacyanins, etc. Chemical constituents of plants are
generally specific and stable.
They do not change easily. Ancient medical men based
their identification of plants on fragrance, taste and other
chemical characteristics. Crystals of calcium oxalate like
raphides are restricted to 35 families. Similarly, certain
alkaloids are restricted to a few related families, e.g.,
benzylisoquinoline alkaloid in Papaveraceae,
Berberidaceae and Ranunculaceae.
It is well known fact that metabolism of an organism is
complex change and the morphology behaviour and
ecology of an organism must depend on its metabolism.
The animal contains large number of complex compound
like hormones, enzymes and other proteins with peptides,
nucleic acid, amino acid and sugar.
The biochemical taxonomic technique is less subjected to
direct environmental influence thus are more likely reflect
genetic divergence.
The major work of a biochemical taxonomist comes with
the comparison and contracting of compound the same
class and performing the same function in different
animal species.
There are many good examples where biochemical
taxonomist character has been found extremely useful in
solving the taxonomist problem.
Example:- Chaudhary and Chatterjee 1969 demonstrated
the phylogenetic affinities of certain enzyme genera of
Australian Cockroaches after analyzing their defense
secretion.

Kind Of Chemical Approaches

Immunological Approach : These approach is based on

the precipitation reaction prefered for the study of soluble
antigen such as these contained in animal sera or tissue
extract of animal .
Some of the important achievement made by these
studies in taxonomy have been discussed in the
proceeding of Kansas symposium ( Hawkers 1968) and in
biochemical and immunological taxonomy of animal
weight (1978).
Chromatography Approach: It is a technique by which
constituent of complex mixture can be separated and
identify .
Paper chromatography has been widely used for
comparing the chemical composition of closely related
species.
Especially with regard to amino acid and peptides
through ninhydrin treatment.either piece of tissue on
small , whole animal squased directly on the filter paper
or extracts are prepared from which the soluble protein
precipitate and the resultant solution contain only amino
acid.
Electrophoresis : the technique was first used by
Tiselius(1937) to distinguish multiple fraction of serum
proteins migrating throurh solution under the influence of
electric current.
The electrophoretic investigation of insulin example
horses and sheep, have shown that they are different the
ACTH of pig in different from oxygen.such biochemical
studies are of great help in solving the phylogenetic
problem.
Sibley(1960) analysed the egg white protein of 359
species of non passerine bird by paper electrophoresis.
Wright(1974) seprated some species of genus bulinus
through electrophoresis analyse of egg protein.
Manwell and baker (1963) discovered a sibling of sea
cucumber using the technique other important workers in
the field are Handler (1964) and Bryson and Vogel (1965)
Infrared Spectrophotometry:-
It is based upon the principal of absorption of infrared
light by the biological material which depend upon their
chemical composition. This approach is mainly applied to
the micro organism(Randall et all, 1951) Steven Son and
Bolduan 1952 , Norris 1959 micks and Benedict 1953 for
the first time applied this technique for the identification
of mosquitoes.

Histochemical Studies:-
The histochemical approaches involves distinctive micro-
technique and specific staining reactions. The technique
have been emplysed in the qualitative and Quantitative
analysis of protein free amino acid, enzyme,
carbohydrate, lipid nucleic acid including metal ions.
Various dyes and stain are used for raining the use of
cryostate microtome of electron microscope study have
made such studies more meaningful. The technique when
combine with other characteristics can also be great help
including taxonomic relationship among various animal
groups.

Molecular Taxonomy
The classification of organisms on the basis of the
distribution and composition of chemical substances in
them. Molecular techniques in the field of biology have
helped to establish genetic relationship between the
members of different taxonomic categories. Molecular
Taxonomy Molecular (DNA, RNA, proteins)
Since protein are the expression of gene it is good to
compare the actual genes sequences this process is
useful in many ways example DNA is much easier to
sequence then protein and gene contain site which a
much free to change during evolution then protein
sequence DNA sequencing is a gift to taxonomist, DNA
bar coding is a taxonomic method method in which a
short genetic marker is used in an organism DNA to
identify belonging to a particular species it is based on
simplest concept of mitochondrial gene of DNA (mt DNA)
the mtDNA has fast mutation rate thus showing
significant variation in mitochondrial DNA sequence
between species.A 658-bp region of the mitochondrial
cytochrome oxidase subunit (coi0 gene was proposed as
a potential barcode this is now used as new technology
for cataloging included atleast six lekh twenty thousand
specimen from over 58,000 animal species it is believed
that this application has wide scientific utility.

Karyological Studies

The chromosome cytology has been manipulated by the

taxonomist the principle of chromosomal identification
were accepted and the chromosome theory of heredity
begain established.
The karyotype characterized by the chromosome number
size and morphology is definit and constant character of
each species these study is called as chromosomal
taxonomy which can be quite useful in determining the
phylogenetic relationship of the taxa as well as
insagregation of sibling there are now more reliable
karyotype for one thousand species of mammal several
hundred species of fishes, amphibian, reptiles and birds.
Example Patterson and stones 1952 differentiate 16
species of genus drosophilla on the basis of number and
shape of chromosome.
Kiarta(1968) demonstrate the phylogenetic relationship
among various family of the order trichophora on the
basis of number of chromosome. Grewall 1982 seprated
some important fruit fly species on the basis of shape and
number of chromosome.

Molecular Technique Employ In Taxonomic

Studies

The advent of molecular biology in 1980s contribute

a set of powerful tools that help the biologist to
detect even the smallest variation within the
species . In molecular taxonomy one can resarch
both DNA and RNA the main technique that have
been used . In the systematic comprises of
restriction maps ,construction and restriction analyse
 through RAPD,RFLP,AFLP(amplified fragment length
polymorphism)DNA-DNA hybridization and
sequencing of DNA.
Indirect analysis of the genome can be performed
through ELISA , electrophoretic mobality of total
protein extract ribosomal protein pattern obtained by
2 dimensional PAGE (polyacralamide gel
electrophorosis) and HLPC( high profil liquid
chromatography).

PFGE ( pulse field electrophoresis ) PCR (polymerase

chain reaction)method are employed to analyse
characterized animal and plant studies PFGE the
restriction enzyme are used to digest the DNA
molecule to generate a specific pattern.

In PCR identification a single gene segment of DNA is

amplified such DNA segment can be a particular
protein coding gene or a portion of it .the amplified
fragment is then sequence and compared to that of
sequences in the Data bases.
The DNA DNA hybridization is a experiment in which
radio labeled sampled reanalyzed with an able DNA
from different sources. The degree of reassociation
measured number of the same species show highest
hybridization then the distant one that show less
percentage of hybridization.