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Hamid Bahrami
l Multipath propagation
l Multiple signal paths
l Intersymbol interference
l Speed of the mobile
l Doppler shift
l Random frequency modulation
l Speed of surrounding objects
l Surrounding objects move at a greater rate than the MS
l The transmission bandwidth of the signal
l Comparing to the bandwidth of the multipath channel
Doppler Shift
l Named after Chris Doppler, an Australian scientist
l The apparent change in frequency and wavelength of a
due to the moving receiver or the waving transmitter
A mobile moving at a constant velocity v
Along a path between X and Y with the distance d
Signals received from a remote source S
The source is very far away, same !
1 v
fd = = cos
2 t
y(d , t ) = x( )h(d , t )d
t
For a causal system,
d=vt
y (vt , t ) = x( )h(vt , t )d
t
Impulse Response Model
l The mobile channel can be modeled as a linear time
varying channel, changing with time and distance
t1 (t1 )
1 2 3 4 N 2 N 1 (t o )
delay bin = i + 1 i
Impulse Response Model
l Discrete model (cont.)
l The model may be used to analyze transmitted RF
signals having bandwidths less than 2/
l Excess delay i: the relative delay of the ith multipath
component as compared to the first arriving component
l Maximum excess delay of the channel: N
Impulse Response Model
l Discrete model (cont.)
l If the channel impulse response is assumed to be time
invariant or at least wide sense stationary
N 1
hb ( ) = ai exp[ j i ] ( i )
i =0
P( ) = k hb (t , )
2
Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels
k 0
Time Dispersion Parameter
l The mean excess delay The rms delay spread
ak k P( ) ()
2 2
k k = 2
= k
= k
ak
2
P( ) k ak k
2 2
P( k ) k
2
k k
2 = k
= k
ak
2
P( )
k
k
k
0 dB 0 dB
0 1 us
0.1
Ts
Coherence Bandwidth
l A defined relation derived from the rms delay spread
l A statistical measure of the range of frequencies over
which the channel can be considered flat
l The range of frequencies over which two frequency
components have a strong potential for amplitude
correlation
1 As the bandwidth over which the frequency
Bc
50 correlation function is above 0.9
Pr(!)
0 dB
-10 dB
-20 dB
0 1 2 5 !(us)
Types of Small-Scale Fading
l Depending on the relation between the signal
parameters: bandwidth, symbol period
l Depending on the relation of the channel
parameters: delay spread, Doppler spread
l Types
l Time dispersion fading
l Frequency selective fading
l Frequency dispersion fading
l Time selective fading
Multipath Time Delay Spread
l Flat fading
l A constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth
l A bandwidth is greater than the BW of the transmitted signal
l Most common type
l The spectral characteristics of the transmitted signal are preserved at
the receiver, even though the strength of the received signal changes
with time
l Narrowband channels or amplitude varying channels
Bs << Bc
Ts >> , 10
Multipath Time Delay Spread
l Frequency selective fading
l A constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth
l A bandwidth is smaller than the BW of the transmitted signal
l More difficult to model
l The received signal includes multiple versions of the transmitter
waveform which are faded and delayed
l Wideband Channel or Intersymbol Interference (ISI)
Bs > Bc
Ts < 10
Flat Fading
Frequency Selective Fading
Due to Doppler Shift
l Fast fading
l The channel impulse response changes rapidly within the
symbol duration
l Resulting in frequency dispersion signal distortion
l Only dealing with the rate of the change of the channel due to
the motion. It does not imply flat/frequency selective fading
l In practice, fast fading only occurs for very low data rates
Ts > Tc
Bs < BD
Due to Doppler Shift
l Slow fading
l The channel impulse response changes slower than the
transmitted baseband signal
l The channel may be assumed to be static over one or several
reciprocal bandwidth intervals the Doppler spread of the
channel is much less than the bandwidth of the baseband
Ts << Tc
Bs >> BD
Types of Small-scale Fading
Based on mulitpath time delay spread
Transmitting symbol
Symbol Period of
Flat Slow Fading Flat Fast Fading
BS
Transmitted Baseband
Frequency Selective Frequency Selective
Signal Bandwidth
Fast Fading Slow Fading
BC
Bd BS
Transmitted Baseband Signal Bandwdith
Practice: page 253, 5.30
l For each of the three scenarios below, decide if the
received signal is best described as undergoing fast
fading, frequency selective fading or flat fading.
l A binary modulation has a data rate of 500 kbps, fc=1 GHz and a
typical urban radio channel is used to provide communications to
cars moving on a highway.
l A binary modulation has a data rate of 5 kbps, fc=1GHz and a
typical urban radio channel is used to provide communications to
cars moving on a highway.
l A binary modulation has data rate of 10bps, fc=1GHz and a
typical urban radio channel is used to provide communications to
cars moving on a highway.
Rayleigh Distribution
l To describe the statistical time varying nature of
l The received envelope of a flat fading signal
l The envelope of an individual multipath component
l The envelope of the sum of two quadrature Gaussian
noise signals
l Probability Density Function (PDF)
r r2
2 exp 2 0 r
P ( r ) = 2
0 0>r
!: the rms value of the received voltage signal before envelope detection 2
!2: the time average power of the received signal before envelope detection, variance
Rayleigh Distribution
l Cumulative Density Function (CDF): the probability of the
received signal does not exceed a specified value R
R2
P( R) = Pr (r R ) =
R
P(r )dr = 1 exp 2
0
2
l The mean value and variance of the Rayleigh distribution
rmean = E[r ] = rP(r )dr = = 1.2533
0 2
= E[r ] E [r ] = r 2 P(r )dr
2
r
2 2
= 0.4292 2
0 2
l The median value of r
1 rmedian
= P(r )dr rmedian = 1.177
2 0
Rayleigh Distribution
PDF CDF
Rayleigh Distribution
l Without LOS - there are many objects in the
environment that scatter the radio signal before it
arrives at the receiver
l The urban environment
l Build-up city center
l Small-scale fading effect
Ricean (Rice) Distribution
l The small-scale fading envelope distribution
l When there is a dominant stationary (nonfading) signal
component present (LOS)
l As the dominant signal becomes weaker Rayleigh
r r 2 + A2 Ar
2 exp I 0 2 0 r , A 0
P ( r ) = 2
2
0 o<r
= E [ x2 ]; m=
Var [ x ] 2
F 2 ( x ) = P [ 2 x ]
= 0 f 2 ( y ) dy
x
m
1 m x m 1 m
= 0 y exp y dy
(m)
1 m
= G m, x G ( a,x ) = ( a ) ( a,x ) = 0 y a1 e y dy
x
(m)
Practice: page 251, 5.19
l Show that the magnitude (envelope) of the sum of
two independent identically distributed complex
(quadrature) Gaussian sources is Rayleigh
distributed. Assume that the Gaussian sources are
zero mean and have unit variance.
Practical Models
l Clark model
l Saleh and Valenzuela indoor statistical model
Pr [r R ] =
1
T i
i Pr [r R ] = 1 exp( 2
)
i : the duration of the fade
T : the observation interval of the fading signal
2
e 1
=
f m 2
Practice: page 224, ex. 5.7
l For a Rayleigh fading signal, compute the positive-going
level crossing rate for =1, when the maximum Doppler
frequency is 20 Hz. What is the maximum velocity of the
mobile for this Doppler frequency if the carrier frequency
is 900 MHz?
Practice: page 225, ex. 5.8
l Find the average fade duration for threshold levels
=0.01, 0.1 and 1, when the Doppler frequency is 200 Hz.
l Find the average fade duration for a threshold levels of
=0.707 when the Doppler frequency is 20 Hz. For a
binary digital modulation with bit duration of 50 bps, is
the Rayleigh fading slow or fast? What is the average
number of bit errors per second for the given data rate.
Assume that a bit error occurs whenever any portion of a
bit encounters a fade for which <0.1.
The average duration of a signal fade helps determine the most likely number of
signal bits that may be lost during a fade.
Summary: Small Scale Fading
l Parameters of mobile multipath channels
l Time dispersion parameters and coherence bandwidth
l Doppler spread and coherence time
a P( ) 1 v
2
1 fd = = cos
k k k k
= k
= k
Bc
a k
2
P( )k
k 50 2 t
k
= 2
() 2
1 Tc
1
Tc
9
Bc fm 16f m
a P( ) 5
2 2 2
k k k k
2 = k
= k
9 0.423
a k
2
P( )
k
k Tc =
16f m2
=
fm
k
Summary: Small Scale Fading
l Types of small-scale fading
l Flat fading vs. frequency selective fading
l Fast fading vs. slow fading