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MilitaryIntelligenceService
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UnderashroudofsecrecyandwiththebackingoftheUnitedStatesWarDepartment,theMilitaryIntelligenceService(MIS)trainedandgraduatednearly6,000linguiststhe
majorityofwhomwereJapaneseAmericans.Duetothesecurityclassifiednatureoftheiractivities,Nisei(/wiki/Nisei)membersoftheMISneverreceivedasmuchpublicityastheir
counterpartsinthe442ndRegimentalCombatTeam(/wiki/442nd_Regimental_Combat_Team)(RTC)and100thInfantryBattalion(/wiki/100th_Infantry_Battalion).Theyultimately
playedadecisiveroleinthevictoryofAmericanforcesoverJapaninthePacific.TheywereamongthefirstsoldierstoarriveinJapanafteritssurrender,andtheybecamesomeofthe
firstAmericanobserverstowitnessthedestructiveeffectsoftheatomicbombsthathadbeendroppedonHiroshimaandNagasaki.TheNiseilaterservedinimportantpositionsinthe
occupationofJapanandmorethanseventyMISlinguistsprovidedtranslationandinterpreterservicesforthewarcrimestrialsheldinJapan,China,thePhilippines,FrenchIndochina,
andtheEastIndies.AsJapaneseAmericans,theselinguiststurnedouttobeinstrumentalinbridgingculturalandlinguisticdifferencesandhelpedtoestablishthefoundationsfor
postwarrelationsbetweenJapanandtheUnitedStates.[1]

Contents
1RoleoftheMISinWorldWarII
2TheOccupationofJapan
3ForMoreInformation
4Footnotes

RoleoftheMISinWorldWarII
DuringWorldWarII,MISgraduatestookonactiveserviceineverycombattheaterandengagedineverymajorbattlelaunchedagainstJapanesemilitaryforces.AccordingtoMajor
GeneralCharlesWilloughby,G2IntelligenceChiefforGeneralDouglasMacArthur,theseNisei"shortenedthePacificwarbytwoyears." [2]TheyservedwiththeUnitedStatesArmy,
Navy,MarineCorps,andAirForceaswellaswithBritish,Australian,NewZealand,Canadian,Chinese,andIndiancombatunitsfightingtheJapanese.Trainedasinterrogators,
interpreters,translators,radioannouncers,andpropagandawritersattheMilitaryIntelligenceServiceLanguageSchool(/wiki/Military_Intelligence_Service_Language_School)atthe
PresidioinSanFrancisco,andatCampSavageandFortSnellinginMinnesota,MISgraduatescametobeconsideredthe"eyesandears"ofAmericanandAlliedForcesinthewar
againstJapan.BySeptember1945,theyhadtranslated18,000capturedenemydocuments,printed16,000propagandaleaflets,andinterrogatedmorethan10,000Japanese
prisonersofwar.[3]Thesemenfacedsomeofthemostdangeroussituationsduringthewar,oftenbeingplacedonthefrontlinesofbattleagainsttheJapanesewhilesimultaneously
tryingtoavoid"friendlyfire"fromAmericansoldierswhocouldnotdistinguishthemfromenemyJapanese.AccordingtoJohnAiso(/wiki/John_Aiso),anMISveteran,"Wemayhave
beentheonlysoldiersinhistorytohavebodyguardstoprotectusfromourownforcesincombatzonessowewouldnotbemistakenfortheenemy." [4]MorethanoneMISsoldier
becameacasualtyfrom"friendlyfire,"andmanyMISpersonnelhadtoensurethatCaucasiansoldierswhocouldvouchfortheirloyaltyaccompaniedthemintobattle.

Besidestheconstantdangerof"friendlyfire,"theNiseiwerewellawarethatimperialforcesconsideredthemtobeJapanesenationals,andcapturemeantcertainexecutionas
traitors.TheiridentitiesdoubledthedangerstheyfacedinbattlefrombothJapaneseandAmericansoldiers,bothofwhomperceivedthemastheenemy.UnliketheNavajoCode
TalkersalsoutilizedbytheAmericanmilitary,theselinguistswhooperatedinthePacificwereconfrontedbytheveryrealpossibilityofencounteringandfightingagainstfriends,
acquaintances,andfamilymembers.ManyofthemhadclosepersonaltiestoJapanorhadattendedschoolinJapan.Throughoutthewar,manyhadunexpectedmeetingsand
spontaneousreunionswithformerteachers,classmates,andfamilymembers,emphasizingthecomplicatedandpersonalnatureofwarforthemenoftheMIS,particularlyascombat
cameclosertoJapan.TakejiroHiga,forexample,wonderedwhatwouldhappenif"ImeetsomebodyIknow,ormyrelative,myclassmate"inbattleorintheprisonerofwar(POW)
camps.[5]ThiswasHiga'sbiggestconcernonethatweighedheavilyonhismindsincecontactbetweensiblingsorformerclassmatesfightingonopposingsidestookplacefairly
regularly.DuringtheBattleofOkinawa,Higaunexpectedlyencounteredtwoofhischildhoodfriendsaswellashisseventhandeighthgradeteacher,ShunsoNakamura,whowas
"dumbstruck,neverdreaminghewouldseeoneofhisformerstudentswiththeinvadingforces." [6]

Thewartookonaverypersonalelementasthesesoldiersalsoencounteredcivilianpopulationswithfamiliarfacesandfamilyties.Oneofthemostdangerousyetvaluableservicesthe
menoftheMISprovidedinOkinawawastopersuadepeoplewhowerehidinginthenumerousdeepcavesontheislandtosurrender.Iftheydidnot,theAmericanswoulddynamite
thecavestopreventJapanesesoldiersfromusingthemashideouts.DuringtheBattleofOkinawa,themenofOkinawandescent,suchasSeiyuHigashi,JiroArakaki,andShiney
Gima,wouldoftenaskforpermissiontosearchfortheirparentsorrelativesinthemountainsorciviliancompounds.

ThroughoutthewartheselinguistswereoftenpresentatthemostcriticalencountersbothmilitaryanddiplomaticbetweenJapaneseandAmericanforces.MISpersonnelhadthe
greatestimpactinthePacificTheaterwheretheyparticipatedineverymajorbattleandcampaignagainstJapan.MISsoldiersservedasundercoveragentsinthePhilippines,fought
behindenemylineswithMerrillsMaraudersinBurma,experiencedjunglewarfareinNewGuinea,landedwiththeMarinesonthebeachesofIwoJima,andcrawledintothecavesof
Saipantopersuadesuicidalenemyforcestosurrender.Throughouttheirexperiences,theyconfrontedtheirdualidentityasAmericancitizensofJapaneseethnicity,fightingtoprove
theirloyaltyagainstthecountryoftheirparents.Numeroussoldiershadfamilymemberswithintheincarcerationcamps,whileothersknewofrelativesstillresidinginJapan.When
theUnitedStatesdroppedatomicbombsonHiroshimaonAugust6andonNagasakionAugust9,1945,allbutendingthewar,manyNiseiexperiencedmixedemotions,asmanyhad
familymembersstilllivinginthesetwoJapanesecities.

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TheOccupationofJapan
AccordingtoNiseiveteranHideoUto,the"tremendoustaskofoccupyingtheJapanesehomeland"felluponlinguistsskilledincommunicatinginJapanese,includingsecondgeneration
JapaneseAmericanswhowereputtoworkinallphasesoftheoccupationprogramandinallpartsofJapan.[7]DuringtheoccupationofJapan,Niseiinterpretersworkedcloselywith
boththeMarineofficersinchargeofrestoringNagasakiandNagasakiCityandprefecturalofficials.Inadditiontoissuesrelatedtopublicwelfareandtherebuildingofcities,theywere
alsoresponsibleforthedemobilizationofJapanesemilitarypersonnelfromvariousoverseaspostsinSiberia.

AnotherimportantconcernforAmericanforceswasthearrestandprosecutionofJapan'smilitaryleadersataskwhichalsoinvolvedNiseipersonnel.ManyNiseiparticipatedinthe
prosecutionoftheindividualshousedinSugamoPrisonduringthewartrialsthatbeganinDecember1945andlasteduntil1948.[8]Morethanseventylinguists,mostofthem
membersoftheMIS,providedtranslationservicesforthewarcrimestribunalsandservedastheinterpretersforthetrialsheldinJapan,China,thePhilippines,FrenchIndochina,and
theEastIndies.InadditiontoworkingdirectlywithJapaneseandJapaneseofficials,manyNiseiofficerswereassignedaslanguageaidesandculturalliaisonstokeyGeneral
Headquarters(GHQ)officers.

AdministrativemattersalsoconstitutedanimportantconcernforAmericanforcesasanewJapaneseconstitutionneededtobewritten.MISgraduateGeorgeKoshibecameintimately
involvedinthishistoricundertaking,whichforeverrenouncedwarasa"sovereignrightofthenation." [9]ThenewconstitutionalsoforbadetheexistenceofaJapanesemilitary.To
maintaininternalsecurity,theconstitutionprovidedforanationalPoliceReserveforce,whichcameaboutwiththeassistanceofMISpersonnelsuchasRaymondAka.Further,
membersoftheMIS,includingShiroTokunoandShigeharaTakahashi,participatedintheimplementationofthecompulsoryagrarianlandlawthroughoutJapaninOctober1946.This
revolutionarypieceoflegislationremandednearlysixmillionacresoffarmlandtoindividualfarmersandeliminatedtheprewarruraldominationbylargelandowners.

DuringthisperiodofupheavalandreorganizationinJapan,twoorganizationsstaffedbyMISpersonnelprovedcriticaltomaintainingorder.Thefirst,theCivilCensorshipDetachment
(CCD),extractedcivilintelligenceinformationfromvariousmassmediasourcesinJapantomonitorandensuretheorderlyimplementationofoccupationpoliciesoriginatingfrom
MacArthur'sheadquartersinTokyo.TheCCDwasresponsibleforcensoringallformsofJapanesecommunication.TheotherimportantorganizationintheoccupationwastheCounter
IntelligenceCorps,orCIC,whichhadofficesinallmajorJapanesecities.SeveralhundredNiseispecialagentsandinvestigatorsworkedthroughoutJapantodetectandprevent
subversiveactivities.
Accordingtothedominantliterature,theeffortsmadebyNiseioftheMISduringtheoccupationofJapancontributedtotherebuildingofJapanthroughthedevelopmentofpersonal
relationshipsbetweenJapaneseandAmericans.Asmembersofbothcultures,theyexploitedtheirdualidentitytobridgeculturaldifferencesandcreateunderstandingand
reconciliationbetweenthetwonations.ManyscholarsaswellasveteransthemselveshavearguedthattheirloyaltyarguablybelongedtobothJapanandtheUnitedStates:while
theyworkedforanAmericanmilitaryvictoryandwereactiveduringtheoccupationofJapan,theyalsopossessedadeepandabidinginterestinthewelfareoftheJapanesepeople
duringtherebuildingofJapan.OtherscholarslikeEiichiroAzumaofferamorecriticalperspectiveoftheactionsoftheMISduringtheoccupationofJapanasNiseisoldierswerealso
usedasdirectenforcersofUnitedStatesmilitarydominationagainstJapanesenationals.Thus,toprotecttheirreputationofuncompromisedloyalty,someNiseisoldiersalsobehaved
inamost"undemocratic"mannertoJapanesecitizensastheyservedas"middlemen"betweenoccupyingforcesandthegeneralpopulation.[10]

Bothperspectives,however,recognizethechallengesfacingNiseisoldiersoftheMISwhoheldAmericancitizenshipyetpossessedethnicandculturaltiestoJapan.As"cultural
brokers"betweenJapanandAmerica,theirdualisticidentitiesposedachallengebothintheUnitedStatesandJapanastheywereidentifiedasculturalliaisonsbutwereneverreally
embracedbybothsides.ThenebulouspositionoccupiedbymembersoftheMISenabledthesesoldierstoengageinawidevarietyofactivitiesandbehaviorsthatwerebothcelebrated
andcriticizedbyAmericanandJapaneseofficialsduringandafterthewar.Assuch,anuancedperspectiveoftheroleoftheMISisnecessarytounderstandthediversityoftheir
experiencesandactionsparticularlyduringtheoccupationofJapan.

AuthoredbyKelliY.Nakamura(/wiki/Kelli_Y._Nakamura),Kapi'olaniCommunityCollege
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ForMoreInformation
AmericansofJapaneseAncestryandTheirContributionstotheSecondWorldWar.UniversityofHawai'iatMnoaHamiltonLibrary(n.p.,n.d.,)microfilm,1972.

Azuma,Eiichiro."BrokeringRace,Culture,andCitizenship:JapaneseAmericansinOccupiedJapanandPostwarNationalInclusion."TheJournalofAmericanEastAsianRelations16:3
(fall2009):183211.

GoforBrokeNationalEducationCenter."History:MilitaryIntelligenceService(MIS)."http://www.goforbroke.org/history/history_historical_veterans_mis.asp
(http://www.goforbroke.org/history/history_historical_veterans_mis.asp).

Harrington,JosephD.YankeeSamurai:TheSecretRoleofNiseiinAmerica'sPacificVictory.Detroit,Michigan:PettigrewEnterprises,1979.

Hellinger,Charles."TheSecretsComeOutforNiseiSoldiers:JapaneseAmericanRoleinMilitaryIntelligenceServiceFinallyTold."TheLosAngelesTimes,July20,1982,PartV,1.

Ichinokuchi,TadandDanielAiso,eds.JohnAisoandtheM.I.S.:JapaneseAmericanSoldiersintheMilitaryIntelligenceService,WorldWarII.LosAngeles:TheClub,1988.

JapaneseAmericanVeteransAssociation."MilitaryIntelligenceService."http://www.javadc.org/index3.htm(http://www.javadc.org/index3.htm).

Kikuchi,Yuki.ThePacificWaroftheNiseiinHawai'i.TranslatedbyYokoHayashiHoriuchi.PearlCity,Hawai'i:n.p.,1999.

MilitaryIntelligenceServiceVeteransClubofHawai'i.SecretValor:M.I.S.Personnel,WorldWarII,PacificTheater,PrePearlHarbortoSept.8,1951:50thAnniversaryReunion,July
810,1993MilitaryIntelligenceServiceVeteransClubofHawai'i.Honolulu:MilitaryIntelligenceServiceVeteransofHawai'i,1993.

Nakasone,EdwinM.TheNiseiSoldier:HistoricalEssaysonWorldWarIIandtheKoreanWar.WhiteBearLake,MN:JPress,1999.

NationalJapaneseAmericanHistoricalSociety.http://www.njahs.org/(http://www.njahs.org/).

ThePacificWarandPeace:AmericansofJapaneseAncestryinMilitaryIntelligenceService1941to1952.SanFrancisco:MilitaryIntelligenceServiceAssociationofNorthernCalifornia
andtheNationalJapaneseAmericanHistoricalSociety,1991.

Takemae,Eiji.TheAlliedOccupationofJapan.NewYork:TheContinuumInternationalPublishingGroupInc.,2002.

Tamura,Linda.NiseiSoldiersBreakTheirSilence:ComingHometoHoodRiver.Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,2012.

ATraditionofHonor.DVD.ProducedbyCraigYahataandDavidYoneshige.GoForBrokeEducationalFoundationinAssociationwithHanashiOralHistoryProgram,2003.

Tsai,Michael."SoheiYamate:Hawai'iNiseiRecallsTojo'sImprisonmentatSugamoPrison."TheHawai'iHerald14,14(1993):A28.

Uto,Hideo."TheNiseiinJapan:RelationshipsBetweenNiseiandJapanese."SocialProcessinHawai'iXII(August1948):43.

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Footnotes
1.ResearchforthisarticlewassupportedbyagrantfromtheHawaiiCouncilfortheHumanities(http://hihumanities.org).
2.TadIchinokuchiandDanielAiso,eds.,JohnAisoandtheM.I.S.:JapaneseAmericanSoldiersintheMilitaryIntelligenceService,WorldWarII(LosAngeles:TheClub,1988),177.
3.EijiTakemae,TheAlliedOccupationofJapan(NewYork:TheContinuumInternationalPublishingGroupInc.,2002),21.
4.Aiso,177.
5.ATraditionofHonor,prod.CraigYahataandDavidYoneshige(GoForBrokeEducationalFoundationinAssociationwithHanashiOralHistoryProgram,DVD,2003).
6.MilitaryIntelligenceServiceVeteransClubofHawai'i,SecretValor:M.I.S.Personnel,WorldWarII,PacificTheater,PrePearlHarbortoSept.8,1951:50thAnniversaryReunion,
July810,1993MilitaryIntelligenceServiceVeteransClubofHawai'i(Honolulu:MilitaryIntelligenceServiceVeteransofHawai'i,1993),101.
7.HideoUto,"TheNiseiinJapan:RelationshipsBetweenNiseiandJapanese,"SocialProcessinHawai'iXII(August1948):43.
8.MichaelTsai,"SoheiYamate:Hawai'iNiseiRecallsTojo'sImprisonmentatSugamoPrison,"TheHawai'iHerald14,14(1993):A28.
9.KoshialsoservedasdefensecounselduringthewarcrimesinvestigationsandtrialsheldfromDecember1945tomid1948inTokyoandYokohama.ThePacificWarandPeace:
AmericansofJapaneseAncestryinMilitaryIntelligenceService1941to1952(SanFrancisco:MilitaryIntelligenceServiceAssociationofNorthernCaliforniaandtheNational
JapaneseAmericanHistoricalSociety,1991),72.
10.EiichiroAzuma,"BrokeringRace,Culture,andCitizenship:JapaneseAmericansinOccupiedJapanandPostwarNationalInclusion,"TheJournalofAmericanEastAsianRelations,
16:3(fall2009):187.

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(/sources/endenshopdi114001601/)
Pfc.KaichiFukushima,aNiseimimeograph
 operatorintheproductionsection,General
Headquarters,AlliedForcesinthePacific,Tokyo,
Japan,stencilsbothJapanesecharactersand
Englishtranslationsoutbythetypingsubsection,
Sept.3,1946.CourtesyoftheSeattleNisei
VeteransCommitteeandtheU.S.ArmyMoreinfo
(/sources/endenshopdi114001601/)

(/sources/endenshopdi114001671/)
Tec3BenOshita(left)providinginterpretation
betweenthewitnessfortheInternationalMilitary
TribunalfortheFarEastandastaffattorney.
Sept.3,1946,Tokyo,Japan.Courtesyofthe
SeattleNiseiVeteransCommitteeandtheU.S.
ArmyMoreinfo(/sources/endenshopdi114
001671/)

(/sources/endenshovhodon_20100051/)
DonOkubotalksabouttheinterrogationstrategies
heemployedasaJapaneseAmericanintheMIS.
CourtesyofDenshoandgaylek.yamada,
excerptedfromDonOkuboInterview,Segment5
(2001)Moreinfo(/sources/endenshovh
odon_20100051/)

(/sources/endenshovhffrancis0100171/)
FrancisMasFukuharatalksabouttheroleofthe
KibeiintheMilitaryIntelligenceService.Courtesy
ofDensho,excerptedfromFrancisMasFukuhara
Interview,Segment17(1997)Moreinfo
(/sources/endenshovhffrancis0100171/)

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