International Style (architecture)

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Cover of "The International Style" (1932) by Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson

The International Style is the name of a major architectural style that is said to have emerged in the 1920s
and 1930s, the formative decades of modern architecture, as first defined by Americans Henry-Russell
Hitchcock and Philip Johnson in 1932, with an emphasis more on architectural style, form and aesthetics
than the social aspects of the modern movement as emphasised in Europe. The term "International Style"
first came into use via a 1932 exhibition curated by Hitchcock and Johnson, Modern Architecture:
International Exhibition, which declared and labelled the architecture of the early 20th century as the
International Style. The most common characteristics of International Style buildings are said to be: i.
rectilinear forms; ii. light, taut plane surfaces that have been completely stripped of applied ornamentation
and decoration; iii. open interior spaces; iv. a visually weightless quality engendered by the use of cantilever
construction. Glass and steel, in combination with usually less visible reinforced concrete, are the
characteristic materials of the construction.[1]

With the surge in the growth in cities in the first half of the twentieth century, particularly after World War II,
the International Style provided an easily achievable style option for vast-scale urban development projects,
"cities within cities", intended to maximise the amount of floor space for a given site, while attempting to
convince local planners, politicians and the general public that the development would bring much-needed
wealth to the city while, on the other hand, rejecting the proposal would lead to the development being
taken to a different, competing city.[2]

Contents

[hide]

1 Etymology

2 1932 MOMA exhibition

3 Buildings featured in the 1932 MOMA exhibition

4 Regions

o 4.1 Europe

o 4.2 North America

o 4.3 Israel
 o 4.4 Other countries

5 Criticism of International Style

6 Other major examples of International Style architecture

7 Architects

8 See also

9 Further reading

10 References

Etymology[edit]

In Europe the modern movement in architecture had been called Functionalism or Neue Sachlichkeit (New
Objectivity), L'Esprit Nouveau, or simply Modernism and was very much concerned with the coming
together of a new architectural form and social reform, creating a more open and transparent society.[3] The
English term International Style originated from an exhibition in 1932 titled Modern Architecture:
International Exhibition, curated by American architectural historian and critic Henry-Russell Hitchcock and
recently graduated Harvard University philosophy student (and later self-taught architect) Philip
Johnson. [4] Commissioned in 1931 by the founding director of the Museum of Modern Art, Alfred H. Barr Jr,
this was the first ever architectural exhibition held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, USA. The
original exhibition catalogue was then followed up immediately by the book titled The International Style,
which was reissued in 1966 with a new foreword by Hitchcock.[5]

The aesthetics-based definition of The International Style identified, categorized and expanded upon
characteristics said to be common to Modernism across the world and its stylistic aspects. Hitchcock and
Johnson identified three principles: the expression of volume rather than mass, the emphasis on balance
rather than preconceived symmetry, and the expulsion of applied ornament. The aim of Hitchcock and
Johnson was to define a style that would encapsulate this modern architecture, doing this by the inclusion
of specific architects. All the works in the 1932 Museum of Modern Art exhibition were carefully selected,
only displaying those that strictly followed these rules. For example, the works of the most prominent
"modern" architect in the USA, Frank Lloyd Wright, was included in the exhibition only to provide a contrast
to the International Style examples, and his works were not featured at all in the book that followed.[5]

Previous to the 1932 exhibition and book, Hitchcock had concerned himself with the themes of modern
architecture in his 1929 book Modern Architecture: Romanticism and Reintegration, and the 1932 book can
be seen as a supplement to the earlier book.[3] Both books, however, are seen as "operative texts" - in the
understanding defined by Italian critic Manfredo Tafuri - in that they were not merely a history but moreover
a kind of manifesto proclaiming the birth of a new architecture.[3]

Many Modernists disliked the term, believing that they had arrived at an approach to architecture that
transcended "style", along with any national or regional or continental identity. The British architectural
historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner commented: "To me what had been achieved in 1914 was the style of the
century. It never occurred to me to look beyond. Here was the one and only style which fitted all those
aspects which mattered, aspects of economics and sociology, of materials and function. It seems folly to
think that anybody would wish to abandon it."[6]

1932 MOMA exhibition[edit]

The exhibition Modern Architecture: International Exhibition opened on February 9, 1932, at the Museum of
Modern Art (MoMA), in the Heckscher Building at Fifth Avenue and 56th Street in New York. Beyond a foyer
and office, the exhibition was divided into six rooms: the "Modern Architects" section began in the entrance
room, featuring a model of William Lescaze's Chrystie-Forsyth Street Housing Development in New York.
From there visitors moved to the centrally placed Room A, featuring a model of a mid-rise housing
development for Evanston, Illinois, by Chicago architect brothers Monroe Bengt Bowman and Irving
Bowman,[7] as well as a model and photos of Walter Gropius's Bauhaus building in Dessau. In the largest
exhibition space, Room C, were works by Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, J.J.P. Oud and Frank
Lloyd Wright (including a project for a house on the Mesa in Denver, 1932). Room B was a section titled
"Housing", presenting the need for a new domestic environment as it had been identified by historian and
critic Lewis Mumford. In Room D were works by Raymond Hood (including "Apartment Tower in the
Country" and the McGraw-Hill building) and Richard Neutra. In Room E was a section titled "The extent of
modern architecture", added at the last minute,[4] which included the works of thirty seven modern architects
from fifteen countries who were said to be influenced by the works of Europeans of the 1920s. Among
these works was shown Alvar Aalto's Turun Sanomat newspaper offices building in Turku, Finland.

After remaining on show for six weeks, the exhibition then toured the USA - the first such travelling-
exhibition of architecture in the US - for six years.[8] As it is stated by Riley, in his 1992 book The
International Style: Exhibition 15 and The Museum of Modern Art: "(I)ronically the (exhibition) catalogue,
and to some extent, the book The International Style, published at the same time of the exhibition, have
supplanted the actual historical event."[9]

The following architects and buildings were selected by Hitchcock and Johnson for display at the
exhibition Modern Architecture: International Exhibition:

Architect Building Location Date

Workers Houses (house blocks Rotterdam, The 1924

Jacobus Oud
Kiefhoek) Netherlands 1927

Brno,
Otto Eisler Double House 1926
Czechoslovakia

Walter Gropius Bauhaus School Dessau, Germany 1926

City Employment Office Dessau, Germany 1928

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Apartment House, Weissenhof Stuttgart, Germany 1927
Estate

German pavilion at the Barcelona

Barcelona, Spain 1929
Expo

Brno,
Tugendhat House 1930
Czechoslovakia

Le Corbusier (Pierre Villa Stein Garches, France 1927

Jeanneret)
Poissy-Sur-Seine,
Villa Savoye 1930
France

Carlos de Beistegui Champs-

Paris, France 1931
lyses Penthouse

1928
Erich Mendelsohn Schocken Department Store Chemnitz, Germany
1930

Frederick John Kiesler Film Guild Cinema New York City, USA 1929

Raymond Hood McGraw-Hill building New York City, USA 1931

George Howe & William

PSFS Building Philadelphia, USA 1932
Lescaze
Monroe Bengt Bowman &
Lux apartment block Evanston, USA 1931
Irving Bowman

Richard Neutra Lovell House Los Angeles, USA 1929

Otto Haesler Rothenberg Siedlung Kassel, Germany 1930

Karl Schneider Kunstverein Hamburg, Germany 1930

Alvar Aalto Turun Sanomat building Turku, Finland 1930

Buildings featured in the 1932 MOMA exhibition[edit]

Villa Savoye, Paris, Le Corbusier

Bauhaus, Dessau, Walter Gropius

Fagus Factory, Alfeld, Walter Gropius

Barcelona Pavilion, Barcelona, Mies van der Rohe



Villa Tugendhat, Brno, Mies van der Rohe

Kiefhoek housing, Rotterdam, J.J.P. Oud

Rothenberg Siedlung, Kassel, Otto Haesler

The former Schocken department store, inChemnitz, Erich Mendelsohn

Lovell House, Los Angeles,Richard Neutra

Mcgraw-Hill building, New York, Raymond Hood



PSFS Building, Philadelphia,George Howe and William Lescaze

Turun Sanomat, Turku, Alvar Aalto

Regions[edit]

Europe[edit]

Aerial view of the Weissenhof Estate, Stuttgart, Germany (1927)

Around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to
integrate traditional precedents with new social demands and technological possibilities. The work of Victor
Horta and Henry van de Velde inBrussels, Antoni Gaud in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles
Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and
new. Hitchcock and Johnson do not see these architects, however, as part of the International Style
because they are seen as retaining traces of an "individualistic manner"; that is, not so much the creators of
a new style as the last representatives of Romanticism.[5]

The Glass Palace, Heerlen, Netherlands, Frits Peutz (1935).

The "International Style", as defined by Hitchcock and Johnson, as such blossomed in 1920s Western
Europe. Significant contemporary common ground is found among the activities of the Dutch De
Stijlmovement, works of the French/Swiss architect Le Corbusier, and various German efforts to
industrialize craft traditions, which resulted in the formation of the Deutscher Werkbund, large civic worker-
housing projects in Frankfurt and Stuttgart, and, most famously, the Bauhaus. The Bauhaus was one of a
number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial
technology for the purpose of bringing about change in society.

Villa in Sdra ngby in westernStockholm, Sweden, Edvin Engstrm (1938).

Le Corbusier had hoped that politically minded industrialists in France would lead the way with their
efficient Taylorist and Fordist strategies adopted from American industrial models in order to reorganize
society. In this new industrial spirit, Le Corbusier contributed to a new journal called L'Esprit Nouveau that
advocated the use of modern industrial techniques and strategies to transform society into a more efficient
environment with a higher standard of living on all socio-economic levels. He forcefully argued that this
transformation was necessary to avoid the spectre of revolution that would otherwise shake society. His
dictum "Architecture or Revolution", developed in his articles in this journal, became his rallying cry for the
book Vers une architecture (Toward an Architecture), which comprised selected articles he contributed
to L'Esprit Nouveau between 1920 and 1923.[10] Despite all the debate about increasing living standards, in
favouring architecture over revolution, he laid the principle for the autonomy of architecture; that is, that
architecture could be discussed in purely formal or aesthetic terms. Modern architecture, a truly
international style, would serve any political position.

Thus, in terms of form, common characteristics of the International Style include: a radical simplification of
form, a rejection of ornament, and adoption of glass, steel and concrete as preferred materials. Further, the
transparency of buildings, construction (called the honest expression of structure), and acceptance of
industrialized mass-production techniques contributed to the international style's design philosophy. Finally,
the machine aesthetic, and logical design decisions leading to support building function were used by the
International architect to create buildings reaching beyond historicism. The ideals of the style are commonly
summed up in three slogans: ornament is a crime, truth to materials, form follows function; and Le
Corbusier's description of houses as "machines for living".

In 1927, one of the first and most defining manifestations of the International Style was the Weissenhof
Estate in Stuttgart, built as a component of the exhibition "Die Wohnung", organized by the Deutscher
Werkbund, and overseen by Mies van der Rohe. The fifteen contributing architects included Mies, and
other names most associated with the movement: Peter Behrens, Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, J.J.P.
Oud, Mart Stam, Bruno Taut and the less known young architect, Franz Krause. The exhibition was
enormously popular, with thousands of daily visitors. However, there was also some critique: the Stuttgart
League for Heimat Protection [Bund fr Heimatschutz] referred to it as the Arab village (Araberdorf) -
and a picture was made showing it looking like one - and called for it be torn down.

The gradual rise of the Nazi regime in Weimar Germany in the 1930s, and the Nazis' rejection of modern
architecture, meant that an entire generation of avant-gardist architects, many of them Jews, were forced
out of continental Europe. Some, such as Mendelsohn, found shelter in England, while a considerable
number of the Jewish architects made their way to Palestine, and others to the USA. However, American
anti-Communist politics after the war and Philip Johnson's influential rejection of functionalism have tended
to mask the fact that many of the important architects, including contributors to the original Weissenhof
project, fled to the Soviet Union. This group also tended to be far more concerned with functionalism and its
social agenda. Bruno Taut, Mart Stam, the second Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer, Ernst May and other
important figures of the International Style went to the Soviet Union in 1930 to undertake huge, ambitious,
idealistic urban planning projects, building entire cities from scratch. In 1936, when Stalin ordered them out
of the country, many of these architects became stateless and sought refuge elsewhere; for example, Ernst
May moved to Kenya.[11]

The town of Portolago (now Lakki) on the Greek Dodecanese island of Leros represents some of
the most interesting urban planning from the fascist regime in the Dodecanese, a strand of
modernist architecture often referred to Italian Rationalism. The symbolism of the shapes is
reflected with exemplary effectiveness in the buildings of Lakki: the administration building, the
metaphysical tower of the market, the cinema-theatre, the Hotel Roma (now Hotel Leros), the
church of San Francisco and the hospital are fine examples of the style.

The residential area of Sdra ngby in western Stockholm, Sweden, blended an international
or functionalist style with garden city ideals. Encompassing more than 500 buildings, most of them
designed by Edvin Engstrm, it remains the largest coherent functionalist or "International
Style" villa area in Sweden and possibly the world, still well-preserved more than a half-century after
its construction in 193340 and protected as a national cultural heritage.[12]

North America[edit]

Seagram building, New York, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1958)

Prior to use of the term 'International Style', the same striving towards simplification, honesty and clarity are
identifiable in US architects, notably in the work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, as
well as the west-coast residences of Irving Gill. Frank Lloyd Wright's Wasmuth Portfolio had been exhibited
in Europe and influenced the work of European modernists, and his travels there probably influenced his
own work, although he refused to be categorized with them. In 1922, the competition for the Tribune
Tower and its famous second-place entry by Eliel Saarinen gave some indication of what was to come,
though these works would not have been accepted by Hitchcock and Johnson as representing the
"International Style". Similarly, Johnson, writing about Joseph Urban's recently completed New School for
Social Research in New York, stated: "In the New School we have an anomaly of a building supposed to be
in a style of architecture based on the development of the plan from function and facade from plan but
which is a formally and pretentiously conceived as a Renaissance palace. Urban's admiration for the New
Style is more complete than his understanding."[4]

The same year that Hitchcock and Johnson coined the term International Style saw the completion of the
world's first International Style skyscraper, Philadelphia's PSFS Building, and the building was indeed
featured in the MoMA exhibition. Designed by the truly "international" team of architects, George
Howe and William Lescaze, the PSFS Building has become an integral element of the Philadelphia skyline.
Frank Lloyd Wright's work was considered a formative influence on the international style, but he was
considered not to have kept up with more recent developments. His work was included in the exhibition, but
not the catalogue or book. This provoked Wright to quip in response to Hitchcock and Johnson "...having a
good start, not only do I fully intend to be the greatest architect who has yet lived, but fully intend to be the
greatest architect who will ever live". His buildings of the 1920s and 1930s clearly showed a change in the
style of the architect, but in a different direction than the International Style.

With the rise of Nazism, a number of key European modern architects fled to the USA. When Walter
Gropius and Marcel Breuer fled Germany they both arrived at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, in
an excellent position to extend their influence and promote the Bauhaus as the primary source of
architectural modernism. When Mies fled in 1938, he first fled to England, but on emigrating to the USA he
went to Chicago, founded the Second School of Chicago at IIT and solidified his reputation as a
prototypical modern architect.

Tower C of Place de Ville, the tallest building in Ottawa

After World War II, the International Style matured, Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum (later renamed HOK)
and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM) perfected the corporate practice, and it became the dominant
approach for decades in the US and Canada. Beginning with the initial technical and formal inventions
of 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments in Chicago its most famous examples include the United Nations
headquarters, the Lever House, the Seagram Building in New York, and the campus of the United States
Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, Colorado, as well as the Toronto-Dominion Centrein Toronto.
Further examples can be found in mid-century institutional buildings throughout North America and the
"corporate architecture" spread from there, especially to Europe.

In Canada, this period coincided with a major building boom and few restrictions on massive building
projects. International Style skyscrapers came to dominate many of Canada's major cities,
especiallyOttawa, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, Hamilton, and Toronto. While these glass
boxes were at first unique and interesting, the idea was soon repeated to the point of ubiquity. A typical
example is the development of so-called Place de Ville, a conglomeration of three glass skyscrapers in
downtown Ottawa, where the plans of the property developer Robert Campeau in the mid 1960s and early
1970s - in the words of historian Robert W. Collier, "forceful and abrasive, he was not well-loved at City
Hall" - had no regard for existing city plans, "built with contempt for the existing city and for city
responsibilities in the key areas of transportation and land use".[2] Architects attempted to put new twists
into such towers, such as the Toronto City Hall by Finnish architect Viljo Revell. By the late 1970s a
backlash was under way against modernism prominent anti-modernists such as Jane
Jacobs and George Baird were partly based in Toronto.

The typical International Style or "corporate architecture" high-rise usually consists of the following:

1. Square or rectangular footprint

 2. Simple cubic "extruded rectangle" form

3. Windows running in broken horizontal rows forming a grid

4. All facade angles are 90 degrees.

Israel[edit]

"White Tel Aviv", Dizengoff Circle, by Genia Averbouch, 1934

In July 1994, UNESCO proclaimed the White City of Tel Aviv a World Heritage Site, describing the city as "a
synthesis of outstanding significance of the various trends of the Modern Movement in architecture and
town planning in the early part of the 20th century".[13] Tel Aviv was founded in 1909 by European Jewish
settlers, who erected the first buildings on sand dunes outside the inhabited ancient Arab town of Jaffa.[14] A
large proportion of the buildings built in the International Style can be found in the area planned by Patrick
Geddes, north of Tel Aviv's main historical commercial center. Geddes laid out the streets and decided on
block size and utilization. His plan was to create a garden city, but in a more compact form than in England.
[15]
He did not prescribe an architectural style for the buildings in the new city, though he himself favoured
architectural eclecticism. The impetus for large-scale construction in the new style came from the rapid
influx of European Jewish immigrants (who grew in numbers from about 2,000 in 1914 to about 150,000 in
1937).[16] In the 1930s, new architects and architectural ideas were to converge on Tel Aviv to satisfy a
burgeoning, relatively prosperous population with European tastes.

Esther Theater, now the Cinema Hotel, by architect Jehuda Magidovitch[17]

By 1933 many Jewish architects who had studied at the German Bauhaus school, which was closed down
on the orders of the Nazi Party, fled to the British Mandate of Palestine.[18] But there were also other
architects arriving from the Soviet Union, Ukraine and Poland, but had studied in avant-gardist schools in
Moscow, France and Italy. The residential and public buildings were designed by these architects, who took
advantage of the absence of established architectural conventions to put the principles of modern
architecture into practice. The Bauhaus principles, with their emphasis on functionality and inexpensive
building materials, were perceived as ideal in Tel Aviv. The architects fleeing Europe combined their
Bauhaus or Functionalist ideas with the architectural ideals of Le Corbusier. Among notable architects
were Erich Mendelsohn, who belonged to the Expressionist school and who was active in Jerusalem in the
1930s, Carl Rubin, who had worked in Mendelsohn's office,[19]Oskar Kaufmann, Jehuda Magidovitch, Dov
Karmi, Zeev Rechter, Richard Kaufmann and Arieh Sharon.[20]

In 1984, in celebration of Tel Aviv's 75th year,[21] an exhibition was held at the Tel Aviv Museum of
Art entitled White City, International Style Architecture in Israel, Portrait of an Era, which continued to travel
the world afterwards. In 1994, a conference took place at the UNESCO headquarters, entitled World
Conference on the International Style in Architecture. In 1996, Tel Aviv's White City was listed as a World
Monuments Fund endangered site.[22] In 2003, UNESCO named Tel Aviv a World Heritage Site for its
treasure of modern architecture.[13]

Other countries[edit]

One of the strengths of the International Style has been said to be that the design solutions were indifferent
to location, site, and climate; the solutions were supposed to be universally applicable; the style made no
reference to local history or national vernacular. This was soon identified as one of the style's primary
weaknesses. Indeed, already at the same time as key "International Style" works were being built, some
architects were already adapting it to local conditions. A key example is that of Finnish architect Alvar Aalto,
the influential critic Sigfried Giedion saying that "Finland is with Aalto wherever he goes".[23]

In the preface to the 2007 fourth edition of his book Modern Architecture - A Critical History, Kenneth
Frampton argues that there has been a "disturbing Eurocentric bias" in received histories of modern
architecture. This "Eurocentrism" includes the USA.[24] So while, on the one hand, a number of key
European avant-gardist architects would with the rise of Nazism, fleeing to England, Sweden, Palestine,
Soviet Union and USA, there would also be "indigenous" modernist groups in Mexico, the Middle East,
India, Central America, South America and Africa.

In 2000 UNESCO proclaimed Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas in Caracas, Venezuela, as a World

Heritage Site, describing it as "a masterpiece of modern city planning, architecture and art, created
by the Venezuelan architect Carlos Ral Villanueva and a group of distinguished avant-garde
artists".[citation needed]

In June 2007 UNESCO proclaimed Ciudad Universitaria of the Universidad Nacional Autnoma de
Mxico (UNAM), in Mexico City, a World Heritage Site due to its relevance and contribution in terms
of international style movement (as well as cultural - alma mater of 3 Nobel Prizewinners and most
Mexican presidents).[citation needed] It was designed in the late 1940s and built in the mid-1950s based
upon a masterplan created by architect Enrique del Moral. His original idea was enriched by other
students, teachers, and diverse professionals of several disciplines. The university
houses murals by Diego Rivera, Juan O'Gorman and others. The university also features Olympic
Stadium (1968). In his first years of practice, Pritzker Prize winner and Mexican architect Luis
Barragn designed buildings in the International Style. But later he evolved to a more traditional
local architecture. Other notable Mexican architects of the International Style or modern period
are Carlos Obregn Santacilia, Augusto H. Alvarez, Mario Pani, Federico Mariscal, Vladimir
Kasp, Enrique del Moral, Juan Sordo Madaleno, Max Cetto, among many others.

In Brazil Oscar Niemeyer proposed a more organic and sensual[25] International Style. He designed
the political landmarks (headquarters of the three state powers) of the new, planned capital Brasilia.
The masterplan for the city was proposed by Lucio Costa.

Criticism of International Style[edit]

The stark, unornamented appearance of the International Style met with contemporaneous criticism and is
still criticized today by many. Especially in larger and more public buildings, the style is commonly subject to
disparagement as ugly,[26] inhuman,[27] sterile,[28] and elitist.[29]Such criticism gained momentum in the latter
half of the 20th Century, from academics such as Hugo Kkelhaus to best-selling American author Tom
Wolfe's From Bauhaus to Our House, and contributed to the rise of such counter-movements
as postmodernism. The negative reaction to internationalist modernism has been linked to public antipathy
to overall development.[30][31]

Although it was conceived as a movement that transcended style, the International Style was largely
superseded first by more localised variations that took into account locality and site and later by so-
called Postmodern architecture that started in the 1960s. In 2006, Hugh Pearman, the British architectural
critic of The Times, observed that those using the style today are simply "another species of revivalist",
noting the irony.[6]

Other major examples of International Style architecture[edit]

Architect Building Location Date

Eileen Gray E-1027 Cap Martin, France 1929

Alvar Aalto Paimio Sanatorium Turku, Finland 1930

1926
Leendert van der Vlugt Van Nelle Factory Rotterdam
1930

Joseph Emberton Royal Corinthian Yacht Club Essex 1931

1932
Ove Arup Labworth Caf Essex
1933

1932
Leendert van der Vlugt Sonneveld House Rotterdam
1933

Frits Peutz Glaspaleis Heerlen 1933

Oscar Stonorov and Alfred 1933

Carl Mackley Houses Philadelphia
Kastner 1934

1933
Edvin Engstrm Sdra ngby Stockholm, Sweden
1939

Edinburgh, Scotlan
Neil & Hurd Ravelston Garden 1936
d

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Farnsworth House Illinois 1945

1951

Illinois Institute of
1945
Technology campus (including S. R. Chicago
1960
Crown Hall)

Oscar Niemeyer, Le
Corbusier, Harrison & United Nations Building New York City 1950s
Abramovitz

1945
Michael Scott Busaras Dublin, Ireland
1953

Kemp, Bunch & Jackson Aetna Building Jacksonville 1955

Victoria City, Hong

Ron Phillips and Alan Fitch City Hall, Hong Kong 1956
Kong

John Bland Old City Hall Ottawa 1958

1958-
Emery Roth & Sons 10 Lafayette Square Buffalo, New York,
1959

High School of Graphic Manhattan, New

Kelly & Gruzen 1959
Communication Arts York City
Stanley Roscoe Hamilton City Hall Hamilton 1960

John Lautner Chemosphere Los Angeles 1960

I. M. Pei Place Ville-Marie Montreal 1962

Charles Luckman Prudential Tower Boston 1964

George Dahl Elm Place Dallas 1965

Toronto-Dominion Centre Toronto 1967

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
Westmount Square Montreal 1967

Skidmore, Owings & Merrill Equitable Building Atlanta 1968

Hermann Henselmann et al. Berlin TV Tower Berlin 1969

Michael Manser Capel Manor House Horsmonden 1971

1967
Campeau Corporation Place de Ville Ottawa
1972

Crang & Boake Hudson's Bay Centre Toronto 1974

Pedro Moctezuma Daz

Torre Ejecutiva Pemex Mexico City 1982
Infante