460 Chapter 6 Further Topics in Integration

INVENTORY STORAGE COSTS 44. A manufacturer receives N units of a certain raw material that are initially placed in
storage and then withdrawn and used at a constant rate until the supply is exhausted
1 year later. Suppose storage costs remain fixed at p dollars per unit per year. Use
definite integration to find an expression for the total storage cost the manufacturer
will pay during the year.
[Hint: Let Q(t) denote the number of units in storage after t years and find an
expression for Q(t). Then subdivide the interval 0  t  1 into n equal subintervals
and express the total storage cost as the limit of a sum.]
In Problems 45 and 46 use the numeric integration feature of your calculator to
compute the required quantity.

45. An investment will generate income continuously at the constant rate of $1,750
per year for 10 years. If the prevailing rate of interest remains fixed at 9.5% com-
pounded continuously, what is the present value of the investment?
46. An investor is planning to buy a business that t years from now is expected to be
generating income at the rate of f(t)  5,000  300t  1.7t2 dollars per year. If
this pattern continues for the next 7 years and the prevailing rate of interest
remains fixed at 8% compounded continuously, what is the present value of the
investment?

3
Additional
Applications In Section 6.2, we examined applications of definite integration to business and eco-
nomics, and in this section, we extend our list of applications to areas such as biol-
of Definite ogy, the social sciences, and medicine. We begin by showing how integration can be
Integration used to compute the average value of a function over an interval.
AVERAGE VALUE A teacher who wants to compute the average score on an examination simply adds
OF A FUNCTION all the individual scores and divides by the number of students taking the exam, but
how should one go about finding, say, the average level of pollution in a city during
the daytime hours? The difficulty is that since time is continuous, there are too many
pollution levels to add up in the usual way, so how should we proceed?
We begin by subdividing the interval a  x  b into n parts, each of length nx
ba
 . If xj is a number taken from the jth subinterval for j  1, 2, . . . , n, then
n
the average of the corresponding functional values f(x1), f(x2), . . . , f(xn) is
 Chapter 6 Section 3 Additional Applications of Definite Integration 461

f(x1)  f(x2)  . . .  f(xn) b  a f(x1)  f(x2)  . . .  f(xn)

Vn  
n ba n

 
1 ba
 [ f(x1)  f(x2)  . . .  f(xn)]
ba n
1
 [ f(x1)  f(x2)  . . .  f(xn)] nx
ba
If we refine the partition of the interval a  x  b by taking more and more sub-
division points, the average Vn becomes more and more like what you may intuitively
think of as the average value AV of f(x) over a  x  b. Thus, it is reasonable to
define the average value AV as the limit
1
AV  lim Vn  lim [ f(x1)  . . .  f(xn)] nx
nfi   nfi   ba

which we recognize as the definite integral

1
ba
a
b
f(x) dx. We summarize this in
the following.

Average Value of a Function The average value AV of the con-

tinuous function f(x) over the interval a  x  b is given by the definite integral

Suppose you wish to calculate

AV 
1
ba
 a
b
f(x) dx

the average value of f(x)  x3 

6x2  10x  1 over the interval
[1, 4]. Store f(x) in Y1 and ob-
tain its graph using the window EXAMPLE 3.1
[0, 4.7]1 by [2, 8]1. Shade the
region under the curve over the A researcher estimates that t hours after midnight during a typical 24-hour period, the
interval [1, 4] and compute its temperature in a certain northern city is given by
area A. Set Y2 equal to the 2
A A C(t)  3  (t  13)2 0  t  24
constant function  . 3
(b  a) 3
degrees Celsius. What is the average temperature in the city between 6 A.M. and
This is the average value. Plot
4 P.M.
Y2 and Y1 on the same screen.
At what numbers(s) between 1
Solution
and 4 does f(x) equal the aver- Since 6 A.M. and 4 P.M. correspond to t  6 and t  16, respectively, we want to
age value? compute the average of the temperature C(t) for 6  t  16, which is given by the
definite integral
 462 Chapter 6 Further Topics in Integration

AT 
1
16  6 6
16
 2

3  (t  13)2 dt


3
16

1 2
 3t  (t  13)3
10 9 6

2 1 2
 3(16)  (16  13)3  3(6)  (6  13)3
10 9 10 9
 5.22
Thus, the average temperature over the given time period is approximately 5.22

y
;
Celsius (22.6F).

;
y
The integral formula for average value has an interesting geometric interpreta-
y tion. To see this, multiply both sides of the equation by b  a to get
Average
value y = f (x) (b  a)(average value)  
a
b
f(x) dx
x
a b If f(x) is nonnegative, the integral on the right-hand side of this equation is equal to
the area under the graph of f from x  a to x  b. The product on the left-hand side
FIGURE 6.17 Geometric inter- is the area of a rectangle whose width is b  a and whose height is the average value
pretation of average value: Area of f over the interval a  x  b. It follows that the average value of f(x) over the
of rectangle  area under curve. interval a  x  b is equal to the height of the rectangle whose base is this interval
and whose area is the same as the area under the graph of f from x  a to x  b.
The situation is illustrated in Figure 6.17.
SURVIVAL AND RENEWAL In the next example, a survival function gives the fraction of individuals in a group
or population that can be expected to remain in the group for any specified period of
time. A renewal function giving the rate at which new members arrive is also known,
and the goal is to predict the size of the group at some future time. Problems of this
type arise in many fields, including sociology, ecology, demography, and even finance,
where the population is the number of dollars in an investment account and sur-
vival and renewal refer to results of an investment strategy.

EXAMPLE 3.2
A new county mental health clinic has just opened. Statistics from similar facilities
suggest that the fraction of patients who will still be receiving treatment at the clinic
t months after their initial visit is given by the function f(t)  et/20. The clinic ini-
tially accepts 300 people for treatment and plans to accept new patients at the rate of
10 per month. Approximately how many people will be receiving treatment at the
clinic 15 months from now?
Chapter 6 Section 3 Additional Applications of Definite Integration 463

Solution
Since f(15) is the fraction of patients whose treatment continues at least 15 months,
it follows that of the current 300 patients, only 300f(15) will still be receiving treat-
ment 15 months from now.
To approximate the number of new patients who will be receiving treatment 15
months from now, divide the 15-month time interval 0  t  15 into n equal subin-
tervals of length nt months and let tj denote the beginning of the jth subinterval.
Since new patients are accepted at the rate of 10 per month, the number of new
patients accepted during the jth subinterval is 10nt. Fifteen months from now,
approximately 15  tj months will have elapsed since these 10nt new patients had
their initial visits, and so approximately (10nt)f(15  tj) of them will still be receiv-
ing treatment at that time (see Figure 6.18). It follows that the total number of new
patients still receiving treatment 15 months from now can be approximated by the
sum
n

j1
 10f(15  t )  t j n

15 tj months
10 nt (10 nt)f(15 tj )

0 15
nt
t
t1 tj tj + 1 tn

FIGURE 6.18 New members arriving during the jth subinterval.

Adding this to the number of current patients who will still be receiving treatment in
15 months, you get
n
P  300f(15)   10f(15  t )  t
j1
j n

where P is the total number of patients who will be receiving treatment 15 months
from now.
As n increases without bound, the approximation improves and approaches the
true value of P. That is,
n
P  300f(15)  lim
pfi   j1
 10f(15  tj) nt

 300f(15)  
15

0
10f(15  t) dt
 464 Chapter 6 Further Topics in Integration

Since f(t)  et/20, we have f(15)  e3/4 and f(15  t)  e(15t)/20  e3/4 et/20.
Hence,

P  300e3/4  10e3/4  15
et/20 dt


0


15
 300e3/4  200e3/4et/20
0
 300e3/4  200(1  e3/4)
 247.24
That is, 15 months from now, the clinic will be treating approximately 247 patients.

THE FLOW OF BLOOD Biologists have found that the speed of blood in an artery is a function of the dis-
THROUGH AN ARTERY tance of the blood from the arterys central axis. According to Poiseuilles law,* the
speed (in centimeters per second) of blood that is r centimeters from the central axis
of the artery is S(r)  k(R2  r2), where R is the radius of the artery and k is a con-
stant. In the next example, you will see how to use this information to compute the
rate (in cubic centimeters per second) at which blood passes through the artery.

EXAMPLE 3.3
Find an expression for the rate (in cubic centimeters per second) at which blood flows
rj through an artery of radius R if the speed of the blood r centimeters from the central
nr
rj + 1
axis is S(r)  k(R2  r2), where k is a constant.
0
Solution
To approximate the volume of blood that flows through a cross section of the artery
R each second, divide the interval 0  r  R into n equal subintervals of width nr
centimeters and let rj denote the beginning of the jth subinterval. These subintervals
FIGURE 6.19 Subdividing a determine n concentric rings as illustrated in Figure 6.19.
cross section of an artery into
concentric rings. If nr is small, the area of the jth ring is approximately the area of a rectangle
whose length is the circumference of the (inner) boundary of the ring and whose width
is nr. That is,
Area of jth ring  2rj nr
If you multiply the area of the jth ring (square centimeters) by the speed (centimeters

* Many differential equations texts or texts on mathematical biology have full discussions of blood flow
and Poiseuilles law. For instance, see the text by S. L. Rubinow, Introduction to Mathematical
Biology, Wiley, New York, 1975, pages 159161.
 Chapter 6 Section 3 Additional Applications of Definite Integration 465

per second) of the blood flowing through this ring, you get the rate (cubic centimeters
per second) at which blood flows through the jth ring. Since the speed of blood flow-
ing through the jth ring is approximately S(rj) centimeters per second, it follows that


Rate of flow  area of
through jth ring 
speed of blood
jth ring through jth ring 
 (2rj nr)S(rj)
 (2rj nr)[k(R2  r2j )]
 2k(R2rj  r3j ) nr
The rate of flow of blood through the entire cross section is the sum of n such terms,
one for each of the n concentric rings. That is,
n
Rate of flow   2k(R r  r )  r
j1
2
j
3
j n

As n increases without bound, this approximation approaches the true value of

the rate of flow. That is,
n
Rate of flow  lim
nfi   j1
 2k(R2rj  r3j ) nr

  R
2k(R r  r3) dr
2


0

 R2 2 1 4

R
 2k r  r
2 4 0
kR 4

2 (cubic centimeters per second)

LORENTZ CURVES A matter of great interest to economists and sociologists is the distribution of wealth
in a society. A device for measuring inequalities in the distribution of wealth is the
Lorentz curve, which provides a quick, visual illustration of what percentage of a
society receives what percentage of that societys wealth.
A typical Lorentz curve y  L(x) is shown in Figure 6.20, where the function
L(x) measures the proportion of annual national income received by the lowest 100x%
of the population for 0  x  1. For instance, the point (0.3, 0.23) on the curve rep-
resents the fact that families with the lowest 30% of all incomes receive 23% of the
nations total income.
466 Chapter 6 Further Topics in Integration

y (Percentage of income)

y=x
R1

y = L(x)
x (Percentage of families)
0 1

FIGURE 6.20 A Lorentz curve.

The line y  x represents the ideal case corresponding to complete equality in

the distribution of income (a family with the lowest 100r% of income receives 100r%
of the nations wealth). Since this ideal is never realized in practice, a Lorentz curve
usually lies below the line y  x, as indicated in Figure 6.20. The area of the shaded
region R1 between the line y  x and the Lorentz curve represents the deviation of
the actual distribution from complete equality, and the ratio of this area to the total
area of the region R2 under y  x above 0  x  1 provides a measure of the inequal-
ity in the distribution of wealth represented by the curve. Since the triangular region
1 1
R2 has area (1)(1)  , this ratio, called the Gini index (or index of income
2 2
inequality), can be computed by the formula

 1


[x  L(x)] dx 1
area of R1 0
Gini index   2 [x  L(x)] dx
area of R2 1/2 0

To summarize:

Gini Index If y  L(x) is the equation of a Lorentz curve, then the

inequality in the corresponding distribution of wealth is measured by the Gini
index, which is given by the formula

Gini index  2 
1

0
[x  L(x)] dx

The Gini index always lies between 0 and 1. An index of 0 corresponds to com-
plete equality, and an index of 1, to complete inequality (one family has all the
income). The smaller the index, the more equitable the distribution of wealth, and the
larger the index, the more the wealth is concentrated in only a few hands. Here is an
example of how Lorentz curves and their Gini indices can be used.
 Chapter 6 Section 3 Additional Applications of Definite Integration 467

EXAMPLE 3.4
A governmental agency determines that the Lorentz curves for the distribution of
income for dentists and contractors in a certain state are given by the functions
L1(x)  x1.7 and L2(x)  0.8x2  0.2x
respectively. For which profession is the distribution of income more fairly distributed?

Solution
The respective Gini indices are

 x2  x2.7  
1 2 2.7 1
G1  2 x  x1.7 dx  2  0.2593
0 0

G2  2  1
[x  (0.8x2  0.2x)] dx


0

 
x3 x2
 

 2 0.8
3
 0.8
2 0
 0.2667

Thus, in this state, the incomes of dentists are more evenly distributed than those of
contractors.

P . R . O . B . L . E . M . S 6.3

In Problems 1 through 6, find the average value of the given function over the
specified interval. In each case, sketch the graph of the function along with the
rectangle whose base is the given interval and whose height is the average value of
the function.
1. f(x)  x; 0  x  4 2. f(x)  2x  x2; 0  x  2
1
3. f(x)  (x  2)2; 4  x  0 4. f(x)  ;1x2
x
1
5. f(t)  e2t; 1  t  2 6. g(t)  ;2t4
1t
TEMPERATURE 7. Records indicate that t hours past midnight, the temperature at the local airport was
f(t)  0.3t2  4t  10 degrees Celsius. What was the average temperature at the
airport between 9:00 A.M. and noon?
 468 Chapter 6 Further Topics in Integration

FOOD PRICES 8. Records indicate that t months after the beginning of the year, the price of ground
beef in local supermarkets was P(t)  0.09t2  0.2t  1.6 dollars per pound. What
was the average price of ground beef during the first 3 months of the year?
EFFICIENCY 9. After t months on the job, a postal clerk can sort Q(t)  700  400e0.5t letters per
hour. What is the average rate at which the clerk sorts mail during the first 3 months
on the job?
BACTERIAL GROWTH 10. The number of bacteria present in a certain culture after t minutes of an experiment
was Q(t)  2,000e0.05t. What was the average number of bacteria present during the
first 5 minutes of the experiment?
SURVIVAL AND RENEWAL 11. A national consumers association has compiled statistics suggesting that the
fraction of its members who are still active t months after joining is given by the
function f(t)  e0.2t. A new local chapter has 200 charter members and expects to
attract new members at the rate of 10 per month. How many members can the
chapter expect to have at the end of 8 months?
SURVIVAL AND RENEWAL 12. The administrators of a town estimate that the fraction of people who will still be
residing in the town t years after they arrive is given by the function f(t)  e0.04t. If
the current population is 20,000 people and new townspeople arrive at the rate of
500 per year, what will be the population 10 years from now?
COMPUTER DATING 13. The operators of a new computer dating service estimate that the fraction of people
who will retain their membership in the service for at least t months is given by the
function f(t)  et/10. There are 8,000 charter members, and the operators expect to
attract 200 new members per month. How many members will the service have 10
months from now?
POPULATION DENSITY 14. The population density r miles from the center of a certain city is D(r) 
25,000e0.05r people per square mile. How many people live between 1 and 2 miles
from the city center?
POPULATION DENSITY 15. The population density r miles from the center of a certain city is D(r)  5,000e0.1r
people per square mile. How many people live within 3 miles of the center of the
city? [Hint: Divide a circular disk of radius 3 into concentric rings.]
POISEUILLES LAW 16. Calculate the rate (in cubic centimeters per second) at which blood flows through an
artery of radius 0.1 centimeter if the speed of the blood r centimeters from the
central axis is 8  800r2 centimeters per second.
POISEUILLES LAW 17. Blood flows through an artery of radius R. At a distance r centimeters from the
central axis of the artery, the speed of the blood is given by S(r)  k(R2  r2). Show
that the average velocity of the blood is one-half the maximum speed.
POPULATION GROWTH 18. A study indicates that x months from now the population of a certain town will be
increasing at the rate of 5  3x2/3 people per month. By how much will the
population of the town increase over the next 8 months?
DISTANCE AND SPEED 19. An object is moving so that its speed after t minutes is 5  2t  3t2 meters per
minute. How far does the object travel during the second minute?
 Chapter 6 Section 3 Additional Applications of Definite Integration 469

ENERGY CONSUMPTION 20. It is estimated that the demand for oil is increasing exponentially at the rate of 10%
per year. If the demand for oil is currently 30 billion barrels per year, how much oil
will be consumed during the next 10 years?
SPEED AND DISTANCE 21. A car is driven so that after t hours its speed is S(t) miles per hour.
(a) Write down a definite integral that gives the average speed of the car during
the first N hours.
(b) Write down a definite integral that gives the total distance the car travels dur-
ing the first N hours.
(c) Discuss the relationship between the integrals in parts (a) and (b).

INVENTORY 22. An inventory of 60,000 kilograms of a certain commodity is used at a constant rate
and is exhausted after 1 year. What is the average inventory for the year?
NUCLEAR WASTE 23. A certain nuclear power plant produces radioactive waste in the form of strontium-90
at the constant rate of 500 pounds per year. The waste decays exponentially with a
half-life of 28 years. How much of the radioactive waste from the nuclear plant will
be present after 140 years? [Hint: Think of this as a survival and renewal problem.]
AVERAGE PROBABILITY 24. An actuarial formula used to compute the probability that a person will survive for t
OF SURVIVAL years (that is, die at age t) is p(t)  k2tekt, where k (0  k  e) is a positive constant
that depends on such things as the persons health and occupation. What is the
average probability of survival during the lifetime of a person who lives 80 years?
[Hint: Use integration by parts.]
AVERAGE CONCENTRATION 25. The Heinz concentration model (Problem 41, Section 4, Chapter 4) says that if a
OF A DRUG drug is administered intramuscularly, then t hours later, the concentration of drug in
the patients blood is given by
c
C(t)  (eat  ebt ) b a 0
ba
The function C(t) has exactly one inflection point, and the time T when it occurs
may be thought of as a time of diminishing effect for the drug. Find T and com-
pute the average concentration of drug over the time period 0  t  T for the
case where b  2a.
DEMOGRAPHICS 26. The logistic formula
202.31
P(t) 
1  e3.9380.314t
was developed by the United States Bureau of the Census to represent the
population of the United States (in millions) during the period 17901960. Time
t in the formula is the number of decades after 1790; for example, t  0 for 1790,
t  11 for 1900, and t  17 for 1960.
(a) Compute the average population of the United States during the given time
period (0  t  17). [Hint: Note that
 470 Chapter 6 Further Topics in Integration

b bekt

1  aekt ekt  a
and use an appropriate substitution.]
(b) Recompute the average population in part (a) by using the numeric integra-
tion feature of your calculator.

GROUP MEMBERSHIP 27. Let f(t) denote the fraction of the membership of a certain group that will remain in
the group for at least t years. Suppose that the group has just been formed with an
initial membership of P0 and that t years from now new members will be added to
the group at the rate of r(t) per year. Find an expression for the size of the group N
years from now.
WORK DONE BY A 28. If an object moves along a straight line from x  a to x  b under the influence of a
VARIABLE FORCE force F(x), then the work W done by the force is given by the definite integral

1,000
W a
b
F(x) dx
miles
Newtons law of universal gravitation says that the force of attraction between two
bodies is jointly proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distances between them. That is,
km1m2
F
s2
(a) How much work is done in putting a satellite that weighs 5 tons on the sur-
PROBLEM 28 face of the earth into an orbit 1,000 miles above the surface? [Hint: The radius
of the earth is about 4,000 miles.]
(b) Suppose you wish to find the work done in putting the satellite in part (a) into
an orbit 1,000 miles above the surface of Mars. What do you need to know
about Mars to find the work?

LORENTZ CURVES In Problems 29 through 34 find the Gini index for the given Lorentz curve.
29. L(x)  x2 30. L(x)  x3
31. L(x)  0.7x2  0.3x 32. L(x)  0.55x2  0.45x
ex  1 2 3.7 1
33. L(x)  34. L(x)  x  x
e1 3 3
35. The area between the Lorentz curve y  L(x) and the line y  x provides a mea-
sure of the inequality in the distribution of the resource represented by L(x). The
larger the area, the larger the inequality.
(a) Explain in your own words why the graph of L(x) cannot lie above the graph
of y  x.
(b) Show that the area of inequality for any Lorentz curve must be a number
between 0 and 0.5.
(c) Explain in your own words what is represented by the Gini index.
 Chapter 6 Section 3 Additional Applications of Definite Integration 471

36. Let m be the slope of the line segment joining two points P and Q on the Lorentz
curve y  L(x). Explain why it is true that if m  1, then the fraction of the pop-
ulation between P and Q gets less than an equal share of the resource measured
by the Lorentz function. What can be said if m 1? If m  1?
INCOME DISTRIBUTION 37. A study suggests that the Lorentz curves for the distribution of incomes for com-
puter engineers and stock brokers are given by the functions
L1(x)  x1.8 L2(x)  0.75x2  0.25x
respectively. For which profession is the distribution of income more fairly
distributed?
LORENTZ CURVES 38. A study suggests that the Lorentz curves for the distribution of incomes between
two particular professions are given by the functions
L1(x)  0.7x4  0.3x and L2(x)  Ax2  Bx
respectively. Find A and B so the two distributions are equally fair.
DISTRIBUTION OF FARMLAND 39. The following table* shows how arable farmland in the United States was dis-
tributed among farm owners in 1964.

Fraction
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
of Land
Fraction
0.0 0.025 0.05 0.075 0.10 0.13 0.18 0.22 0.28 0.42 1.00
of Owners

Sketch the Lorentz curve for this data.

LORENTZ CURVES 40. Read an article on Lorentz curves and write a paragraph on whether you think
this is a good device for analyzing the distribution of resources. If you think it
is not, explain how you think it could be improved.
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT 41. The following table* shows how the gross domestic product (GDP) is distributed
among the nations of the world:

Fraction of
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.00
Countries
Fraction
0.0 0.001 0.002 0.005 0.10 0.18 0.28 0.58 0.11 0.21 1.00
of GDP

Sketch the Lorentz curve for this data.

* Harry M. Schey, The Distribution of Resources, UMAP Modules 1977: Tools for Teaching,
Consortium for Mathematics and Its Applications, Inc., Lexington, MA, 1978, pages 128.
A good place to start is with the article cited in Problem 39 or the text by C. R. McConnell and S. L.
Brue, Microeconomics: Principles, Problems, and Policies, 12th ed., McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York,
1993, pages 380385.