Calculus 1 with Dr.

Janet Harris Semester 2, 2013/14

Chapter 3
Applications of Differentiation
3.1 Related Rates
3.2 Maxima & Minima. Critical Points.
3.3 The Mean Value Theorem. Derivatives & Shapes
of Curves.
3.4 Curve Sketching
3.5 Indeterminate Forms and lHpitals Rules
3.6 Maxima & Minima problems
3.7 Newtons Method
3.8 Anti-derivatives and Indefinite Integrals.
1
 3.1
Related Rates

In a related rates problem, our goal is to calculate

an unknown rate of change by relating it to other
rates of change which are known.

2
Example 1
Oil spilled from a ruptured tanker spreads in a circular pattern
whose radius increases at a rate of 1 m/s. How fast is the area
of the spill increasing when the radius of the spill is 20 m?
Solution.
Let r be the radius of the spill in meters after t seconds.
Let A be the area of the spill in m2 after t seconds.
We know dr/dt = 1 m/s.
We want to find dA/dt when r = 20.
We also know that at all times, A = p r2.
Differentiating this equation gives: dA 2p r dr
dt dt
dA
Hence we can calculate: 2p 20 1 40p 126
dt r 20
So the area is increasing at 126 m2/s
3
3.1 Related Rates: Method

The method used in the above example can be

summarized as follows:

Step 1. Assign variables. Restate the problem in

terms of derivatives.
Step 2. Find an equation relating the variables and
differentiate it.
Step 3. Use the known equations and data to find
the unknown derivative.

4
Example 2
Air is pumped into a spherical balloon at a rate of 40 cm3/s.
At what rate is the radius increasing when the radius is 5 cm?

5
Example 3
A camera is mounted at a point 900 m from the base of a
rocket launching pad to aim at the rocket. If the rocket is rising
vertically at 280 m/s when it is 1200 m above the launching
pad, how fast must the camera elevation angle change at that
instant to keep the camera aimed at the rocket?

Solution.
Step 1.
Let t be the time in seconds after the launch.
Let f be the camera elevation angle in radians at time t.
Let h be the height of the rocket in meters at time t.
Diagram:

6
Step 2.

Step 3.

7
Example 4
A ladder, 4 metres long, leans against a wall.
The bottom of the ladder is 1 m from the wall at time t = 0 and
slides away from the wall at a constant rate of 0.8 m/s.
Find the speed of the top of the ladder after 1 second.

8
 2.2
Maxima and Minima.
Critical Points

We often want to find the maximum or minimum value

of a function.
The collective term for maximum and minimum values
is extreme values or extrema (singular: extremum).
There are two types of extrema: absolute and local.

9
3.2.1 Absolute Extrema

DEFINITION
Let f(x) be a function on an interval I containing x0.
f has an absolute maximum at x0 if f ( x0 ) f ( x) x I .
The number f(x0) is called the maximum value of f on I.
f has an absolute minimum at x0 if f ( x0 ) f ( x) x I .
The number f(x0) is called the minimum value of f on I.

Note:
Absolute extrema are also called global extrema (or just
extrema).
If no interval is mentioned, we look at the whole domain.

10
Example 5
For the following functions and intervals, state whether
absolute extrema exist, and if so, where.

(a) f on [a, b]
(b) g on [a, b]
(c) h on (a, b)
(d) y = x on (-, 4]
(e) y = sin x on [0, 3p]
11
3.2.1 Existence of Absolute Extrema
Not every function has absolute maxima and minima.
However we have the following theorem:

THEOREM 3.2.1: Existence of Extrema on a Closed

Interval
If f is continuous on a closed interval I = [a, b] then f has
an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on I.

Notes
We will not prove the theorem but it is seems reasonable:
on a closed interval, a continuous function cannot skip
values or go to , so it must have a maximum and a
minimum.
The extrema may be inside the interval or at the end points.
12
3.2.1 Local Extrema
On the graph shown, consider
point e.
e is not the absolute maximum.
But looking near e, we see
f(e) is higher than all nearby values.
We call e a local maximum. Similarly, d is a local minimum.

DEFINITION
f has a local maximum at x0 if f ( x0 ) f ( x) when x is near x0.
f has a local minimum at x0 if f ( x0 ) f ( x) when x is near x0.
x is near x0 means x lies in some open interval containing x0.

13
3.2.1 Fermats Theorem
At a local max or min, the tangent line (if it exists) is
horizontal:
THEOREM 3.2.2 Fermats Theorem
If f has a local maximum or minimum at c,
and if f (c) exists, then f (c) = 0.

Notes
1. The converse is not generally true:
f (c) = 0 does not guarantee that c is a local extremum.
E.g. For f(x) = x3, f (0) = 0 but this is not a max or min.
2. Local extrema may also occur where f (x) does not exist.
E.g. f(x) = |x| has a minimum at x = 0.
14
3.2.1 Critical Numbers
Now we have a way to look for local extrema: we look at
the values c for which f (c) = 0 or f (c) does not exist.
These are called critical numbers (or critical values).
DEFINITION
A number c in the domain of f is called a critical number
if either f (c) = 0 or f (c) does not exist.
Then the point (c, f(c)) is called a critical point of f.

Now Fermats theorem can be restated: (THEOREM 3.2.3)

If f has a local maximum or minimum at c,
then c is a critical number of f .
15
Example 6
Find the critical points of the function f(x) = x3 + 3x2 9x + 2.

16
3.2.1 Locating Absolute Extrema on a Closed Interval
Theorem 3.2.1 said:
If f is continuous on a closed interval I = [a, b] then f has
an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on I.
Now we can find these extrema
THEOREM 3.2.4 Extrema on a Closed Interval
If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] and f(c) is
the maximum or minimum value on [a, b], then c is either
a critical number or one of the endpoints a or b.
So we have the following METHOD:
1. Locate the critical numbers of f in (a, b) and find the
values of f at these points.
2. Find f at the endpoints of the interval.
3. Of the values of f found above, the largest value is the
absolute maximum, the smallest is the absolute minimum. 17
Example 7
Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of
f(x) = 1 (x 1)2/3 on the interval [1, 2].

18
Example 8
Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of
f(x) = x 2 sin x on the interval [0, 2p].

19
 3.3
The Mean Value Theorem.
Derivatives & Shapes of Curves
The Mean Value Theorem
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
The First Derivative Test
Concavity & The Second Derivative Test

21
3.3.1 The Mean Value Theorem

THEOREM 3.3.1 The Mean Value Theorem

If function f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable
on (a, b), then there exists a point c (a, b) such that
f (b) - f (a)
f (c)
b-a

Geometrical Interpretation
LHS is slope of secant line joining
endpoints (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b))
RHS is slope at the point x = c.
theorem says there is a point (c, f(c)) on the graph such
that the tangent line at this point is parallel to the secant line
joining the endpoints. 22
3.3.1 The Mean Value Theorem

Proof. (Optional)
f (b) - f (a)
Consider a new function g ( x ) f ( x ) - f ( a ) - ( x - a).
b-a
g(x) is the vertical displacement between curve y = f(x) and the
secant line joining (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)). So g(a) = g(b) = 0.
Differentiating gives f (b) - f (a)
g ( x) f ( x) - .
b-a
So to prove the mean value theorem we have to show the
existence of a point c such that g(c) = 0.
If g(x) 0 on [a, b], the proof is trivial.
Otherwise there is x0 (a, b) with g (x0) 0. To be specific,
assume g(x0) > 0.
By Theorem 1.7.5 (the intermediate value theorem), g attains
its maximum at c [a, b].
Since g(c) g(x0) > 0, c must belong to the open interval (a, b).
So by Fermats Theorem, g(c) = 0. 23
3.3.1 Rolles Theorem
If the secant line joining (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)) is horizontal,
then we have a special case:

COROLLARY 3.3.1 Rolles Theorem

If function f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable
on (a, b), and if f(a) = f(b) then there exists a point
c (a, b) such that f (c) = 0.

Example Given f(x) = 1 + x5(x 1)7 show that f (x) = 0

has at least one root on the interval (0, 1).

24
3.3.2 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
DEFINITION
On an interval (a, b), a function f is called:
increasing if f(x1) < f(x2) for all x1, x2(a, b) such that x1 < x2
decreasing if f(x1) > f(x2) for all x1, x2(a, b) such that x1 < x2
A function which is either increasing or decreasing on (a, b)
is said to be monotonic on (a, b).
Whether a function is increasing or decreasing can be
determined by looking at the sign of the first derivative.

THEOREM 3.3.2 The Sign of the Derivative

Let f be a function which is differentiable on (a, b)
If f (x) > 0 for all x (a, b), then f is increasing on (a, b).
If f (x) < 0 for all x (a, b), then f is decreasing on (a, b).
25
3.3.2 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
This theorem states formally what we intuitively expect.
It can be proved using the mean value theorem, as follows.

Proof (Optional)
For any two points x1 < x2 in (a, b), the mean value theorem
tells us that there exists c between x1 and x2 such that
f ( x2 ) - f ( x1 )
f (c) .
x2 - x1

Consider first the case f (x) > 0 for all x (a, b).
Then f (c) > 0.
Since (x2 x1) is positive, f(x2) f(x1) must also be positive,
that is, f(x2) > f(x1). Thus the function is increasing.
The case f (x) < 0 can be proved similarly.
26
Example 9
Find the interval(s) on which f(x) = x2 2x 2 is increasing.

Note: Between two critical points, f (x) cannot change sign.

So to find the sign of f (x) in an interval between critical points,
we can evaluate f (x) at any test point in that interval. 27
3.3.3 The First Derivative Test
We can determine the nature of a critical point (maximum,
minimum or neither) by looking at the sign change of f (x).
THEOREM 3.3.3 First Derivative Test for Critical Points
Suppose f(x) is differentiable and c is a critical value of f .
If f (x) changes from + to at c, then f has a local max at c.
If f (x) changes from to + at c, then f has a local min at c.
If f (x) does not change sign at c, then f has neither a local
maximum nor a local minimum at c.

28
Example 10 For function f(x) = x3 12x + 5, find the intervals
of increase and decrease and identify any local extrema.
Solution f (x) = 3x2 12 = 3(x2 4) = 3(x 2)(x + 2)
We see that f (x) is continuous, so the critical numbers are
where f (x) = 0, that is x = 2.
These values divide the real line into three intervals:
(-, -2), (-2, 2), and (2, ). Look at the sign of f (x) :
x (-, -2) (-2, 2) (2, )
x2
x+2
f (x)
f(x)

So f(x) increases on (-, -2) and (2, ), decreases on (-2, 2).

f has a local max at (-2, 21) and a local min at (2, -11). 29
Example 11
For the function f(x) = cos2 x + sin x, find the intervals of
increase and decrease and identify any local extrema on [0, p].

30
3.3.4 Concavity Introduction
Concavity refers to how a graph bends. Informally, a curve is
concave up if it bends up, concave down if it bends down.

Consider the figures for concave up.

We see that as we move from left to right,
the slope of the tangent increases
i.e. f (x) increases
this means f(x) is positive

Conversely for concave down,

f (x) decreases
f(x) is negative 31
3.3.4 Concavity Definition and Test
This is formally stated in the following definition and test:

DEFINITION
Let f be a function which is differentiable on (a, b)
f is concave up on (a, b) if f (x) is increasing on (a, b).
f is concave down on (a, b) if f (x) is decreasing on (a, b).

THEOREM 3.3.4 Test for Concavity

Suppose f(x) exists for all x (a, b).
If f(x) > 0 for all x (a, b), then f(x) is concave up on (a, b).
If f(x) < 0 for all x (a, b), then f(x) is concave down on (a, b).

32
3.3.4 Points of Inflection

Points of inflection are points where the concavity changes.

At these points, f(x) changes sign, passing through zero.

THEOREM 3.3.5 Test for Inflection Points

Suppose f(x) exists for all x (a, b), and c (a, b).
If f(c) = 0 and f(x) changes sign at c then f has a point
of inflection at x = c.

33
Example 12 Find the inflection points and intervals of
concavity of y e - x 2
.

34
3.3.4 Critical Points (Revisited)
We know critical points can be classified by looking for a sign
change in the first derivative (Theorem 3.3.3).
But an alternative test is to look at the second derivative:
where a function has a minimum it is concave up,
where it has a maximum, it is concave down.

THEOREM 3.3.6 Second Derivative Test for Critical Points

Suppose f(x) is differentiable, c is a critical point and f(c) exists.
If f(c) > 0 , then f has a local minimum at c.
If f(c) < 0 , then f has a local maximum at c.
Note: If f(c) = 0, this test is inconclusive.
In such cases, the first derivative test should be used.

35
 Example 13
Analyse the function y = x4 4x3 with respect to concavity,
points of inflection and local extrema. Use this information to
sketch the curve.

(See Stewart p.284-5, Example 4) 36

 3.4
Curve Sketching

As shown in the previous example, using the

information obtained from the first and second
derivatives, we can often sketch curves.
If curves have asymptotes, it is also important to
identify these.

37
Asymptotes (Revisited)
Another important part of curve sketching is identifying
asymptotes.
Revision of Chapter 1
If limx f(x) = L or limx- f(x) = L
then the line y = L is an horizontal asymptote to the graph.
If limxa+ f(x) = or limxa- f(x) =
then the line x = a is a vertical asymptote to the graph.

Horizontal asymptotes can be identified by looking at the

behaviour of the function as x .
Points where a function is undefined may indicate vertical
asymptotes.
A graph may also have other asymptotes. For example, as
x , a function may approach a straight line y = mx + c
(where m is finite and non-zero). 38
Example 14
2x 1
Sketch the graph of y
x-2

39
 3.5
Indeterminate Forms and
lHpitals Rules

In Chapter 1 we learned basic techniques for

finding limits. But with only these techniques,
many limits remain indeterminate. In this section
we learn further techniques for finding limits.

41
3.5.1 Indeterminate Forms
In section 1.6 we learnt the Laws of Limits, including

ln x
Consider f ( x)
x -1
What is lim f ( x) ?
x1
As x 1, both numerator and denominator approach zero
so the value of the limit is not obvious.
This limit is called an indeterminate form of type 0 .
0
What about lim f ( x) ?
x
As x , both numerator and denominator approach infinity
so again the value of the limit is not obvious.
This limit is called an indeterminate form of type .
42
Indeterminate forms may turn out to have any value.
E.g. Limits of type [0/0] include:

A few cases can be found by algebraic manipulation (ch. 1).

E.g.:

Many other cases cannot be evaluated this way.

A systematic method for the evaluation of indeterminate
forms is known as LHpitals Rule.
43
3.5.2 LHpitals Rule

THEOREM 3.5.1 LHpitals Rule

Suppose functions f and g are differentiable and g (x) 0
for x near but not equal to a.
If is an indeterminate form of type 0 or
0
then

provided the limit on the right hand side exists or is .

The rule is also valid for one-sided limits and for limits at .
That is, in the theorem above, x a can be replaced by
x a+, x a-, x or x -.
44
LHopitals Rule: Notes
LHpitals rule only applies to indeterminate forms!
In other cases it can give incorrect results.
E.g. For x2 1 , lim f ( x) is not indeterminate.
f ( x) x1
2x 1
x2 1 1 1 2
By substitution we have lim
x1 2 x 1 2 1 3

2x
Applying LHopitals rule would give lim 1 which is wrong!
x1 2

Some indeterminate forms are evaluated more easily by

algebraic manipulation or other techniques.
try to find limits by substitution or other methods first.
Use LHopitals Rule only if other methods fail.
45
3.5.2 LHopitals Rule
Proof (Optional)
As an example, we will prove LHopitals Rule just for the
case of an indeterminate form of type 0 with f(a) = g(a) = 0,
0

with f and g continuous, and g (a) 0.

By the Law of Limits for quotients and the definition of the

derivative,

46
Example 15
Find the following limits:

47
Example 16 Find the following limits:
ln x
(a) lim
x1 x - 1

ln x
(b) lim 3
x x

cos ax - cos bx
(c) lim
x0 x2

48
3.5.3 Extensions of LHopitals Rule
There are other indeterminate forms, including the following:

LHopitals Rule as given, applies only to forms [0/0] and [/].

Other indeterminate forms can usually be transformed to type
[0/0] or [/] by algebraic manipulation and/or taking logs.
49
3.5.3 Extensions of LHopitals Rule
Indeterminate Products
Suppose limxa f(x)g(x) yields [0 ] or [ 0].
We can rewrite fg as a quotient: f /(1/g) or g/(1/f).
This will be an indeterminate form of type [0/0] or [/].
So then we can use LHopitals Rule.

Indeterminate Differences
Suppose limxa[f(x) g(x)] yields [ ].
Sometimes we can rewrite the difference as a quotient
and again use LHopitals Rule.

50
Example 17 Find the following limits:
1
(a) lim x sin
x x

(b) lim - (sec x - tan x)

xp 2

51
Example 18 Find the following limits:

(a) lim x ln x
x0

(b) lim (te1 t - t )

t

52
3.5.3 Extensions of LHopitals Rule
Indeterminate Powers
Limits of the form limxa [f(x)]g(x) may yield indeterminate
forms of type [00], [0], [1].
They can often be found by first finding the limit of the
logarithm:
1. Let y = [f(x)]g(x), then ln y = g(x) ln f(x).
2. Find limxa[ln y] = limxa[g(x) ln f(x)].
This will be a product of type [0 ] which can be
found as described above.
3. From limxa[ln y ], deduce the value of limxa y.
lim(ln y )
[ ye ln y
so lim y lim e ln y
e xa ]
xa xa
Other cases can be solved by writing the function as an
exponential:
53
 x
Example 19 Find (a) lim x (b) lim(1 - 3x)1 x
x0 x0

54
 3.6
Maxima and Minima Problems
In Section 3.2 we learnt to find maximum or minimum
values of a function, either on its entire domain or on a
closed interval. There are many practical situations
where one wants to do this,
e.g. - maximize profit or volume,
- minimize time, distance or cost.
Such problems are often called optimization
problems. Here we present a general method for
tackling such problems and several examples.
55
Example 21
A closed cylindrical can is to be made to hold 1000 cm3 of
liquid. How should we choose the height and radius to
minimize the surface area of the can?
Solution STEP 1 Diagram:
Let h be the height of the can (in cm)
Let r be the radius (in cm)
Let S be the surface area of the can (in cm2)
STEP 2
The surface area of the can is: S 2p r 2 2p rh (1)
The volume is 1 litre, so V p r 2h 1000 (2)
From (2) we have h 1000
p r2 2000
Substituting this into (1) gives S (r ) 2p r 2 (3)
r
Now we can look for max/min values of S(r). 56
STEP 3
We want to find the minimum of S(r) on its domain, r > 0.
STEP 4
2000
We have S (r ) 2p r
2
(3)
r
dS 2000
We have critical numbers where 4p r - 2 0
dr r
That is 4p r 3 2000 , so r 3 500 5.42 cm
p
Then h 1000 10.8 cm
p r2
We have just one critical number on the domain.
Clearly as r 0 and as r , the surface area becomes
infinite. So this critical number must be the minimum.
(Alternatively this could be proved by a derivative test.)
So to minimize the surface area, the can should have radius
5.42 cm and height 10.8 cm.
57
Optimization Problems: General Procedure

Step 1.
Read the problem until you understand it clearly.
Assign variables to the quantities involved.
If possible, draw a diagram, and label it with the variables.
Which quantities are given? Which must be found?

Step 2.
Find a formula for the quantity (say Q) to be optimised.
If Q depends on more than one variable, find equations
(called constraints) linking these variables.
Use the constraints to eliminate variables until Q is written as
a function of only one variable.

58
Optimization Problems: General Procedure

Step 3.
By considering the physical restrictions in the problem,
identify the interval on which Q is to be optimized, i.e. identify
the domain of the function.

Step 4.
Apply the Closed Interval Method (see Section 3.2) to find the
global maxima or minima of the function Q on the relevant
domain.
Use physical arguments or a derivative test to show that the
point you have found is a max/min.
Make a concluding statement answering the question.

59
Example 22
Find the point on the line y = 4x + 7 that is closest to
the origin.

60
Example 23
A farmer has 800 m of material to build a fence. He wants to
fence off a rectangular field that borders a straight river. He
needs no fence along the river. What is the maximum area the
field can have?

61
Example 24
Fred is at A on the bank of a straight river which is 3 km wide.
He want to get to point B which is on the other side of the
river and 8 km downstream. He can swim at 5 km/hr and can
run at 8 km/hr. To get to B as quickly as possible, what route
should he take?

62
 3.7
Newtons Method
Consider an equation of the form f(x) = 0.
A solution of this equation is also called a root of the
equation (or a zero or a root of the function).
For some equations, roots can be found algebraically.
For other equations they cannot! In such cases,
Newtons method is useful. It is a procedure for finding
approximate, numerical solutions of equations.

63
Preliminary: Decimal Places and Significant Figures
Note the difference between decimal places (d.p.) and
significant figures (s.f.).
For example, p = 3.141592654

Correct to 3 d.p. Correct to 3 s.f.

p 3.142 3.14

100p 314.159 314

0.000314
p/1000 0.003
= 3.14 10-3
64
Newtons Method: Introduction
Suppose we want to find the root of the function f(x).
Choose a number x0 which you think is close to the root.
Call this the initial guess.
Draw the tangent line to the graph at (x0, f(x0)).
Let x1 be where this tangent line meets the x-axis.
x1 will usually be closer to the root than x0 was.
Repeat until you have an
answer of the desired accuracy.

We will find a formula for

x1, then for x2, etc.
65
Newtons Method: Deriving the Formula
The tangent line at (x0, f(x0)) has equation
y f ( x0 ) f ( x0 )( x - x0 )
Point (x1, 0) lies on this line, so
0 f ( x0 ) f ( x0 )( x1 - x0 )
f ( x0 )
This rearranges to x1 x0 -
f ( x0 )
f ( x1 ) f ( xn )
Similarly x2 x1 - . In general, xn1 xn - .
f ( x1 ) f ( xn )

THEOREM 3.7.1 Newtons Method

To find a numerical approximation to a root of f (x) = 0:
1. Choose an initial guess, x0
2. Generate successive approximations using
f ( xn )
xn1 xn -
f ( xn )
66
Example 25
Use Newtons method to find, correct to eight significant figures,
the root of the equation x3 - 2 x - 5 0 in the interval [1, 3].

We take f ( x) x3 - 2 x - 5 , then f ( x) 3x 2 - 2
f ( xn ) xn3 - 2 xn - 5
Newtons formula is xn1 xn - xn -
f ( xn ) 3xn 2 - 2
23 - 2(2) - 5 (-1)
Taking x0 = 2, x1 2 - 2- 2.1
3(2) - 2
2 10
2.13 - 2(2.1) - 5 0.061
Then x2 2.1 - 2.1 - 2.094568121
3(2.1) - 2
2 11.23
(1.8572 10-4 )
Then x3 2.0945681 - 2.094551482
11.16
Then x4 ... 2.094551482
x3 and x4 agree to 8 s.f. so we can conclude that the root
of the equation, correct to 8 s.f., is 2.0945515 67
Note
This is an iterative method. To iterate means to repeat.
The step of finding xn is called the nth iteration.
The method can be slow by hand but calculators and
computers can easily be programmed to follow it!
The choice of the initial guess, x0, is often important.
The closer x0 is to the actual root, the better the method
may work.
If a certain x0 does not work well, try a different x0.
If a function has more than one root, different choices
of x0 may lead to different roots.
You may need a sketch graph to choose x0
Newtons method usually converges quickly.
But for a few functions it doesnt work at all! 68
Example 26
Use Newtons method to find 5 correct to three
decimal places, using 2 as the initial guess.

69
Example 27
Find the solution of cos x = x, correct to six decimal places.

70
 3.8
Anti-derivatives
& Indefinite Integrals
Since chapter 2 we have been looking at problems where
we know a function f and need to find its derivative.
Now we start thinking about the the reverse problem: we
know the derivative and want to find the original function.

71
3.8.1 Introduction to Antiderivatives
Consider two problems:
d 2
Problem 1. ( x ) f ( x) What is f(x)? Ans: f(x) = 2x.
dx
d
Problem 2. F ( x) 2 x What is F(x)?
dx
Problem 1 provides an answer to Problem 2: F(x) = x2.
But F(x) = x2 + 7 would also be an acceptable answer.
Or in general, F(x) = x2 + C where C is a constant.
We say 2x is the derivative of x2,
x2 is an antiderivative of 2x.
DEFINITION
An antiderivative of a function f on an interval I is
a function F whose derivative is equal to f on I:
F ( x) f ( x) x I
72
3.8.1 Antiderivatives & Constants

Note that antiderivatives are not unique because we

can always add a constant.
Are there any other antiderivatives besides those obtained
by adding a constant? The following theorem says no.

THEOREM 3.8.1
Let F(x) be an antiderivative of f(x) on an interval I.
Then every other antiderivative on this interval is of the
form G(x) = F(x)+C for some constant C.
(See textbooks for proof by mean value theorem.)

So if we know a function f(x) has one antiderivative F(x),

then we can represent all its antiderivatives by the F(x) + C
where C is a constant.
73
3.8.2 Antiderivatives & Indefinite Integrals
The process of finding an antiderivative is called integration
(for reasons which will be discussed in Chapter 3).
DEFINITION
The indefinite integral of a function f on an interval I is
denoted f(x)dx and is the general antiderivative f on I.
If F is any specific antiderivative of f on I then
f(x)dx = F(x) + C, where C is an arbitrary constant.
is an integral sign.
The function f(x) in the integral is called the integrand.
f(x)dx is read the integral of f(x) with respect to x.
The constant C is called the constant of integration.
Example 28
Find (a) x dx (b) dx
x2 74
From the derivatives studied in chapter 2, you should already
know many basic indefinite integrals. Complete the chart below.

xn1
x dx C , n -1 x dx
n 2
n1
sec

1
x dx ln x C sec x tan x dx

dx
e dx
x

1 x 2

cos x dx
dx

1- x 2
sin x dx

75
You should also know simple extensions of these results, such as:
ax b ax b 1 -1 x

1 dx
e dx e C tan C
a2 x2
a
a a
1
cos(ax b) dx sin(ax b) C
a
dx x
sin -1 C
a2 - x2 a

3.8.2 Indefinite Integrals

Finding antiderivatives (indefinite integrals) is generally more
difficult than finding derivatives. It will be studied further in
chapter 4. For now we simply observe the results above and
the following two basic rules:

76
 Example 29 Evaluate

- 5) dx
3 1/ 3
(a) (2 x 4 x

(b) sin(3 - 2 x) dx
3 1
(c)
x x3 dx

-3 x
e sec 2 x dx
(d) 2

1
(e) dx
1 - x2
77
3.8.3 Initial Value Problems
dy
An equation of form f ( x) is called a differential
dx
equation.
Its general solution is y = F(x) + C
where F(x) is a specific antiderivative of f(x)
C is an unknown constant.
Suppose we also know the value of y for some value of x,
that is, we have information of the form y(x0) = y0. This
information is called a boundary condition or initial
condition.
Then we can find the value of C, and thus the particular
solution of the problem.

78
Example 30

(a) Find f given

f ( x) 12 x - 3,
2
f (0) 2.

(b) Solve the equation y = sin(px) given that y(1) = 0.

79
Example 31
A car is travelling at 20 m/s. The brakes are applied,
producing a constant deceleration of 2 m/s2. How far
does the car travel before stopping?

80