Calculus 1 with Dr.

Janet Semester 2, 2013/14

Chapter 2 DIFFERENTIATION
2.1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems.
Rates of Change
For a function y(x),
2.2 The Derivative. Higher-Order Derivatives
dy
what
2.3 is the
Rules meaning of
of Differentiation. ?
dx
2.4 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social
Sciences
2.5 Implicit Differentiation
2.6 Differentiation of Inverse Functions
2.7 Linear Approximations. Differentials.
1
 2.1
The Tangent and Velocity Problems.
Rates of Change
A major application of Calculus is determining how one
quantity varies with another.
For example, someone might want to know
How profit varies with amount spent on advertising
How the population of a colony of bacteria changes with time
How the energy loss of an electronic device changes with
applied current
We need to learn more about rates of change.

2
Revision: Straight Lines, Slopes and Rates of Change
A straight line has equation y mx c where m is the
slope (or gradient) of the line:
Dy y2 y1
m
Dx x2 x1

m tells us the rate of change

of y with respect to x.
E.g. if m = 5 then Dy = 5 Dx,
so for every unit increase in x,
y increases by 5 units.
Straight lines represent situations where a rate of
change is constant. 3
Example 1: Motion with Constant Velocity
Suppose a car travels due north at a constant speed.
After 2 hours the car has travelled 100 km.
a) What is the speed of the car?
b) Sketch a graph of displacement, s, as a function of time, t.

a) The velocity is constant so we can simply say

distance travelled 100 km
velocity 50 km/hr
time taken 2 hr

b) The graph of s(t) is a 100

straight line.
The velocity is the slope of s (km)
the line: Ds s2 s1
v .
Dt t2 t1
t (hours) 2 4
Curves and Average Rate of Change
For a graph y = f(x) which is not a straight line, there are
two important concepts.
1) The average rate of change of y with respect to x
on an interval [x1, x2] is the slope of the secant line*
joining [x1, y1] and [x2, y2]:

Dy y2 y1
m
Dx x2 x1
f ( x2 ) f ( x1 )

x2 x1
(blue line in figure)

*A secant line is a line through two points on a curve. 5

Average Velocity
E.g. for a graph of displacement, s, as a
function of time, t,
change in displacement
average velocity
change in time
Ds s2 s1 s(t2 ) s(t1 )
vav
Dt t2 t1 t2 t1
average velocity slope of secant line
Note: With distance and speed we are not concerned with
the direction in which the movement occurs.
To be more precise and also consider the direction, we use
displacement (directed distance) and velocity.
speed = |velocity|
Total distance traveled is the sum of the absolute values of the
displacements. 6
 Example 2: Average Velocity

John leaves Ho Chi Minh city and drives north for 4 hours.
Every half-hour he notes how far he has travelled.
Time, t (hrs) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Distance, s (km) 0 30 62 98 140 180 224 256 298

Find his average speed (a) in the first half hour, (b) in the last
hour, (c) over the whole journey.

Ds s2 s1 30 0 (km)
(a) average speed vav 60 (km/hr)
Dt t2 t1 0.5 0 (hrs)

(b) vav
298 224
74 (km/hr)
43
298 0
(c) vav 74.5 (km/hr)
40 7
Curves and Instantaneous Rates of Change

For a curve y = f(x), the second important concept is

2) The instantaneous rate of

change of y at x1 is the slope
of the tangent to the curve at x1.
(red line in figure)

The word tangent comes from the Latin word tangens

meaning touching.
A tangent to a curve is a straight line that:
- touches the curve
- has the same direction as the curve at the point of contact
8
The Tangent Problem
Consider a curve C with equation y = f(x). What is the
slope m of the tangent to C at the point P where x = a?
Choose a point Q on C, near point P
Find the slope mPQ of the secant line PQ.
Let Q approach P along C.
The secant line PQ will approach the tangent line t.

The slope of the tangent

line is said to be the limit of
the slopes of the secant
lines as Q approaches P.
m lim
QP
mPQ

9
We see
Dy f ( x) f (a)
mPQ
Dx xa
So
f ( x) f ( a )
m lim mPQ lim
Q P xa xa
DEFINITION
The tangent line to the curve y = f(x) at the point P(a, f(a))
is the line through P with slope
f ( x) f ( a )
m lim
provided that this limit exists.
xa xa

Then the tangent line at P has equation:

y f (a) m( x a)
10
Normals
The normal to a curve at
a point is the line
perpendicular to the
tangent at this point, so
has slope
1
mnormal
mtangent

11
Example 3 Find the equation of the tangent line to the
curve y = x2 at the point P(1, 1).

Let Q be the general point (x, x2).

Then f ( x) f (1)
mPQ
x 1
x 2 1 ( x 1)( x 1)

x 1 x 1
x 1
So m lim mPQ lim( x 1) 2
Q P x1

The tangent line has slope 2 and passes through (1, 1),
so it has equation y 1 2( x 1)
y 2x 1 12
Average and Instantaneous Velocity Summary

On time interval t0 to t,
the average velocity is
Ds s(t ) s(t0 )
vav
Dt t t0
= slope of secant line
t0 t

The instantaneous velocity at

time t0 is:
s(t ) s(t0 )
v(t0 ) lim vav lim
t t0 t t0 t t0
= slope of tangent line

13
Example 4: Average and Instantaneous Velocity
The graph below shows the displacement, s, of a moving
object as a function of time, t.
(a) Find the average velocity over the time period [0, 6].

(b) What is the instantaneous velocity (i) when t = 5?

(ii) when t = 2.5?

14
2.1 Derivatives: Definition
Finding any instantaneous rate of change, i.e. the
slope of a tangent line, involves finding a limit of the
form f ( x) f (a )
lim
x a xa
Such limits are also often written in the equivalent
form: f ( a h) f ( a ) (where x = a + h).
lim
h0 h
This type of limit has a special name and notation:
The derivative of a function f at a number a, denoted by
f '(a), is: f ( a h) f ( a )
f '(a) lim if this limit exists.
h 0 h

Or equivalently, f ( x) f (a )
f '(a) lim
x a xa
15
Remember!
Derivative = slope of tangent = instantaneous rate of change

E.g. At P, f(a) is large,

gradient is steep,
y changes rapidly with x
At Q, f(a) is small
gradient is shallow,
y changes slowly with x

Finding derivatives using limits is slow, but

it is sometimes necessary
it is important for understanding the meaning of derivatives
it can help us estimate a derivative using graphical methods
where we do not have a precise equation
16
Example 6
A manufacturer produces bolts of a fabric with a fixed width.
The cost of producing x meters of this fabric is C = f(x)
dollars.
a) What is the meaning of the derivative f(x)?
What are its units?

b) Suppose f(1,000) = 9. What does this mean?

17
Example 7
t D(t)
Let D(t) be the US national debt (in
1980 930.2
billions of dollars) at time t (in years).
The table gives data from 1980 to 2000. 1985 1945.9
(a) What is the meaning of D(1990)? 1990 3233.3
What are its units? 1995 4974.0
(b) Estimate the value of D(1990). 2000 5674.2

(a) D(1990) is the instantaneous rate of change of D

with respect to t at t =1990,
i.e. the rate of increase of national debt in 1990.
Units: billions of dollars per year.

18
 D(t ) D(1990)
D '(1990) lim is the slope of the graph
t 1990 t 1990 of D(t) at t = 1990.
So we could estimate its value by plotting the graph and
estimating the slope at t = 1990.
Or we can say
D(t ) D(1990) D(t ) D(1990)
D '(1990) lim near t = 1990
t 1990 t 1990 t 1990

We have

So we estimate that D(1990) lies between 257.5 and 348.1

billion dollars per year. We could take the average of these
values: 303 billion dollars per year. 19
Later we will look at more practical problems involving rates of
change. But first we will learn more about derivatives and how
to calculate them.

2.2
The Derivative
Higher Order Derivatives

20
 The Derivative as a Function
In the previous section we defined the derivative
of a function f at a fixed number a:
f ( a h) f ( a )
f '(a) lim
h 0 h
If we replace a by a variable x, we obtain:
f ( x h) f ( x )
f '( x) lim
h 0 h
f is a new function - called the derivative of f.
f can be interpreted geometrically as the slope of
the tangent line to the graph of f at the point (x, f(x)).
The domain of f is the set {x | f(x) exists} and may
be smaller than the domain of f.
21
Example 9

Given f ( x) x , find the derivative of f.

State the domain of the function and of its derivative.
f ((xxhh)) ff((xx)) xhh x x
ff '('( xx)) lim lim
lim f lim x
h 0 h h 0
h 0 h h 0 hh
xxhh xx xx hh xx

hlim
lim
0

h 0 hh x hh xx
x
((xxhh))xx 1 1
lim
lim lim
lim
hh

00

hh xxhh xx h 0 xxhh x x
h 0

11 11

xx xx 22 xx

22
Example 10

If f(x) = x2, find f(x).

23
Example 11

The graph of a function f is given

in the figure. Use it to sketch the
graph of the derivative f.

We can find an approximate value for f(x) at any x by drawing

a tangent to the graph f(x) at that x and estimating its slope.

We particularly
notice that the
slope is zero at
three points:
A, B and C.

24
Using the information
gained, we can
sketch f(x):

25
Other Notations
For a function y = f(x), common notations for the derivative are:
dy df d
f '( x) y ' f ( x) Df ( x) Dx f ( x)
dx dx dx
The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation.
The symbols D and d/dx are called differentiation operators.
dy
The Leibnitz notation is perhaps the most common.
dx
Note dy is not a normal ratio but a symbol for a derivative.
dx
In this notation, the definition of the derivative takes a
very natural form: dy Dy
lim
dx Dx 0 Dx
Also dy dy
f (a)
dx x a dx x a 26
Differentiability
Definition
A function f is differentiable at a if f(a) exists.
A function f is differentiable on an interval (a, b) if it is
differentiable at every number in the interval.
Example 12
Show that the function f = |x| is not differentiable at x = 0.

27
Differentiability & Continuity
Theorem:
If f is differentiable at a then f is continuous at a.

Proof
f ( x) f ( a )
If f is differentiable at a then f '(a) lim exists.
h0 xa
We want to prove that f is continuous at a, i.e. lim f ( x) f (a) .
x a

f ( x) f (a )
For x a, f ( x) f (a ) ( x a )
( x a)
Taking limits of both sides, and using the product law for limits:
f ( x) f (a )
lim f ( x) f (a) lim ( x a) lim 0 f (a) 0
xa xa xa ( x a)

So lim f ( x) lim f ( x) f (a) lim f (a) 0 f (a) f (a)

xa xa xa
as required. 28
Differentiability & Continuity, cont.
Note Differentiability implies continuity
Continuity does not imply differentiability (e.g. Example 12)
Discontinuity implies non-differentiability.
A function can fail to be differentiable at a point by:
a) Having a corner or kink
(So the left and right hand limits are different, and the curve
has no tangent at that point.)
b) Having discontinuity (removable, jump or infinite)
c) Having a vertical tangent (f is continuous, but lim f '( x) )
x a

29
Higher Order Derivatives
If f is a differentiable function, then f ' is also a function.
So, f ' may have a derivative of its own, (f ')'.
This is called the second derivative of f and denoted f ".
In Leibniz notation, d dy d 2 y
2
dx dx dx

A second derivative is a rate of change of a rate of change.

The most familiar example is acceleration.

If the displacement of a particle at time t is s(t)
ds 2
Then it has velocity v(t ) and acceleration a(t ) dv d s
2
dt dt dt

30
Higher Order Derivatives, cont.

For example, for the function f ( x) x3 x ,

It can be shown that f '( x) 3x2 1 .
So f '( x h) f '( x)
f ''( x) ( f ') '( x) lim
h 0 h
[3( x h) 2 1] [3x 2 1] 3x 2 6 xh 3h 2 1 3x 2 1
lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h
lim(6 x 3h) 6 x
h 0

Graphs of f, f, f are shown.

f(x) is the slope of y = f(x) at
the point (x,f(x)).
So it is the rate of change of the
slope of the original curve y = f(x).
31
Higher Order Derivatives, cont.

The third derivative is:

f''' = (f")'.
d d2y d3y
y ''' f '''( x) 2 3
dx dx dx

The nth derivative of f is denoted by f (n) and is obtained

from f by differentiating n times.
n
d y
y (n)
f (n)
( x) n
dx

32
 2.3
Rules of Differentiation
Derivatives can be found using the definition
f ( x h) f ( x )
f '( x) lim
h 0 h
but this can be time-consuming and difficult.
In this section we will learn:
some rules which make finding derivatives much easier
how to differentiate constants, power functions,
polynomials, and exponential functions
33
 2.3
Rules of Differentiation
Constant functions
Power functions, the Power Rule
New from Old - Constant multiple, Sum, Difference
- Product Rule, Quotient Rule
Trigonometric Functions
Chain Rule
Exponential functions
34
2.3 The Constant Function

We will start with the simplest function: f(x) = c

The graph is the horizontal line

y = c, which has slope 0.

So, we must have f(x) = 0.

This is also easily shown from

the definition:
f x h f ( x)
f '( x) lim
h 0 h
cc d
lim lim 0 0 (c ) 0
h 0 h h 0 dx
35
2.3 Power Functions
Next consider f(x) = xn where n is a positive integer.
The simplest case is n = 1, f(x) = x.
The graph y = f(x) = x has slope 1.
So d
( x) 1
dx
(This can also be verified from the definition.)

Taking n = 2, f(x) = x2. In Example 10 we found d ( x 2 ) 2 x

dx
Taking n = 3, f(x) = x3.
d 3
It is left as an Exercise to show that ( x ) 3x 2
dx
d n
In general, ( x ) nx n 1 We prove this in the next slide.
dx 36
2.3 Power Functions
Proof
n 1 n2 n2 n 1
x a ( x a)( x
n n
x a xa a )
is a well-known mathematical result, which can be easily
verified simply by multiplying out the right hand side.
Using this we can write
f ( x) f (a) xn an
f '(a) lim lim
x a xa x a x a

lim( x n 1 x n 2 a xa n 2 a n 1 )
x a

a n 1 a n 2 a aa n 2 a n 1
n 1
na
n1

Hence, f ( x) nx , as stated.
37
Example 14

a) If f(x) = x6, find f(x).

b) If y = x1000, find y.

dy
c) If y = t4, find .
dt

d) Find d r 3
dr

38
2.3 The Power Rule
d n n 1
In fact, the formula ( x ) nx is valid for all values
dx
of n: positive and negative, integer and non-integer.
(For proof, see textbooks.)

Example 15
d 1
Show that the power rule gives the result ( x) ,
dx 2 x
as found in Example 9.

39
Example 16
Find the derivatives of
(a) f ( x) x / 2

1
(b) g ( x)
x3

1
(c) x
t t

40
2.3 New Derivatives from Old

We also have the following useful rules:

1. CONSTANT MULTIPLE RULE

If c is a constant and function f(x) is differentiable, then
d d
cf ( x) c f ( x)
dx dx
2. SUM RULE
If f and g are both differentiable, then
d d d
f ( x) g ( x) f ( x) g ( x )
dx dx dx

These laws follow from the related laws of limits. 41

Proof of 1. Let g(x) = cf(x).
g ( x h) g ( x ) cf ( x h) cf ( x)
Then g ( x) lim lim
h0 h h0 h
f ( x h) f ( x ) f ( x h) f ( x )
lim c c lim
h0 h h0 h
cf '( x)
Proof of 2. Let F(x) = f(x) + g(x).
F ( x h) F ( x )
F '( x) lim
h 0 h

lim
f ( x h) g ( x h) f ( x ) g ( x )
h 0 h
f ( x h) f ( x ) g ( x h) g ( x )
lim
h 0
h h
f ( x h) f ( x ) g ( x h) g ( x )
lim lim f
(Law'( x )
1) g ( x)
h 0 h h 0 h
42
2.3 New Derivatives from Old
The Sum Rule can be extended to any number of functions.
E.g., using it twice we get: ( f g h) ' ( f g ) h '
( f g ) ' h '
f ' g ' h '
By writing f - g as f + (-1)g and using both rules, we get
the DIFFERENCE RULE: d d d
f ( x) g ( x) f ( x) g ( x)
dx dx dx
Using these rules together with the power rule we can
differentiate any polynomial.
E.g. d d 7 d 4 d
(2 x 5 x 8 x) 2 ( x ) 5 ( x ) 8 ( x)
7 4
dx dx dx dx
2(7 x6 ) 5(4 x3 ) 8(1) 14 x6 20 x3 8
43
Example 17
Find the points on the curve y = x4 6x2 + 4 where the
tangent line is horizontal.

44
Example 18
Find the points on the hyperbola xy = 12 where the
tangent is parallel to the line 3x + y = 0.

45
Example 19
The equation of motion of a particle is s = 2t3 5t2 + 3t + 4,
where s is measured in centimeters and t in seconds.
Find the acceleration after 2 seconds.

46
2.3 Product Rule

If f and g are both differentiable, then

d d d
f ( x) g ( x) f ( x) g ( x) g ( x) f ( x)
dx dx dx

Or more concisely, ( fg ) f .g f .g

In words: the first times the derivative of the second

plus the second times the derivative of the first.

d df dg
N.B.: ( fg ) !!
dx dx dx

47
2.3 Product Rule

Proof. Let F(x) = f(x)g(x).

F ( x h) F ( x )
Then, F '( x) lim
h 0 h
f ( x h) g ( x h) f ( x ) g ( x )
lim
h 0 h
In order to separate functions f and g, we add and subtract
a term f(x + h)g(x) in the numerator:
f ( x h) g ( x h ) f ( x h ) g ( x ) f ( x h ) g ( x ) f ( x ) g ( x )

F ( x) lim
h0 h
g ( x h) g ( x ) f ( x h) f ( x )
lim f ( x h) lim g ( x)
h0 h h0 h
g ( x h) g ( x ) f ( x h) f ( x )
lim f ( x h) lim lim g ( x) lim
h0 h0 h h0 h0 h
f ( x) g ( x) g ( x) f ( x) 48
Example 21

If f (t ) t (a bt ), find f (t).

49
Example 20
(a) If h(x) = xg(x) and it is known that g(3) = 5 and g(3) =
2, find h(3).

(b)

50
2.3 Quotient Rule

If f and g are both differentiable, then

d d
g ( x) f ( x) f ( x) g ( x)
d f ( x) dx dx

dx g ( x) g ( x)2

Or more concisely, d f g f f g

dx g g2

In words, the bottom times the derivative of the top

minus the top times the derivative of the bottom
over the bottom squared.

51
2.3 Quotient Rule
Proof. Let F(x) = f(x)/g(x).
f ( x h) f ( x )

Then F ( x h) F ( x ) g ( x h) g ( x )
F ( x) lim lim
h0 h h0 h
f ( x h) g ( x ) f ( x ) g ( x h )
lim
h0 h g ( x h) g ( x )

Subtract and add a term f(x)g(x) in the numerator:

f ( x h) g ( x ) f ( x ) g ( x ) f ( x ) g ( x ) f ( x ) g ( x h )
F ( x) lim
h0 h g ( x h) g ( x )

f ( x h) f ( x ) g ( x h) g ( x )
g ( x) f ( x)
h h
lim
h0 g ( x h) g ( x )
52
 (Proof cont.)

f ( x h) f ( x ) g ( x h) g ( x )
lim g ( x) lim lim f ( x) lim
h0 h0 h h0 h0 h
F ( x)
lim g ( x h) lim g ( x) lim g ( x h) lim g ( x)
h0 h0 h0 h0

g ( x) f ( x) f ( x) g ( x)

[ g ( x)]2

Note: Only use the Quotient Rule when really necessary!

Some quotients can be differentiated more easily by rewriting
them in a different form, e.g.
3x 2 2 x
F ( x) 3x 2 x 1 2
x
53
Example 22 Find the derivatives of the given functions
(a) f ( x) x 3
x2 5

x
(b) y
x 1

54
2.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
By considering the graph f(x) = sin x, sketch f (x).

Derivatives of Sine and Cosine

In fact it can be shown that d
sin x cos x
dx NOTE
(See textbooks for proof.) x must be in
RADIANS!
d
And similarly that cos x sin x
dx

Example 23 If f ( x) x 2 cos x , find f (x).

55
 d d sin x
Derivative of tangent (tan x)
dx dx cos x
By quotient rule, d d
d d sin x cos x dx (sin x) sin x dx (cos x)
tan x
dx dx cos x cos 2 x
cos x cos x sin x( sin x)

cos 2 x
cos 2 x sin 2 x 1
2
2
sec 2
x
cos x cos x
d
(tan x )
Derivatives of sec x, cosec x and cot x can similarlysec 2
x be found.
dx
d d
(sin x) cos x (csc x) csc x cot x
dx dx Note
d d x must be in
(cos x) sin x (sec x) sec x tan x
dx dx RADIANS!!
d d
(tan x) sec x
2
(cot x) csc 2 x
dx dx 56
Application
Trigonometric functions are useful for modelling many
real-life phenomena, especially vibrations and waves.

Example 24
An object hung on a vertical spring is stretched
4 cm below its rest position and released at
time t = 0. It performs simple harmonic motion
with time period 2 seconds.
Let s(t) be the displacement downwards
relative the rest position (in cm) at time t.
Then s = f(t) = 4 cos t
Find the velocity and acceleration of the object at time t.

57
2.3 The Chain Rule of Differentiation

Suppose we want to differentiate F ( x) x 2 1

We cannot do this with techniques learned so far.

Notice that F is a composite function:

if we let y f (u) u and u = g(x) = x2 + 1,
then we can write y = F(x) = f (g(x)) = f(u).
That is, F = f g.
Derivatives of composite functions can be found using
the chain rule.

58
2.3 The Chain Rule
If g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at g(x), then
the composite function F = f g (defined by F(x) = f (g(x))
is differentiable at x and F is given by the product:
F'(x) = f '(g(x)) g'(x)

In Leibnitz notation, if y = f(u) and u = g(x) are both

differentiable then dy dy du

dx du dx

This rule can clearly be extended. For example, if y = f(u), u =

g(x), and x = h(t), where f, g and h are all differentiable, then
dy dy dx dy du dx

dt dx dt du dx dt 59
For a proper proof, see the textbooks.
However the formula seems reasonable when we
interpret the derivatives as rates of change.
So dy/dx is the rate of change of y with respect to x
dy/du is the rate of change of y with respect to u
du/dx is the rate of change of u with respect to x

E.g. If y changes three times as fast as u,

and u changes twice as fast as x,
it seems reasonable that y changes six times as fast as x.
I.e. dy dy du

dx du dx

60
Example 25
Differentiate F ( x) x 2 1

61
Note
The chain rule states that if F = g f , i.e. F(x) = g (f(x)),
then F'(x) = g'(f(x)) f '(x)

Combining the chain rule with certain common functions,

we get results like d n1
[ f ( x)] n[ f ( x)]
n
f ( x)
dx
d
sin[ f ( x)] cos[ f ( x)] f ( x)
dx
With practice, you may often be able to use the chain
rule quickly without writing it out in full.

62
Example 26
Differentiate (a) y = sin(3x2), (b) y = 3 sin2 x

63
Example 27 Differentiate
(a) y = (x3 1)100

1
(b) f ( x) .
3
x2 x 1

(c) y x tan
2

64
2.3 Exponential Functions

Let us try to find the derivative of the function f(x) = ax.

f ( x h) f ( x ) a xh a x
f ( x) lim lim
h0 h h0 h
a x ah a x a x (a h 1) ( a h
1)
lim lim
x
a lim
h0 h h0 h h0 h

(a h 1)
What is lim ? 2h 1 3h 1
h0 h h h h
Investigating numerically, 0.1 0.7177 1.1612
it seems this limit exists 0.01 0.6956 1.1047
and is a number whose 0.001 0.6934 1.0992
value depends on a. 0.0001 0.6932 1.0987
65
2.3 Definition of e
Mathematicians have defined the exponential constant,
e, to be the number such that this limit equals 1.
eh 1
e is the number such that lim 1
h 0 h

The data on the previous slide suggests 2 < e < 3.

Mathematicians have found that to 20 decimal
places, e is:
e 2.71828182845904523536

66
2.3 Derivative of ex

With this definition of e we see that the exponential function

f(x) = ex has derivative ( e h
1) x

f ( x) e lim
x
e 1
h0 h

That is, d x
(e ) e x
dx
I.e.
The function is its own derivative
The slope of the tangent to the
curve at any point is equal to the
y-coordinate of the point.

67
Combining with chain rule, we have d f ( x)
e f ( x) e f ( x )
dx
Example 28
Differentiate
(a) y = e3x

(b) y = exp(x2 + 1)

(c) y = xe-a/x

68
2.3 Derivative of ax
Using the derivative of ex and the chain rule, we can find
the derivatives of exponential functions with other bases.

We know that e ln a = a
So we can write d (a x ) d (eln a ) x e(ln a ) x d (ln a) x
dx dx dx
(eln a ) x (ln a)
a x ln a

So for the general exponential function f(x) = ax,

d x
(a ) a x ln a
dx
69
 2.4
Rates of Change in the Natural
and Social Sciences
In Section 2.1 we saw that a derivative represents a
rate of change. Now we know how to find derivatives,
we can apply this to solve practical problems involving
rates of change. We will take examples from biology,
economics and other fields.

70
Revision: Derivatives & Rates of Change
Suppose x and y are any quantities such that y = f(x).
If x changes from x1 to x2, the change in x is Dx x2 x1
The corresponding change in y is Dy f ( x2 ) f ( x1 )

On [x1, x2], the average rate of change of y with respect to x

= slope of the secant line
Dy f ( x2 ) f ( x1 )
=
Dx x2 x1

At x1, the instantaneous rate of

change of y with respect to x
= slope of tangent line
dy Dy
lim
dx Dx0 Dx
71
Rates of Change

Some examples we have already met:

y x dy/dx

Displacement, s time, t Velocity v = ds/dt

Cost of production, Quantity of material Marginal cost
C* produced, x = dC/dx
Rate of change (or
National Debt, D Time, t growth rate) of
national debt = dD/dt

Now we will look at some more examples.

72
2.4 Biology: Population
Let n = f(t) be the number of individuals in an animal
or plant population at time t.
Then dn/dt is the (instantaneous) rate of change of the
population, I.e. the population growth (or decay) rate.
Strictly speaking, this is not quite accurate.
n can only take integer
values, so n = f(t) will be a
step function, discontinuous
whenever a birth or death
occurs, so not differentiable.
But for a large population,
we can approximate the
graph by a smooth curve.
73
Example 29
A population of bacteria is growing in a homogeneous nutrient
medium. It is observed that the population doubles every hour.
(a) Find an expression for the population, n, as a function of t,
assuming the initial population is n0.
(b) If n0 = 100, find dn and explain its meaning.
dt t 5

74
2.4 Business & Economics

In Example 7 we considered the following question:

A manufacturer produces bolts of a fabric with a fixed width.
The cost of producing x meters of fabric is C = f(x) dollars.
What is the meaning of f (x)?

The function C(x) is an example of a cost function.

C(x) is the total cost a company incurs in producing x units
of a certain commodity.
Sometimes x can strictly only take integer values, but for
large x, we can approximate C(x) with a continuous function.
A polynomial model is often used: C(x) = a + bx + cx2 + dx3
then a represents overheads, the other terms represent the
cost of raw materials, labor, etc.

75
2.4 Business & Economics

The derivative dC/dx is called the marginal cost.

It is the rate of change of cost with respect to the
number of items produced.
So it shows how changing the production level changes
the production cost.
For example, suppose a company estimates that the cost
(in $) of producing x items is: C(x) = 10,000 + 5x + 0.01x2
The marginal cost function is: C(x) = 5 + 0.02x
When x = 500, C(500) = 5 + 0.02(500) = $15/item
Compare C(501) C(500) = $15.01
Other functions important in economics are the demand,
revenue, and profit functions and their derivatives:
marginal demand, marginal revenue, and marginal profit.76
2.4 One Idea, Many Applications

You can explore more examples in the Exercises

Joseph Fourier (17681830):

Mathematics compares the most

diverse phenomena and discovers
the secret analogies that unite them.
 2.5 Implicit Differentiation
Implicit Functions
In a function y = f(x), such as y = 7x2 2 or y = x sin x,
one variable is expressed explicitly in terms of another.

In other situations, functions are expressed implicitly.

Examples of implicit functions are: x2 + y2 = 25
x3 + y3 = 6xy
Some such equations can be solved to obtain y as an
explicit function (functions) of x, e.g. y 25 x 2 .
In other cases this is difficult or impossible.
But we can still find dy/dx ...
78
2.5 Implicit Differentiation: Introduction
(Differentiation with respect to a different variable)
We know d 3
dx

x 3x 2 . But what is
d 3
dx

y ?

We can find the answer using the chain rule:

d 3
dx

y
d 3 dy
dy
y
dx
3y 2 dy
dx

Or more generally, for a function f(y),

d d dy
f ( y) f ( y) f ( y) y
dx dy dx

79
Example 31
Find (a) d sin y
dx

(b) d x 2 e3y
dx


(c) d x 2e3y
dx

(d) d sin 2 x
dt

80
2.5 Implicit Differentiation
We use this idea to find derivatives of implicit functions.
METHOD: Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t. x
Rearrange to get an expression for dy/dx.
Example 32
Given x2 + y2 = 25, find dy/dx
Differentiate both sides: d 2 d
( x y ) (25)
2
dx dx
d 2 d 2
So (x ) ( y ) 0
dx dx
dy
Using the chain rule gives 2x 2 y 0
dx
dy x
This rearranges to:
dx y
81
Example 32

Given sin( x y) y 2 cos x , find dy/dx

82
Example 33
The curve x3 + y3 = 6xy is called the folium of Descartes.
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at (3, 3).

83
After finding dy/dx, higher derivatives can be found by
applying the same method again.
Example 34
Find y" if x4 + y4 = 16.
x3
Differentiating once gives: 4x3 + 4y3y' = 0 so y ' 3
y
Then d x3 y 3 (d / dx)( x3 ) x3 (d / dx)( y 3 )
y '' 3
dx y ( y 3 )2
3 2 x
3
x 3
3x y 3x y 3
2 3
3x 2 y y 3 3x xy
3 3 3 22 3 2
x (33 y y ')
y y '' y
y ''
6
y y 6
y6
3( x 2 4
y x 6
) 3 x 2
( y 4
x 4
3( x 2 y 4 x 6 ) 3x 2 ( y 4 x4 ) 3x72 (16) x 2 7
7
7
y '' y 7 48 7y
y y y y
84
 2.6
Differentiation of
Inverse Functions
Remember from chapter 1 that
1
x f ( y ) y f ( x)
To have an inverse, a function must be one-to-one.
The graph of f -1 is the reflection of f in the line y = x.
If f is continuous then f -1 is continuous.
Now we will look at differentiating inverse functions

85
2.6 Derivatives of Inverse Functions: THEOREM

If f is a one-to-one differentiable function with inverse

function f -1 and f(f -1(a)) 0, then the inverse function is

differentiable at a and f -1 ' a 1
f ' f -1 a

If y = f -1(x) then f(y) = x, so in Leibniz notation, dy 1

dx
Proof If y = f -1(x) then f(y) = x, dx
dy
Differentiate both sides w.r.t. x (using
implicit differentiation):
dy
f ' y 1 so dy

1 1
dx
dx dx f ' y
dy

The result agrees with the graph of f -1

being the reflection of f in y = x. 86
Example 35

If f(x) = x2 , x > 0, find (f -1 )(4).

Method 1
Since f(2) = 4, we have f -1(4) = 2.
Also, f(x) = 2x.
So f ' 4
1 1 1 1

f ' f
1
4 f ' 2 4

Method 2
The inverse function is f 1( x) x
Differentiating gives ( f 1)( x) 1 2 x
Which again gives: 1
(f )(4) 1 (2 2) 1 4

87
2.6 Inverse Functions

The above formula for (f -1) is sometimes useful.

Much more useful is the method by which it was derived.
I.e. Given a function y = f -1(x)
Find x = f(y)
Use differentiate both sides (implicitly) w.r.t. x.
Rearrange to get an expression for dy/dx.

We will use this method to find the derivatives of the

inverse trigonometric functions and logarithmic
functions.

88
2.6 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example 36
Find the derivative of f(x) = sin-1x

Let y = sin-1x then sin y = x

dy dy 1
Differentiate w.r.t. x: cos y 1. So .
dx dx cos y

Remember that y = sin-1x is only defined for /2 y /2.

On this range cos y 0. So

dy 1 1 1
(for |x| < 1)
dx cos y 1 sin 2 y 1 x2
89
Derivatives of other inverse trigonometric function can
be found in a similar way. The results are:

d 1 x 1 d 1 1
(sin ) (csc x)
dx a a2 x2 dx x x2 1

d 1 x 1 d 1 1
(cos ) (sec x)
dx a a2 x2 dx x x2 1

d 1 x a d 1 1
(tan ) 2 (cot x)
dx a a x2 dx 1 x2

90
The Natural Logarithmic Function
d
What is (ln x) ?
dx
Let y = ln x, then ey = x.
dy
Differentiate w.r.t. x: ey
1
dx
So dy 1 1
y I.e. d 1
dx e x (ln x)
dx x

This result can be combined with other techniques of

differentiation, for example by chain rule:
d f ( x)
ln[ f ( x)]
dx f ( x)
91
 d 1
Actually, ln x This result is worth
dx x remembering.

Proof
Consider f(x) = ln |x|
ln x if x 0
We have f ( x)
ln( x) if x 0
1
So x if x 0
f f((xx))
1 (1) 1 if x 0
x x
Thus, f (x) = 1/x for all x 0. 92
Example 37 Find the derivatives of the given functions.
(a) y ln | sin x |

(b) y e ln x, x 0
2x

xa
(c) y ln , where a is a constant, x a
xa

93
2.6 General Logarithmic Functions

We have seen that d 1

(ln x)
dx x
How do we find the derivative of logarithmic functions
with other bases?
ln x
We use the fact that log a x
ln a
Differentiating gives:
d d ln x 1 d 1
(log a x) (ln x)
dx dx ln a ln a dx x ln a
Thus
d 1
(log a x)
dx x ln a
94
2.6 Logarithmic Differentiation
Finding derivatives of complicated functions involving
products, quotients or powers can often be simplified by
first taking logarithms. This method is called logarithmic
differentiation.

Method
1. Take natural logarithms of both sides
of an equation y = f(x) and use the Laws
of Logarithms to simplify.
2. Differentiate implicitly with respect to x.
3. Solve the resulting equation for y.
95
Example 38
x3/4 x 2 1
Differentiate y
(3x 2)5

96
Example 39
Differentiate yx x

97
 2.7 Linear Approximations &
Differentials
2.6 Linear Approximations
Let L(x) be the tangent to the
curve y = f(x) at (a, f(a)).
We know L(x) = f(a) + f (a)(x a)
Near x = a, we have f(x) L(x).

The approximation f(x) f(a) + f (a)(x a)

is called the linear approximation or tangent line
approximation of f at a.
The closer x is to a, the more accurate the approximation. 98
2.6 Linear Approximations

Linear approximations can be useful

If f(x) is difficult to calculate, but f(a) is easy or known.
Because linear functions are very easy to deal with

Also,

The linear function whose graph is this tangent line,

L(x) = f(a) + f(a)(x a)
is called the linearization of f at a.

99
Example 40
Find the linearization of f ( x) x 3 at a = 1 and use
it to approximate the numbers 3.98 and 4.05
Are these approximations overestimates or underestimates?

100
2.6 Errors

Error = (estimated value) (actual value)

Often a more useful concept is percentage error.
error
Percentage error = 100%
actual value

In the previous example, the linearization gives

4.05 2.0125
The actual value is 4.05 2.01246117...
So the error is 0.00003883 (to 8 d.p.)
The percentage error is 2 103 % (to 1 s.f.)
101
Example 41

Find the linearization of f(x) = sin x at a = 0.

Note
When is close to zero we have the linear approximations
sin and cos 1
These approximations are frequently used, especially in
physics. They are good approximations for small angles.102
2.6 Differentials
The ideas behind linear approximations can also be
presented in terms of differentials.
If y = f(x) then the differential dx is an independent
variable: it can take any value.
The differential dy is then defined by dy f ( x) dx
Graphically we see that letting
dx Dx,
the corresponding change in the
function is Dy,
the corresponding change in the
tangent line is dy f ( x) dx.

So the linear approximation is

Dy dy 103
For example, if y = x2
then dy 2 x dx

Example 42
A circle is measured to have radius 5.0 0.1 cm.
Find the area of the circle and the approximate error in
the area.

104