Magnetosphere

near the noon meridian, later named the magnetopause.

In 1983, the International Cometary Explorer observed
the magnetotail, or the distant magnetic eld.[4]

2 Types
The structure and behavior of magnetospheres are depen-
dent on several variables: the type of astronomical ob-
ject, the nature of sources of plasma and momentum, the
A rendering of the magnetic eld lines of Earths magnetosphere period of the objects spin, the nature of the axis about
which the object spins, the axis of the magnetic dipole,
and the magnitude and direction of the ow of solar wind.
A magnetosphere is the region of space surrounding an
astronomical object in which charged particles are con- The distance at which a planet can withstand the solar
trolled by that objects magnetic eld.[1][2] The magnetic wind pressure is called the ChapmanFerraro distance.
eld near the surface of many astronomical objects re- This is modeled by a formula wherein RP represents the
sembles that of a dipole. The eld lines farther away from radius of the planet, Bsurf represents the magnetic eld
the surface can be signicantly distorted by the ow of on the surface of the planet at the equator, and VSW rep-
electrically conducting plasma emitted from a nearby star resents the velocity of the solar wind:
(e.g. the solar wind from the Sun).[3][4] ( 2 ) 16
Bsurf
RCF = RP 0 V 2
SW

A magnetosphere is classied as intrinsic when

1 History
Main article: Magnetosphere chronology
Study of Earths magnetosphere began in 1600, when
William Gilbert discovered that the magnetic eld on the
surface of Earth resembled that on a terrella, a small,
magnetized sphere. In the 1940s, Walter M. Elsasser
proposed the model of dynamo theory, which attributes
Earths magnetic eld to the motion of Earths iron outer
core. Through the use of magnetometers, scientists were
able to study the variations in Earths magnetic eld as
functions of both time and latitude and longitude. Begin-
ning in the late 1940s, rockets were used to study cosmic
rays. In 1958, Explorer 1, the rst of the Explorer series
of space missions, was launched to study the intensity of
cosmic rays above the atmosphere and measure the uc-
tuations in this activity. This mission observed the exis-
tence of the Van Allen radiation belt (located in the in-
ner region of Earths magnetosphere), with the Explorer
3 mission later that year denitively proving its existence.
Also in 1958, Eugene Parker proposed the idea of the
solar wind. The term 'magnetosphere' was proposed by
Thomas Gold in 1959. The Explorer 12 mission (1961)
led to the observation by Cahill and Amazeen in 1963 of
a sudden decrease in the strength of the magnetic eld
RCF RP , or when the primary opposition to the
ow of solar wind is the magnetic eld of the object.
Mercury, Earth, Jupiter, Ganymede, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune exhibit intrinsic magnetospheres. A magneto-
sphere is classied as induced when RCF RP ,
or when the solar wind is not opposed by the objects
magnetic eld. In this case, the solar wind interacts with
the atmosphere or ionosphere of the planet (or surface
of the planet, if the planet has no atmosphere). Venus
has an induced magnetic eld, which means that because
Venus appears to have no internal dynamo eect, the only
magnetic eld present is that formed by the solar winds
wrapping around the physical obstacle of Venus (see also
Venus induced magnetosphere). When RCF RP , the
planet itself and its magnetic eld both contribute. It is
possible that Mars is of this type.[5]
3 Structure
3.1 Bow shock
Main article: Bow shock
The bow shock forms the outermost layer of the magne-
tosphere; the boundary between the magnetosphere and

1
2 3 STRUCTURE

magnetic eld varies erratically. This is caused by the

1 2 3 5
collection of solar wind gas that has eectively under-
gone thermalization. It acts as a cushion that transmits
the pressure from the ow of the solar wind and the bar-
rier of the magnetic eld from the object.[4]

3.3 Magnetopause

Main article: Magnetopause

The magnetopause is the area of the magnetosphere

4 7 6 plasma from the magnetosphere. Because both sides of
An artists rendering of the structure of a magnetosphere: 1) Bow
shock. 2) Magnetosheath. 3) Magnetopause. 4) Magnetosphere.
5) Northern tail lobe. 6) Southern tail lobe. 7) Plasmasphere.
wherein the pressure from the planetary magnetic eld
is balanced with the pressure from the solar wind.[3] It
is the convergence of the shocked solar wind from the
magnetosheath with the magnetic eld of the object and
this convergence contain magnetized plasma, the inter-
actions between them are complex. The structure of the
magnetopause depends upon the Mach number and beta
of the plasma, as well as the magnetic eld.[8] The mag-
netopause changes size and shape as the pressure from the
solar wind uctuates.[9]

3.4 Magnetotail

Opposite the compressed magnetic eld is the magneto-

tail, where the magnetosphere extends far beyond the as-
tronomical object. It contains two lobes, referred to as
the northern and southern tail lobes. Magnetic eld lines
in the northern tail lobe point towards the object while
those in the southern tail lobe point away. The tail lobes
are almost empty, with few charged particles opposing
the ow of the solar wind. The two lobes are separated
by a plasma sheet, an area where the magnetic eld is
weaker and the density of charged particles is higher.[10]

Infrared image and artists concept of the bow shock around R

Hydrae 3.5 Earths magnetosphere

the ambient medium. For stars, this is usually the bound- See also: Earths magnetic eld Magnetosphere
ary between the stellar wind and interstellar medium; for Over Earths equator, the magnetic eld lines become al-
planets, the speed of the solar wind there decreases as it
approaches the magnetopause.[6]

3.2 Magnetosheath

Main article: Magnetosheath

The magnetosheath is the region of the magnetosphere

between the bow shock and the magnetopause. It
is formed mainly from shocked solar wind, though
it contains a small amount of plasma from the Artists rendition of Earths magnetosphere
magnetosphere.[7] It is an area exhibiting high particle
energy ux, where the direction and magnitude of the most horizontal, then return to reconnect at high latitudes.

Deected solar wind particles
Incoming solar wind particles
Plasma sheet
Van Allen radiation belt
Solar wind
Neutral sheet
Earth's atmosphere
0 - 100 km
Polar cusp
Bow shock
Diagram of Earths magnetosphere
However, at high altitudes, the magnetic eld is signi-
cantly distorted by the solar wind and its solar magnetic
eld. On the dayside of Earth, the magnetic eld is signif-
icantly compressed by the solar wind to a distance of ap-
proximately 65,000 kilometers (40,000 mi). Earths bow
shock is about 17 kilometers (11 mi) thick[11] and located
about 90,000 kilometers (56,000 mi) from Earth.[12] The
magnetopause exists at a distance of several hundred kilo-
meters above Earths surface. Earths magnetopause has
been compared to a sieve because it allows solar wind
particles to enter. KelvinHelmholtz instabilities occur
when large swirls of plasma travel along the edge of the
magnetosphere at a dierent velocity from the magne-
tosphere, causing the plasma to slip past. This results
in magnetic reconnection, and as the magnetic eld lines
break and reconnect, solar wind particles are able to en-
ter the magnetosphere.[13] On Earths nightside, the mag-
netic eld extends in the magnetotail, which lengthwise
exceeds 6,300,000 kilometers (3,900,000 mi).[3] Earths
magnetotail is the primary source of the polar aurora.[10]
Also, NASA scientists have suggested that Earths mag-
netotail might cause dust storms on the Moon by cre-
ating a potential dierence between the day side and the
night side.[14]
3.6 Other objects
The magnetosphere of Jupiter is the largest planetary
magnetosphere in the Solar System, extending up to
7,000,000 kilometers (4,300,000 mi) on the dayside and
almost to the orbit of Saturn on the nightside.[15] Jupiters
magnetosphere is stronger than Earths by an order of
magnitude, and its magnetic moment is approximately
18,000 times larger.[16] Pluto, on the other hand, has no [16] Russell, C.T. (1993). Planetary Magnetospheres
magnetic eld.[17]
4 See also
Geomagnetism Wikipedia book
3
Magnetotail Plasma physics
5 References
[1] Magnetospheres. NASA Science. NASA.
[2] Ratclie, John Ashworth (1972). An Introduction to the
Ionosphere and Magnetosphere. CUP Archive. ISBN
9780521083416.
[3] Ionosphere and magnetosphere. Encyclopedia Britan-
nica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. 2012.
Magnetosheath
[4] Van Allen, James Alfred (2004). Origins of Magneto-
spheric Physics. Iowa City, Iowa USA: University of Iowa
Press. ISBN 9780877459217. OCLC 646887856.
[5] Blanc, M.; Kallenbach, R.; Erkaev, N.V. (2005).
Solar System Magnetospheres. Space Science Re-
views (116): 227298. Bibcode:2005SSRv..116..227B.
doi:10.1007/s11214-005-1958-y.
[6] Sparavigna, A.C.; Marazzato, R. (10 May 2010).
Observing stellar bow shocks (PDF).
[7] Paschmann, G.; Schwartz, S.J.; Escoubet, C.P.; Haaland,
S., eds. (2005). Outer Magnetospheric Boundaries:
Cluster Results. Space Science Reviews. Dordrecht, The
Netherlands: Springer. 118 (1-4). doi:10.1007/1-4020-
4582-4. ISBN 1-4020-3488-1.
[8] Russell, C.T. (1990). The Magnetopause. Physics of
Magnetic Flux Ropes. Washington, D.C., USA: American
Geophysical Union: 439453.
[9] The Magnetopause. NASA.
[10] The Tail of the Magnetosphere. NASA.
[11] Cluster reveals Earths bow shock is remarkably thin.
European Space Agency. 16 November 2011.
[12] Cluster reveals the reformation of Earths bow shock.
European Space Agency. 11 May 2011.
[13] Cluster observes a 'porous magnetopause. European
Space Agency. 24 October 2012.
[14] http://www.nasa.gov/topics/moonmars/features/
magnetotail_080416.html NASA, The Moon and
the Magnetotail
[15] Khurana, K.K.; Kivelson, M.G.; et al. (2004). The con-
guration of Jupiters magnetosphere (PDF). In Bage-
nal, F.; Dowling, T.E.; McKinnon, W.B. Jupiter: The
Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press. ISBN 0-521-81808-7.
(PDF). Reports on Progress in Physics. 56 (6): 687
732. Bibcode:1993RPPh...56..687R. doi:10.1088/0034-
4885/56/6/001.
[17] NASA (14 September 2016). X-ray Detection Sheds
New Light on Pluto. nasa.gov. Retrieved 3 December
2016.
4 6 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

6.1 Text
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