REES-1-A (2) Intro To Railway Engineering, Efficiency & Safety - 2014

SAFETY & EFFICIENCY:
Fundamental Principles
of Rail Transport
Christopher Barkan
Professor & Executive Director
Rail Transportation
and Engineering Center
University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign
REES-1 Safety & Efficiency - Principles of Rail Transport

Presentation Outline
Railroads provide sustainable mobility
Physics of railroad efficiency
Railroad infrastructure design permits
several important economies of scale
This efficiency leads to economic, energy
and environmental benefits
Efficiency poses challenges
Rail safety and metrics
Rail safety trends and comparison to
highway transport
Summary and concluding remarks
2014 Chris Barkan All Rights Reserved REES-1 Safety & Efficiency - Principles of Rail Transport 2
US 20th Century was about
CONVENIENCE
The 21st must consider
EFFICIENCY as well
Then
Abundant: energy, land, natural
resources and cheap labor
Now
Diminishing resources:
Energy
Air quality
Water
Land
Larger economy, more mobile
population
Congestion
Stronger global competition
Need to use our transportation infra-
structure more efficiently and effectively
We need Sustainable mobility
THIS NOT THIS!
North American freight railroads transport large
volumes of cargo - efficiently and profitably
Why is this possible?

Speed and Resistance by Transport Mode
Pipe
line
RESISTANCE (lbs./ton)
Boat
Airplanes
Trucks
Rail uniquely combines

High Speed (& Capacity)
with Low Resistance
SPEED (mph)
Efficiency
1) The ratio of the effective or useful output to the total input in any system.
2) The ratio of the energy delivered by a machine to the energy supplied for
its operation.
Efficiency: The ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the output to the input
of power (energy or work per unit time) In engineering, this concept is
defined precisely and made measurable.
Thus, a gear transmission is 97% efficient when the useful energy output
is 97% of the input, the other 3% being lost as heat due to friction. A
boiler is 75% efficient when its product (steam) contains 75% of the heat
theoretically contained in the fuel consumed.
All automobile engines have low efficiency (below 30%) because,
of the total energy content of fuel converted to heat; only a portion
provides motive power, while a substantial amount is lost in radiator and
car exhaust.
How many miles can one ton be transported
with one gallon of fuel?
3
miles
GM Hummer
33
miles
Toyota Prius hybrid
130
miles
Semi-trailer
480
miles
Railroad freight train
Rail transport is about 3.5 times more energy
efficient than truck
(AAR & FRA data)
Railroad transportation efficiency
Railroads produce output more efficiently than their
principal competition: trucks
What is transportation output
Ton-miles of freight
Passenger-miles of people
Why are railroads so efficient?
Low rolling friction
Large size
Trains
Rolling Friction
FR = WR
R < R
where:
FR = resistive force of
rolling friction
W = weight
R = coefficient of rolling
friction for the two
surfaces R < R
proportional to the
width of the wheel
inversely proportional
to its radius
FR is also inversely
FR < FR
proportional to rolling
surface hardness
Lower coefficient of rolling friction (R)
Steel wheel on steel rail has lower rolling friction
(R) than rubber tire on pavement:
Steel wheel on rail: R = 0.001
Truck tire on pavement: R = 0.006 to 0.010
Tire is 6 to 10 times greater than steel wheel
Consequently lower rolling resistance
But why?
Rubber tire
Major factor is the deformation of the tire while
rolling under load
Small effects of static friction and adhesion
of the rubber
Pavement deflection also contributes
Steel wheel and rail experience elastic
deformation under load as well, but much less
Railroad track design permits optimized investment
to achieve very-high weight-carrying capacity
On highways, the load may be applied anywhere on pavement surface; therefore, all
portions must be capable of supporting all possible loads
Pavement must be correspondingly strong and therefore thick across all
actively used surfaces, but achieving strength equivalent to railroad track is
cost prohibitive and impractical
Railroad track structure concentrates load at two points of contact that are nearly
unvarying in location because of, and requiring use of, narrow, flanged steel wheels
Track structure can be optimized to support concentrated loads at these points
Wheel-Rail interface and contact patch
Track structure design enables use of steel rails that are much stronger than
any feasible pavement surface
Steel not feasible as a pavement surface for cost and performance reasons
Use of rails also provides fixed guideway, which makes trains possible
How large is the contact patch between the wheel and rail?
About the size of a dime 0.50 in2 (= 1/2 square inch)
Economy of Scale
Total Cost =
Fixed Cost
+ Variable Cost
Cost
Fixed Cost
Cost per Unit =
Total Cost /
Number of Units
Number of Units
Average cost per unit of output declines as the number of units
produced increases
Economic principle that is particularly important for rail transportation
Several fundamental aspects of rail transportation benefit from
economies of scale
Larger Size of rail vehicles permits
economies of scale
Strong railroad infrastructure
allows larger, heavier vehicles than
is practical for highways
Permits economies of scale
Larger vehicles: can transport
more weight with less resistance
per unit
Larger engines: can convert
energy to work more efficiently
Trains permit two more important
economies of scale
Low rolling resistance and fixed guideway system enables operation of many
vehicles coupled together leading to two more important economies of scale
Labor: one or two people can operate a single train with 100 to 150 cars
(or more). Considering that each railcar is roughly equivalent to three trucks,
the economies are substantial.
Energy: close spacing of cars in train substantially reduces aerodynamic
resistance compared to trucks. This effect is particularly important at higher
speeds (> 40mph)
One E leads to three
Rail efficiency leads to three fundamental elements of railroads
importance to our economy and society
All are important now but there is a chronology to our understanding
of them
Economics: rail transport was and is less expensive than its
competition, therefore critical to a competitive economy
Energy: efficient use of fuel was always part of rails economic
efficiency, but energy scarcity enhances this aspect
Environment: fewer emissions and land use required per unit of
transportation output means rail is part of the quest for
sustainability
Rail Transport is Economical
This was the original motivation for development of railroads
Before rail there was no practical way to move heavy goods long
distances overland unless there was a navigable river or a canal
was built
Low cost transport CREATES MARKETS for both goods and people
Permits development of large, complex, economies with diverse,
specialized products and skills
Rail Transport is Energy Efficient
Transportation Energy Use Normalized Comparison by

by Mode 2002 Transport Mode
Federal Highway Administration

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/aqfactbk/page13.htm#alt2 http://www.shipsandboxes.com/eng/keytopics/environment/
Energy Consumption Trends by Sector
Transportation is the largest consumer of energy
Data from U.S. Energy Information Administration http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/er/early_consumption.cfm
Estimated US Energy Use in 2012: ~95.1 Quads
Transportation not only uses the most energy of all the major sectors,
but is the least efficient
Petroleum-derived
energy consumption
Transportation accounts for the
majority of petroleum energy
consumption in the U.S.
Of this cars, light trucks (including
SUVs) and heavy trucks account
DOE 2003
for a large majority, followed by air
Rail consumes only a small
fraction of transportation
consumption (estimated to be
2.2% of total in 2009)
Contrast percentage consumed by
rail compared to heavy trucks,
Recall that rail moves about 42%
of intercity freight ton-miles
whereas trucks move about 30%
US DOE -
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/facts/2006_fcvt_fotw414.html Year
Distribution of Intercity Revenue Freight
Ton-Miles by Mode
42%
Source: AAR from Eno Foundation for Transportation

Rail transport is more environmentally sustainable
Transportation is responsible for a Carbon Emissions by Sector 2002
substantial portion of air pollution
Greater energy efficiency of rail corresponds
with reduced emissions of noxious pollutants
and CO2
Growing understanding of the importance of
greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution in
general means that rails importance as a less
polluting form of transport will increase
Substantial R&D on locomotive technology
over the past 20 years has substantially Railroad Electrifications
improved energy efficiency, and reduced Proposals in the 1970s
locomotive emissions
Electric motive power technology is mature and
widely used elsewhere in the world, especially
for rail passenger transport
Presently not economic in US but, if envir-
onmental concerns, or petroleum prices require
it, the transition is possible without waiting for
substantial technological development
Rail transport requires less
land per unit of transport
Transportation output per unit of land is
considerably greater for rail than highway
More units per vehicle (tons or people)
Fewer, larger vehicles, and they are
consolidated into trains, further improving
land-use efficiency
Traffic control system
and transportation land use
Urban areas often have temporal patterns of
directional transport, i.e. rush hour
Into metro center in the morning
Out in the evening
Infrastructure must be built to accommodate this
Nearly twice as much highway capacity may
be needed
Traffic jams, and thus delay and resultant
extra fuel use and emissions still common
Railroad traffic control system can easily
accommodate these temporal differences in
directional demand
Most tracks permit safe, bi-directional
operation
Enables more efficient use of infrastructure
Rail transport benefits from these efficiencies:
but exploiting them imposes constraints as well
Infrastructure design - Heavy loads and high speeds demands particularly robust
infrastructure system design and components
Vehicle design - Large, heavy vehicles capable of supporting their own weight plus
lading, and also very large in-train buff & draft forces
Infrastructure and equipment cost - Large size and strength of infrastructure and
vehicles makes them expensive and capital intensive
Trains - Require standardization of many aspects of design, this combined with their
high cost means there is a need for long life, thereby imposing reverse compatibility
constraints on new technology
Traffic control system - High speeds and mass of trains, combined with low
coefficient of friction at wheel/rail interface means stopping distances are very long,
often longer than sight distance
Small markets - Ironically, in some important aspects railroads suffer because they
cannot exploit economies of scale, e.g. long life and small market for locomotives
means it is hard to justify investment in new tooling as technology advances
Political Influence - Ironically, doing more with less reduces political influence.
Efficient use of resources reduces size of stakeholder groups interested in rail and
efficient use of labor reduces political base
Introduction to Rail Safety
Broad set of safety concerns for railroads
Passengers
Employees
Pedestrians
Communities
Hazardous materials
Track and infrastructure
Rolling stock
Operations
Highway vehicles
REES-1 Safety & Efficiency - Principles of Rail Transport

SAFETY FIRST! Railroads have fostered a strong safety
culture among operating employees for nearly a century
Dates to the Safety First movement of the early decades of the 20th century
Railroads continuously stress safety in and out of the workplace
Extensive investment in technology to improve safety and efficiency
Railroads also have regular, ongoing training schools and programs
for operating personnel
Who are the principal victims
of rail incidents? Grade Crossing
Users: 232
Primarily Trespassers: 438 (32.9%)
(62.1%)
Trespassers
Grade Crossings
Also
Employees:
Employees 16 (2.3%)
Passengers Others:
14 (2.0%)
Other Passengers:
5 (0.7%)
Railroad Employee Safety
Safety of railroad employees is
steadily improving
Operating Rules
Railroads require strict adherence to
safety procedures and rules
Training
Regular, ongoing training schools
and programs for operating
personnel
Technology
Continuous R&D, and
implementation of new
technologies that improve
safety, reliability and efficiency
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
Railroad employee injury rates are
lower than most other industries
Four Notable Railroad Accidents - Summer 2013
17 May, Fairfield, CT 28 May, Rosedale, MD
6 July, Lac-Mgantic, QC, Canada 24 July, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
How does one measure rail safety?
Can measure the frequency of various types of incidents:
Train derailments
Cars derailed
Hazardous materials releases
Injuries and fatalities
etc.
But a large system may have more incidents, despite very good
safety practices
Therefore, data often normalized to develop a rate of occurrence
Several possible normalizer variables:
Train-miles
Car-miles
Ton-miles
Passenger miles
etc.
Example calculation of railroad incident rates
Divide the number of incidents, e.g. accidents, in given period of time
(often annual) by some unit of exposure over the same period of time,
e.g. train miles
Number of Incidents
Incidents Train-Miles per Train-Mile
Railroad A 150 150,000,000 1 x 10-6
Railroad B 30 10,000,000 3 x 10-6
To enhance communication to non-technical audiences, these rates

are often presented per million train miles or some other appropriate
multiplier
So the figures computed above would be:
1 incident per million train miles
3 incidents per million train miles
Railroad Train Accident Rate:
1980 - 2012
12
Train accident rate dropped steeply following deregulation,
Accidents per Million Train-Miles
10 then leveled off, and has begun declining again:

80% since 1980, and
44% since 2000
8
0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year
FRA Data
Railroad/Highway Grade Crossing Incident
Rate: 1980 - 2012
16
Grade crossing collision rate has dropped steadily:
Collisions per Million Train-Miles
82% since 1980, and

45% since 2000
12
0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year
FRA Data
Railroad Trespasser Fatality Rate:
1980 - 2012
Tresspasser fatalities per million
1.00
0.80
train-miles
0.60
Trespasser fatality rate has fluctuated over

0.40
the past 30 years, but is only slightly lower
Many of these involve intoxication or suicide
0.20
0.00
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year
FRA Data
Injury rate for rail versus highway
freight transport
3,000
Number of Injuries Injury Rate
Injuries per Trillion Ton-Miles
42,000
2,500
2,000
30,000
1,500
1,000
4,386
500
2,785
0
Rail Highway
Fatality rate for rail versus highway
freight transport
3,000
Number of Fatalities Fatality Rate
Fatalities per Trillion Ton-Miles
2,470
2,500
2,000
1,791
1,500
1,000
485
500
308
0
Rail Highway
Summary
Railroads provide sustainable mobility because of their inherent
efficiency compared to highway transport
Stength and rigidity of steel wheel on steel rail supported by robust
infrastructure enables much larger, heavier railcars and locomotives,
and consequent economies of scale
Low rolling resistance enables very low power to move very large loads
Fixed guideway system enables trains, which further enhance potential
economies of scale
These efficiencies leads to compelling economic, energy and
environmental benefits
Ironically, rail efficiency also poses certain challenges to railroads
Variety of rail safety considerations and comparisons
Introduced safety metrics, their calculation, some recent trends and
comparisons to highway freight transport
Remember SAFETY FIRST!
Questions?
2014 Chris Barkan All Rights Reserved

REES-1 Safety & Efficiency - Principles of Rail Transport 42

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SAFETY & EFFICIENCY:

REES-1 Safety & Efficiency - Principles of Rail Transport

Why is this possible?

Rail uniquely combines

(AAR & FRA data)

Transportation Energy Use Normalized Comparison by

Federal Highway Administration

Transportation is the largest consumer of energy

Data from U.S. Energy Information Administration http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/er/early_consumption.cfm

Source: AAR from Eno Foundation for Transportation

REES-1 Safety & Efficiency - Principles of Rail Transport

6 July, Lac-Mgantic, QC, Canada 24 July, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Railroad A 150 150,000,000 1 x 10-6

Railroad B 30 10,000,000 3 x 10-6

To enhance communication to non-technical audiences, these rates

10 then leveled off, and has begun declining again:

82% since 1980, and

Trespasser fatality rate has fluctuated over

2014 Chris Barkan All Rights Reserved

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