Geometry of Generalized Complex Numbers

Author(s): Anthony A. Harkin and Joseph B. Harkin

Source: Mathematics Magazine, Vol. 77, No. 2, Permutations (Apr., 2004), pp. 118-129
Published by: Mathematical Association of America
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3219099 .
Accessed: 04/11/2014 11:00

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Mathematical Association of America is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
Mathematics Magazine.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 128.214.7.77 on Tue, 4 Nov 2014 11:00:29 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
1 18 MATHEMATICS NE
MAGAZI

Geometryof Generalized Complex Numbers

A N T H O N Y A. HA RKIN
Divisionof Engineering
and AppliedSciences,HarvardUniversity
Cambridge,MA02138
harkin@deas.harvard.edu

JOSEPH B. HARKIN
SUNYBrockport
Brockport,NY 14420
jharkin@brockport.edu

Alternativedefinitionsof the imaginaryuniti otherthani 2 = _ 1 cangive riseto inter-

esting anduseful complexnumbersystems.The 16th-centuryItalianmathematicians
G. Cardan(1501-1576) andR. Bombelli(1526-1572) arethoughtto be amongthefirst
to utilize the complexnumberswe know todayby calculatingwith a quantitywhose
squareis-1. Since then, variouspeople have modifiedthe originaldefinitionof the
productof complexnumbers.The EnglishgeometerW. Clifford(1845-1879) devel-
opedthe "double"complexnumbersby requiringthati2 = 1. Clifford'sapplicationof
doublenumbersto mechanicshas been supplementedby applicationsto noneuclidean
geometries.The GermangeometerE. Study(1862-1930) addedstill anothervariant
to the collectionof complexproducts.The "dual"numbersarosefromthe convention
thati2 = 0 [11]. Wellknownin kinematicsis the use of dualnumbermethodsfor the
analysisof spatialmechanisms,roboticcontrol,andvirtualreality[4, 5, 10].
The ordinary,dual,anddoublenumbersareparticularmembersof a two-parameter
family of complexnumbersystemsoften calledbinarynumbersor generalizedcom-
plex numbers,whicharetwo-componentnumbersof the form
z=x+iy (x,yelR) where i2=iq+p (q,pR).

It canbe shownthatgeneralizedcomplexnumbersystemsareisomorphic(as rings)to

the ordinary,dual,anddoublecomplexnumberswhen p + q2/4 iS negative,zero,and
positive,respectively(FIGURE 1) [11].

i
double number
systems

/ \
/ \ dual
/ \ number
/ ordinarynumber \ systems
/ systems \
/ I \
dual,
Figure1 Generalizedcomplexnumbersareisomorphic(as rings)to the ordinary,
anddoublenumbers.

This content downloaded from 128.214.7.77 on Tue, 4 Nov 2014 11:00:29 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 2004
VOL.77, NO. 2, APRIL 1 19
familyof generalizedcom-
In this articlewe studythe geometryof a one-parameter
plex numbersystemsin whichi2 = p, so thatq = Oand-oo < p < oo. Those who
know the geometriesof Laguerreand Minkowskiwill recognizethatthey arise nat-
urallyfrom generalizedcomplexplanes.Moreover,interrelationsamongthe various
complexproductsbecomeobviouswhenthe storyof theseplanesunfolds.

Generalizedcomplexmultiplication
In whatfollows, we will let i denotea formal-quantity,subjectto the relationi2 = p.
Let (Updenotethe systemof numbers
(Sp= {x + iy: x, y E R i2 = p}
Additionand subtractionin this p-complex plane are defined,as usual, compo-
nentwise.Multiplicationis also as we would expect, distributingmultiplicationover
additionandusingi2 = p. Still,it will be helpfullateron to introducespecificnotation
So, for zl, z2 E (Sp,we denotethe productby
for this p-multiplication.
MP(Z1,z2)= (X1X2 + Y2)+ i (x1Y2+
PY1 X2Y1 ) *

Thisdefinitionyields the ordinary,Study,andCliffordproductsas p is equalto-l, 0,

and l.
Ordinaryproduct: (xl + iyl ) (x2 + iy2) = (xlx2-Y1 Y2)+ i (x1Y2+ Y1X2)

Study product: (x, + iy,)(x2 + iy2) = (xlx2) + i(xly2 + ylx2)

Cliffordproduct: (xl + iyl)(X2 + iy2) = (XlX2 + Y1Y2) + i(xly2+ ylX2)
Wenotethat(Up,underadditionandp-multiplication,is a fieldonly for p < 0. The
p-magnitude
of a generalizedcomplexnumberz = x + iy E (Spis definedto by the
nonnegativerealnumber

= +/1MP(z,z-)l =
lizilp vlx2 _ PY
wherean overbardenotesthe usualcomplexconjugation.

II I X X
-1 +1 III '\ I t _

V /, 'Iv \ X
p<O p=O p,O

Figure2 Unitcirclesin Sp

Unit "circles"are definedby requiringllzllp= l as in FIGURE2. When p < 0

we obtainunit ellipses of the form x2 + lPlY2= l, and refer to (Sp(p < 0) as an
ellipticalcomplexnumbersystem.In the special case p =-l, the p-complex plane
correspondsto the Euclideanplane. For (C0,where lizilo = X2, the unit circle is the

This content downloaded from 128.214.7.77 on Tue, 4 Nov 2014 11:00:29 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
120 MATHEMATICS
MAGAZINE
set of z wherex = i1. The space(C0is the paraboliccomplexnumbersystemwhose
p-complexplanecorrespondsto the Laguerreplane.The paraboliccomplexplaneis
naturallydividedin half by the imaginaryaxis. The right-halfplaneof (C0will be re-
ferredto as branchI andthe left half-planebranchII. Unit circlesin (Up(p > 0) are
hyperbolasof the form Ix2-py21 = 1 whose asymptotesare y = ix/ (dashed
lines in FIGURE2). The spaces (Up(p > 0) are referredto as hyperboliccomplex
numbersystems.Forthe specialcase p = 1, the p-complexplaneis the well-known
Minkowskiplane.The asymptotesof the unitcirclesnaturallyseparatethe hyperbolic
complexplanesinto fourregionslabeledbranchesI, II, III, andIV as shownin FIG-
URE2.

Generalizedtrigonometry
Muchof the geometricalinsightinto the ordinarycomplexplaneis facilitatedby the
trigonometricform of a complexnumber.The same is truefor generalizedcomplex
planes. Therefore,we now examinea trigonometrysuitablefor computationswith
generalizedcomplexnumbers.

Measures of angles The generalizedcomplex number,z = x + iy, determinesa

ray OT as shown in FIGURE3. Let the point N be the intersectionof the ray OT
andthe unitcircle in (Up(for now, supposethatz lies in the firsthyperbolicbranch).
The p-argumentof z, Op,is definedto be twice the Euclideanareaof the shadedsec-
tor OMN determinedby the arc MN and the radii OM and ON. (The meaningsof
the wordssector,arc,and radiusshouldbe clearfrom the picture.)Define the ratio
a _ y/x; thenthe geometricdefinitionof angularmeasureyields formulaeinvolving
familiarinversetangentfunctions:
F tan-' (a), p < O
oP= a, p=O
a tanh- (a), p> O(branchI, III).

The variousfactorsof a simplyaccountfor the scalingof the unitellipses andhy-

perbolas.Observethatangularmeasurecan also be expressedsuccinctlyas a power
series:

oP= E 2 + 1ff ' 151X < 1.

A xT(x,y) A xT(xy) \ W kT(xsy)

M(l,o) M(l,o) O \ M(l,o)

p<O p=O p>O

Figure3 ElIiptic,parabolic,andhyperbolicangles

This content downloaded from 128.214.7.77 on Tue, 4 Nov 2014 11:00:29 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 o

VOL.77, NO. 2, APRIL2004 121

- oo

+oo

o
o o
/\
/ \

x / \: S

p > o p = o
Figure4 Angularmeasureextendedto the whole hyperbolicand paraboliccomplex
planes

The extensionof angularmeasurethroughoutthe entireparabolicand hyperbolic

complexplanesis suggestedby FIGURE 4 andconsistsof some simplebookkeeping.
Withineachof the fourbranchesof the hyperboliccomplexplane(left FIGURE 4), an-
gularmeasureis determinedwithrespectto the half-axisthatlies withinthe particular
branch,andOpvariesfrom-oo to +oo in the mannerlabeledon the asymptotes.Thus,
for a hyperboliccomplexnumberin branchII or IV, the angularmeasureis given by
Op= (1/a) tanh-l[1/(a)] = (1/X) coth- [a]. For example,in 3 the ar-
gumentof w = 2 + 5i is 03 = (1/X) tanh-l[2/(5X)] 0.1358 whichis measured
fromthe positiveimaginaryaxis.
In both of the branchesof the paraboliccomplexplane (rightFIGURE4), angular
measureis givenby Op= a = y/x. Whenthe realpartof a paraboliccomplexnumber
is negative,thenits angularmeasureis referencedwith respectto the negativepartof
the real axis andthe unitcirclein (C0.Hence,the orientationof anglesin branchII is
oppositethatin branchI, as indicatedin the figure.

Ikigonometricfunctions FromthepointN on theunitcirclein (Updropthe perpen-

dicularNP to the radiusOM(FIGURE 5). At the pointM drawa line tangentto the unit
circle.Let Q be the pointof intersectionof the tangentandthe line throughON. The

N Q

Q
or

M P

p = o p > o
p <o
Figure5 Geometricdefinitionsof cosp, sinp,andtanp

This content downloaded from 128.214.7.77 on Tue, 4 Nov 2014 11:00:29 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
12 2 MATHEMATICS
MAGAZI
NE
lengthsof the segmentsOP,NP, andQMaredefinedto be the p-cosine (cosp), p-sine
(sinp), and p-tangent(tanp),respectively.These geometricdefinitionsgive familiar
expressionsfor the p-trigonometricfunctions:

cos(0p) p < O
cospOp= 1, p = 0 (branchI)
cosh(0p), p > 0 (branchI)

and
>/ sin(0p), p< O
sinpOp= Op, p = 0 (branchI)
a sinh(0p), p > O(branchI).

Fromthe proportionQM/OM = NP/OP, we see that

sinpOp
tanpOp=
cosp op

Whenp =-1 we findthatthe definitionsreduceto thetraditionalcirculartrigonomet-

ric functions.Moreover,when p = 1 the familiarhyperbolicfunctionsarerecovered.
Theparabolicandhyperbolictrigonometric functionson the otherbranchesof their
respectivecomplexplanescanbe naturallydefinedin termsof the trigonometricfunc-
tions on branchI. In the paraboliccomplexplane,definecospIIOp=-cospI Opand
sinpII0p=-sinpI Op,where the subscriptsare a convenientway to keep trackof
branches.In the hyperboliccomplexplanes,let
l l
COSPII op = a COSpI op, CSpIII op = -COSpt op, COSpIV op = -X COSPI oP

and

sinpl, op = a. sinpl ap, sinp,ll op = - sinpl op, sinplV ap = - a sinpl op.

The Maclaurinexpansionsfor cosp andsinp(branchI) aregivenby

oo n
cospOp= E P 02n

and
oo n
r]

P p E (2n + 1)! P

A generalizedEuler'sformulais obtainedby comparingthese Maclaurinserieswith

the formalpowerseriesexpansionfor ei0P, recallingthati2 = p

ei0P = cosp Op + i sinpOp.

Trigonometricidentities The identity| cosp2Op-p sinp2Op| = 1 is evident,since

IX2 _ py2 1 = 1 iS theformof a unitcirclein (Sp. Thenextcandidates
for generalization
arethe additionlaws for cosp andsinp.Let Opandp be angularmeasures(in branchI

This content downloaded from 128.214.7.77 on Tue, 4 Nov 2014 11:00:29 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
VOL. 77, NO. 2, APRIL 2004 12 3
whenp = Oor p > O).Then
cosp(0p+ p) = cospOpcospp + p sinpOpsinpp
sinp(0p+ p) = sinpOpcospp + cospOpsinpp.
Demonstratingthese is straightforward,since the formulasfor cosp and sinp reduce,
in eachcase, to situationswhereadditionlaws areknown.
We also observethatwhen p < Othe p-trigonometricfunctionsare periodicwith
period 27T/A. In particular,let Opbe an angularmeasurewith p < O and k =
O,1,2,3,..., then
cosp(0p+ 2k7r/r) = cospOp
sinp(0p+ 2k7r/X) = sinpOp.

Interpretation
of generalizedcomplex multiplication
The trigonometricformsof the realandimaginarypartsof z = x + iy in (Spare
x = rpcospOp
y = rpsinpOp,
whererp = llzllpis the p-magnitudeof z, and Opis the p-argumentof z. Therefore,
the trigonometricformof a generalizedcomplexnumberis
z = x + iy = rp(cospOp+ i sinpOp).
The geometricsignificanceof p-multiplicationnow becomes clear. Supposewe
havetwo complexnumbersin (Sp,forexamplez = llz llp(cospOp+ i sinpOp)andw =
llw llp (cospp + i sinpp). Using the definitionof p-multiplicationandthenrecalling
the additionlaws for cosp andsinp,we obtain

MP(z, w) = liZlipilwilp(cosp(0p + p) + i sinp(0p+ p)).

Hencethe p-lengthof the productis the productof the p-lengthsandthe p-argument
of theproductis the sumof the p-arguments.Therefore,theproductof two generalized
complex numberscan be obtainedvia rotationand amplification,and it should be
emphasizedthat the rotationis along a generalizedcircle in (Sp.More specifically,
supposewe wish to multiplyz with w as in FIGURE6. The productMP(Z, w) is
derivedgeometricallyby rotatingz throughan anglep = argw alongthe generalized
circleof radiusllzllp,andthenexpandingby a factorof llwllp.
In FIGURE7 we presentpictoriallya few concreteexamplesof the geometryof
generalizedcomplexmultiplication.In each plot, the two complex numberslabeled
withcirclesarebeingmultipliedto producethe thirdcomplexnumbermarkedwith an
asterisk.The unitcirclesareshownfor reference.
Forcomplexproductsin the hyperbolicand paraboliccomplexplanes,evaluating
cosp andsinprequireskeepingtrackof the branchinto whichthe productfalls. To see
an exampleof how this can be done, we'll examinethe multiplicationof the two dual
numbersin the p = Ocase of FIGURE 7. In thatcase,the definitionof p-multiplication
gives,

M(2+3i,-1 +i) =-2-i.

This content downloaded from 128.214.7.77 on Tue, 4 Nov 2014 11:00:29 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
124 MATHEMATICS
MAGAZI
NE

MP ,w ) f t Z' } \: t /

p<o p=o pzo

Figure6 Multiplication
is accomplishedby rotationandamplification

4 nx3i ' 4 j3i 4 X

O' - A- - - - 0_ _A- - - ' o' _ /\ / _ _ _

-1 - I - -1- 1 -I - / / \ \

1.67-ix -2-i f 0

-4 ] -4 -4 // / 0 . \\.\
-3 -2 -I O ] 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
p= -1/9 p =0 p= 1/4
Figure7 Geometricillustration
of generalizedcomplexmultiplication

Alternatively,we can multiplythe trigonometricformsof the numbers.The modulus

of 2 + 3i in (C0is 112+ 3i llo= 2 and the argumentis Op= 3/2, which by defini-
tion of Opis twice the areaof the triangleboundedby the real axis, the unit circle,
and the ray connectingthe originto 2 + 3i. So, the tngonometricform is 2 + 3i =
2(cospI -2 + i sinpI -2). Similarly,-1 + i = 1(COSPII(-1) + i sinpIIf-1)), which we
rewriteas (-cospIf-1)-i sinpIf-1)). We leave it to the readerto verifythatmulti-
plyingthe numbersin theseyields-2-i as the product.

Generalized rotations and special relativity As seen in the previoussection,the

generalizedcomplexproducttypicallyinvolvesbothan expansion(orcontraction)and
a generalizedrotation.In the specificcase where llw llp= 1, the generalizedcomplex
product,MP(Z, w), representsa purerotationof z in p. A purerotationin p canbe
thoughtof as motionof the pointz restrictedto the generalizedcirclewithradius11z 11p .
Generalizedrotationscan be appliedto the theory of special relativity.In two-
dimensionalspecialrelativity,an eventthatoccursat time t andat a spacecoordinatex
is denotedby the spacetimepoint (t, x). Considerthe generalizedcomplex number
z = t + ix to be the spacetimecoordinateof an event in p, where p = l/c2 (c-
speed of light). Let V representthe velocity of a coordinateframe(t', x') in uniform
motionwith respectto the inertialcoordinateframe(t, x) of the event.If we now let

This content downloaded from 128.214.7.77 on Tue, 4 Nov 2014 11:00:29 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
VOL.77, NO. 2, APRIL2004 125
w = 1-i V, thenthe purerotationrepresentedby the product

MP ( w 8 t-VX/C2 + i X-Vt = t' + ix'

V IIWIIpJ A/1 - V2/c2 A,/1 _ V2XC2

yields the Lorentzcoordinatetransformations of two-dimensionalspecial relativity.

Hence, the Lorentztransformations of two-dimensionalspecial relativityare simply
p, is defined
rotationsin thehyperboliccomplexplane.In fact,if a velocityparameter,
by tanpp =-V, then the Lorentztransformationcan be succinctlyexpressedas
multiplicationof z = t + ix by ei0p.An articleby Fjelstad[6] furtherexploresthe
connectionof hyperboliccomplexnumbersto specialrelativity.

Powersand rootsof generalizedcomplexnumbers

GeneralizedDe Moivreformulasallow us to computepowersand roots of complex
numbersin (Sp.
THEOREM1. (POWERSOF GENERALIZEDCOMPLEXNUMBERS) For z E (Up
and n a positive integer,

zn = [rp .
(cospOp+ i sinpSp)] = rp( cosp(nOp)+ i sinp(nOp))
The proof is left to the reader,as it follows easily by induction,using the laws for
p-multiplicationandaddition.
We will state two theoremsconcerningthe computationof nth roots of complex
numbers.The firsttheoremappliesto complexnumbersin (Sp(p < O)andthe second
theoremcoversthe cases when p > Oand p = O.For p < O,the trigonometricfunc-
tions are2zz/ -periodic,leadingto the followingtheoremon the extractionof nth
rootsof ellipticalcomplexnumbers.
COMPLEXNUMBERS) Forz in (Sp(p < O)
THEOREM2. (ROOTSOFELLIPTICAL
and n a positive integeN

zn = [rp(COSpolt7 + i sinpOp)]

= rp (cosp( P /) + i sinp(0P + 2k7r/))

wherek=O, 1,2,3,...,(n-1).
Proof: An applicationof the generalizedDe Moivreformulafor powersyields

rp (cosp (0P + 2k7T/a) + i sinp (0P + 2k7r/a)) n

= rp(cosp(0p+ 2k/+/i) + i sinp(0p+ 2k/S))

= rp(cospOp+ i sinpOp). 0

FIGURE8(a) displaysthe threeelliptical(p =-1/4) cube rootsof 2 + Si. The roots

determinethreesectors of equal areain the x2 + y2/4 = 112+ Si 112/3/4
root-ellipse: t
2.172. In general,each set of n complex rootson a in
root-ellipse (Sp(p < O) partitions
the root-ellipseinto n sectorsof equalarea.A comparisonof elliptical(p =-6) and

This content downloaded from 128.214.7.77 on Tue, 4 Nov 2014 11:00:29 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
126 MATHEMATICS
MAGAZI
NE

S- * 2+5i - / * \

2 -1.080+2-006i<\\ < 't=;g

0 W 4.5 < < \ \<

- 4.329-2.874i -1- g -
4 | s | | a a | | s
4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 S -1 4.S 0 O.S 1

(a) (b)
Figure8 Illustrationsof the elliptical De Moivretheorem

circular(p =-l) roots is shown in FIGURE8(b), which shows five ellipticalfifth

rootsof l + 2i andthe five circularfifthrootsof l + 2i.
Thelack of periodicityin the trigonometricfunctionswhen p > Oandwhen p = O
permitsa slightlymodifiedDe Moivretheoremfor the computationof nth roots of
parabolicandhyperboliccomplexnumbers.
THEOREM3. (ROOTSOFPARABOLICAND HYPERBOLIC
COMPLEXNUMBERS)
Forz E (Sp(p > Oor p = O)and n a positiveintegeN

zn = [rp(cospol,7+ i sinpop)]n = rp (cosp ( P) + i sinp ( P)) .

In the nextfourexampleswe illustratethe disparateoutcomesthatresultfromthe lack

of periodicityin the parabolic(p = O) and hyperbolic(p > O) trigonometricfunc-
tions. FIGURE9(a) displaysthe two squareroots of 2 + 3i in (20.The two vertical
lines drawnare actuallythe paraboliccircle whose radiusis given by 112+ 3iglo/2.
In FIGURE9(b), we find only a single cube root of 3 + 2i in (21.Thereare no oth-
ers. This cube root lies in branchI on the root-hyperbolagiven by 1x2-y21 = 113+
2i 112/3 t 1.71. Since the squareof anyhyperbolicor paraboliccomplexnumberlands
in branchI, thenthe cubeof the numberwindsupbackin its originalbranch.In lightof
this observation,we see thateachhyperbolicandeachparaboliccomplexnumberhas
exactlyone cube root.Moreover,when n is an odd positiveinteger,every hyperbolic
andparaboliccomplexnumberhas exactlyone nth root.
In FIGURE9(C), we illustratethe existence of four fourthroots of 4-3i when
p = l. And finally, in FIGURE9(d), we display the four distinct squareroots of
2 + 2ti with p = l/4. Note that 112+ 2ti1ll/4 = l implies that all of the roots
lie on the unit hyperbolain 1/4. Whenn is an even positiveintegerthen hyperbolic
complexnumbersin branchI have exactly four nth roots (one in each branch),and
hyperboliccomplexnumbersin the otherbrancheshaveno nth roots.Similarly,every
paraboliccomplexnumberin branchI has two nth rootswhenn is even, andparabolic
complexnumbersin branchII haveno even nth roots.The totalnumberof nth roots
of a generalizedcomplexnumberis summarizedin TABLE1. The situationbecomes
more complicatedwhen looking for solutionsof polynomialsthat are definedover
parabolicor hyperboliccomplexnumbersystems[l].

This content downloaded from 128.214.7.77 on Tue, 4 Nov 2014 11:00:29 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
VOL.77, NO. 2, APRIL2004 127
A

3- * 2+3i

2-

1- o 1.414+1.061i

-1- -1.414-1 .061i o

-2-

-3
_a
-q _a
-J _o
-z _-1 1 n
U 11 oZ R
D ]q

(a) (b)

-5 4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

(c) (d)
Figure9 Illustrationsof the generalized De Moivre theorem for parabolic and hyper-

TABLE
1: Numberof nthRootsof z E p
p<O n roots

p = O z E branchI z E branchII
n even 2 nth roots Onth roots
n odd 1 nth root 1 nth root

p > O z E branchI z E branchII, III,or IV

n even 4 nth roots Onth roots
n odd 1 nth root 1 nth root

Functionsof a generalizedcomplexvariable
At this point,one mightwonderabouta generalizationof the theoryof complexana-
lytic functions.Wemakea few briefobservationsaboutanalyticityin (Sp.
The p-derivativeof a functionf of a generalizedcomplexvariablez E (Spis de-
fined,as usual,by

This content downloaded from 128.214.7.77 on Tue, 4 Nov 2014 11:00:29 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 O, -- --- O

12 8 MATHEMATICS NE
MAGAZI

fl(z) lim t(Z + /\Z)-f(Z)

providedthis limit exists independentof the mannerin which /\z > O, excluding
approacheson whichthe quotientis not defined.Recallthata functionf = u + i v of
an ordinarycomplexvariablez = x + iy is analyticon a region, D, if and only if it
satisfies
at at
i- = - on D.
Ax aY

Supposethatf is a functionof a generalizedcomplexvariable,thenwe say thatf =

u + iv is p-analyticwhen its real and imaginarypartssatisfy generalizedCauchy-
Riemannequations,
Au Av Au Av
= and = p
Ax ay ay Ax

Moreover,if thesepartialderivativesarecontinuous,thenthe realandimaginaryparts

of f areorder-pharmonic:

ax2 p,0y2 ax2 p,0y2

In the specialcase p =-1, the realandimaginarypartsof f satisfyLaplace'sequa-

tion,andwhenp = 1, the realandimaginarypartsof f satisfya waveequation.Study
referredto analyticfunctionsof a dualvariable(p = O)as synectic functions.
As an example,considerthe exponentialeZin p:
eZ = ex+iy = exeiY= eX(cOSpY+ i sinpy) = u + iv

Since the realandimaginarypartsare

u = ex cosp y v = ex sinpy
andsince the derivativesof cosp andsinparegivenby
d d
(cospy) = p sinpy (sinpy) = cosp y,
dy dy
it can be verifiedthatthe Cauchy-Riemann equationshold. ThuseZis p-analytic.
Integrationis definedon rectifiablecurves.Whenf (z) is differentiableandC is a
closed curve,it can be shownthat

96b(z) dz = O
c

for all spacesp. However,Cauchy'sintegralformuladoes not hold in the parabolic

or hyperboliccomplexplanes,as discussedby Deakin[3].

Acknowledgments. The authorsare gratefulfor the valuable suggestionsof the referees.

REFERENCES
1. H. H. Cheng and S. Thompson,Proceedings of the 1996 ASMEDesign Engineering TechnicalConference
and Computersin EngineeringConference,Irvine,CA, 1996.

This content downloaded from 128.214.7.77 on Tue, 4 Nov 2014 11:00:29 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
VOL.77, NO. 2, APRIL2004 129
2. W. K. Clifford,MathematicalPapers (ed. R. Tucker),Chelsea Pub. Co., Bronx, NY, 1968.
3. M. A. B. Deakin, this MAGAZINE 39:4 (1966), 215-219.
4. F. M. Dimentberg,TheScrew Calculus and its Applicationsin Mechanics, Izdat. "Nauka",Moscow, USSR,
1965.
5. I. S. Fischer and A. S. Fischer, Dual-NumberMethods in Kinematics, Statics and Dynamics, CRC Press,
1998.
6. P. Fjelstad,Am. J. Phys. 54:5 (1986), 416422.
7. L. Hahn, ComplexNumbersand Geometry,Math. Assoc. of America,WashingtonDC, 1994.
8. T. Needham, VisualComplexAnalysis,ClarendonPress, Oxford, 1997.
9. H. Schwerdtfeger,Geometryof ComplexNumbers,Universityof TorontoPress, Toronto,1962.
10. E. Study, Geometrieder Dynamen,Leipzig, 1903.
11. I.M. Yaglom, ComplexNumbersin Geometry,Academic Press, New York, 1968.

PermutationNotations
Permutationscan be thoughtof as shufflesor rearrangements, buttheyaremost easily
describedas one-to-onefunctionsfrom a set onto itself. For example,take your two
handsand matchthemas follows: pinkiesto pinkies,fourthfingersto thumbs,index
fingersto middle fingers.Numberingthe fingersone throughfive the same way on
eachhand(andcheatinga littleby callingthe thumba finger),we get a function:
t(l) = 4, f(2) = 3, t(3) = 2, t(4) = 1, f(5) = 5.
Thisis all one needsfor certainapplications.But authorsDeutsch,Johnson,andTha-
natipanondause line notation,which is simply a list of the values of the functionin
order:43215. This workswell for permutationsof small sets, but authorScully uses
line notationwheresome elementshave nameslike k andk-1. For clarity,brackets
andparenthesescan be used: [4, 3, 2, 1, 5].
A longerversionof line notationuses two lines in a before-and-after display,like
this:
1 2 3 4 5
4 3 2 1 5
Both line notationandfunctionnotationobscuresome valuableinformationabout
the cycles thatoccuruponrepeatedapplicationsof a permutation.This is apparentin
cyclenotation.Ourfingerpermutation wouldbe writtenas (14)(23)(5) or moresimply
(14)(23). Thisnotationis readas "1goes to 4, whichgoes backto 1; 2 goes to 3, which
goes backto 2; 5 goes to 5."Whenan elementis omitted,it is understoodto stayfixed.
Both the two-linenotationandcycle notationwere introducedby Cauchyin 1815.
You can read a translatedexcerptfrom his paperin The Historyof Mathematics:A
Reader,editedby JohnFauvelandJeremyGray,MacmillanPressin associationwith
The OpenUniversity,1987,pp. 506-507.
Incidentally,the fingerpermutationdescribedaboveis the startingpointfor "com-
poundeensy-weensyspider."

This content downloaded from 128.214.7.77 on Tue, 4 Nov 2014 11:00:29 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions