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The installation is supplied through a 630 kVA transformer. The process requires a high degree of
supply continuity and part of the installation can be supplied by a 250 kVA standby generator. The
global earthing system is TN-S, except for the most critical loads supplied by an isolation transformer
with a downstream IT configuration.
The single-line diagram is shown in Figure G65 below. The results of a computer study for the circuit
from transformer T1 down to the cable C7 is reproduced on Figure G66. This study was carried out
with Ecodial (a Schneider Electric software).
This is followed by the same calculations carried out by the simplified method described in this
guide.
Fig. G65: Example of single-line diagram
Maximum load current (A) 860 Total voltage drop U (%) 0.65
Fig. G66: Partial results of calculation carried out with Ecodial software (Schneider Electric). The calculation is
The same calculation using the simplified method recommended in this guide
Dimensioning circuit C1
The MV/LV 630 kVA transformer has a rated no-load voltage of 420 V. Circuit C1 must be suitable for
a current of:
per phase
Two single-core PVC-insulated copper cables in parallel will be used for each phase.These cables
will be laid on cable trays according to method F.
Each conductor will therefore carry 433A. Figure G21a indicates that for 3 loaded conductors with
PVC isolation, the required c.s.a. is 240mm2.
The resistance and the inductive reactance, for the two conductors in parallel, and for a length of 5
metres, are:
Circuit C3 supplies two 150kW loads with cos = 0.85, so the total load current is:
Two single-core PVC-insulated copper cables in parallel will be used for each phase. These cables
will be laid on cable trays according to method F.
Each conductor will therefore carry 255A. Figure G21a indicates that for 3 loaded conductors with
PVC isolation, the required c.s.a. is 95mm2.
The resistance and the inductive reactance, for the two conductors in parallel, and for a length of 20
metres, are:
Dimensioning circuit C7
Circuit C7 supplies one 150kW load with cos = 0.85, so the total load current is:
One single-core PVC-insulated copper cable will be used for each phase. The cables will be laid on
cable trays according to method F.
Each conductor will therefore carry 255A. Figure G21a indicates that for 3 loaded conductors with
PVC isolation, the required c.s.a. is 95mm2.
The resistance and the inductive reactance for a length of 20 metres is:
When using the adiabatic method, the minimum c.s.a. for the protective earth conductor (PE) can be
calculated by the formula given in Figure G58:
This gives:
A single 120 mm2 conductor is therefore largely sufficient, provided that it also satisfies the
requirements for indirect contact protection (i.e. that its impedance is sufficiently low).
Generally, for circuits with phase conductor c.s.a. Sph 50 mm 2, the PE conductor minimum c.s.a.
will be Sph / 2. Then, for circuit C3, the PE conductor will be 95mm 2, and for circuit C7, the PE
conductor will be 50mm2.
For circuit C3 of Figure G65, Figures F41 and F40, or the formula given TN system - Protection
against indirect contact may be used for a 3-phase 4-wire circuit.
(The value in the denominator 630 x 11 is the maximum current level at which the instantaneous
short-circuit magnetic trip of the 630 A circuit-breaker operates).
Voltage drop
The voltage drop is calculated using the data given in Figure G28, for balanced three-phase circuits,
motor power normal service (cos = 0.8).
C1 C3 C7
where
U20 = phase-to-phase voltage of the open circuited secondary windings of the power supply
transformer(s).
ZT = total impedance per phase of the installation upstream of the fault location (in )
Method of calculating ZT
Each component of an installation (MV network, transformer, cable, busbar, and so on...) is
characterized by its impedance Z, comprising an element of resistance (R) and an inductive
reactance (X). It may be noted that capacitive reactances are not important in short-circuit current
calculations.
The parameters R, X and Z are expressed in ohms, and are related by the sides of a right angled
triangle, as shown in the impedance diagram of Figure G33.
The method consists in dividing the network into convenient sections, and to calculate the R and X
values for each.
Where sections are connected in series in the network, all the resistive elements in the section are
added arithmetically; likewise for the reactances, to give RT and XT.
The impedance (ZT) for the combined sections concerned is then calculated
from
Any two sections of the network which are connected in parallel, can, if predominantly both resistive
(or both inductive) be combined to give a single equivalent resistance (or reactance) as follows:
Let R1 and R2 be the two resistances connected in parallel, then the equivalent resistance R3 will
be given by:
or for reactances
It should be noted that the calculation of X3 concerns only separated circuit without mutual
inductance. If the circuits in parallel are close togother the value of X3 will be notably higher.
The 3-phase short-circuit fault level PSC, in kA or in MVA[1] is given by the power supply authority
concerned, from which an equivalent impedance can be deduced.
Fig. G34: The impedance of the MV network referred to the LV side of the MV/LV transformer
A formula which makes this deduction and at the same time converts the impedance to an
equivalent value at LV is given, as follows:
where
The upstream (MV) resistance Ra is generally found to be negligible compared with the
corresponding Xa, the latter then being taken as the ohmic value for Za. If more accurate
calculations are necessary, Xa may be taken to be equal to 0.995 Za and Ra equal to 0.1 Xa.
Figure G36 gives values for Ra and Xa corresponding to the most common MV[2] short-circuit levels
in utility power-supply networks, namely, 250 MVA and 500 MVA.
Transformers
The impedance Ztr of a transformer, viewed from the LV terminals, is given by the formula:
where:
The transformer windings resistance Rtr can be derived from the total load-losses as follows:
so that in milli-ohms
where
Note: for an approximate calculation, in the absence of more precise information on transformer
characteristics, Cenelec 50480 suggests to use the following guidelines:
in the absence of more precise information, the following values may be used: Rtr = 0.31 Ztr
and Xtr = 0.95 Ztr
Example: for a transformer of 630kVA with Usc=4% / Un = 400V, approximate calculation gives:
Usc (%) Rtr (m) Xtr (m) Ztr (m) Usc (%) Rtr (m) Xtr (m) Ztr (m)
Fig. G35: Resistance, reactance and impedance values for typical distribution 400 V transformers (no-load voltage =
Busbars
The resistance of busbars is generally negligible, so that the impedance is practically all reactive,
and amounts to approximately 0.15 m/metre[3] length for LV busbars (doubling the spacing between
the bars increases the reactance by about 10% only).
In practice, it's almost never possible to estimate the busbar length concerned by a short-circuit
downstream a switchboard.
Circuit conductors
has to be considered:
20 C PR/XLPE 90 C PVC 70 C
Fig. G35b: Values of as a function of the temperature, cable insulation and cable core material, according to
Cable reactance values can be obtained from the manufacturers. For c.s.a. of less than 50
mm2 reactance may be ignored. In the absence of other information, a value of 0.08 m/metre may
be used (for 50 Hz systems) or 0.096 m/metre (for 60 Hz systems). For busways (busbar trunking
systems) and similar pre-wired ducting systems, the manufacturer should be consulted.
Motors
At the instant of short-circuit, a running motor will act (for a brief period) as a generator, and feed
current into the fault.
In general, this fault-current contribution may be ignored. However, if the total power of motors
running simultaneously is higher than 25% of the total power of transformers, the influence of motors
must be taken into account. Their total contribution can be estimated from the formula:
Iscm = 3.5 In from each motor i.e. 3.5m In for m similar motors operating concurrently.
The motors concerned will be the 3-phase motors only; single-phase-motor contribution being
insignificant.
Fault-arc resistance
Short-circuit faults generally form an arc which has the properties of a resistance. The resistance is
not stable and its average value is low, but at low voltage this resistance is sufficient to reduce the
fault-current to some extent. Experience has shown that a reduction of the order of 20% may be
expected. This phenomenon will effectively ease the current-breaking duty of a CB, but affords no
relief for its fault-current making duty.
Recapitulation table
Xa = 0.995 Za
Supply network
Figure G34
Transformer
where
Figure G35
Three-phase
maximum
circuit current in
kA
[b] If there are several conductors in parallel per phase, then divide the resistance of one conductor by the number of
Psc: 3-phase short-circuit power at MV terminals of the MV/LV transformers (in kVA).
Fig. G36: Recapitulation table of impedances for different parts of a power-supply system
0.035 0.351
MV network
Psc = 500
MVA
Transformer 20 2.35 8.5
kV / 420 V
Pn = 1000 kVA
Usc = 5%
Pcu = 13.3 x
103 watts
RT : Total resistance. XT: Total reactance. Isc : 3-phase maximum short-circuit current Calculations made a
G36
Fig. G37: Example of maximum short-circuit current calculations for a LV installation supplied at 400 V (nominal)
from a 1000 kVA MV/LV transformer
Notes
2. ^ up to 36 kV
A protective device is necessary at the origin of each circuit where a reduction of permissible
maximum current level occurs.
The protective device may be placed part way along the circuit:
AB 3 metres, and
The overload device (S) is located adjacent to the load. This arrangement is
convenient for motor circuits. The device (S) constitutes the control (start/stop) and overload
protection of the motor while (SC) is: either a circuit-breaker (designed for motor protection) or
fuses type aM
The short-circuit protection (SC) located at the origin of the circuit conforms with the
principles of Calculation of minimum levels of short-circuit current .
Circuits with no protection
Either
The protective device P1 is calibrated to protect the cable S2 against overloads and short-
circuits
Or
No circuit interruption can be tolerated, and the protection of the cabling is of secondary importance.
a. b.
c.
where
and:
Typical values of Usc for distribution transformers are given in Figure G31
50 to 750 4 6
800 to 3,200 6 6
Fig. G31: Typical values of Usc for different kVA ratings of transformers with MV windings 20 kV
Example
Usc = 4%
The value of fault current on an outgoing circuit immediately downstream of the busbars
(see Fig. G32) can be estimated as the sum of the Isc from each transformer calculated separately.
It is assumed that all transformers are supplied from the same MV network, in which case the values
obtained from Figure G31when added together will give a slightly higher fault-level value than would
actually occur.
Other factors which have not been taken into account are the impedance of the busbars and of the
cable between transformers and circuit breakers.
The conservative fault-current value obtained however, is sufficiently accurate for basic installation
design purposes. The choice of circuit breakers and incorporated protective devices against short-
circuit and fault currents is described in Selection of a circuit-breaker .
Fig. G32: Case of several transformers in parallel.
Following a preliminary analysis of the power requirements of the installation, as described in The
consumer substation with LV metering, a study of cabling[1] and its electrical protection is undertaken,
starting at the origin of the installation, through the intermediate stages to the final circuits.
The cabling and its protection at each level must satisfy several conditions at the same time, in order
to ensure a safe and reliable installation, e.g. it must:
Carry the permanent full load current, and normal short-time overcurrents
Not cause voltage drops likely to result in an inferior performance of certain loads, for
example: an excessively long acceleration period when starting a motor, etc.
Protect the cabling and busbars for all levels of overcurrent, up to and including short-circuit
currents
Ensure protection of persons against indirect contact hazards, particularly in TN- and IT-
earthed systems, where the length of circuits may limit the magnitude of short-circuit currents,
thereby delaying automatic disconnection (it may be remembered that TT- earthed installations
are necessarily protected at the origin by a RCD, generally rated at 300 mA).
The cross-sectional areas of conductors are determined by the general method described
in Practical method for determining the smallest allowable cross-sectional area of circuit
conductors of this Chapter. Apart from this method some national standards may prescribe a
minimum cross-sectional area to be observed for reasons of mechanical endurance. Particular loads
(as noted in Chapter Characteristics of particular sources and loads) require that the cable supplying
them be oversized, and that the protection of the circuit be likewise modified.
Fig. G1: Flow-chart for the selection of cable size and protective device rating for a given circuit
Definitions
At the final circuits level, this design current (according to IEV "International Electrotechnical
Vocabulary" ref 826-11-10) corresponds to the rated kVA of the load. In the case of motor-starting,
or other loads which take a high in-rush current, particularly where frequent starting is concerned
(e.g. lift motors, resistance-type spot welding, and so on) the cumulative thermal effects of the
overcurrents must be taken into account. Both cables and thermal type relays are affected.
At all upstream circuit levels this current corresponds to the kVA to be supplied, which takes
account of the diversity and utilization factors, ks and ku respectively, as shown in Figure G2.
Current carrying capacity Iz is the maximum permissible that the cabling for the circuit can carry
indefinitely, without reducing its normal life expectancy.
The current depends, for a given cross sectional area of conductors, on several parameters:
Constitution of the cable and cable-way (Cu or Alu conductors; PVC or EPR etc. insulation;
number of active conductors)
Ambient temperature
Method of installation
Overcurrents
An overcurrent occurs each time the value of current exceeds the maximum load current IB for the
load concerned.
This current must be cut off with a rapidity that depends upon its magnitude, if permanent damage to
the cabling (and appliance if the overcurrent is due to a defective load component) is to be avoided.
Overcurrents of relatively short duration can however, occur in normal operation; two types of
overcurrent are distinguished:
Overloads
These overcurrents can occur in healthy electric circuits, for example, due to a number of
small short-duration loads which occasionally occur co-incidentally: motor starting loads, and
so on. If either of these conditions persists however beyond a given period (depending on
protective-relay settings or fuse ratings) the circuit will be automatically cut off.
Short-circuit currents
These currents result from the failure of insulation between live conductors or/and between
live conductors and earth (on systems having low-impedance-earthed neutrals) in any
combination, viz:
Acting to cut-off the current in a time shorter than that given by the I2t characteristic of the
circuit cabling
The characteristics of insulated conductors when carrying short-circuit currents can, for periods up to
5 seconds following short-circuit initiation, be determined approximately by the formula:
I2t = k2 S2
which shows that the allowable heat generated is proportional to the squared cross-sectional-area of
the condutor.
where
t = Duration of short-circuit current (seconds)
S = Cross sectional area of insulated conductor (mm2)
I = Short-circuit current (A r.m.s.)
k = Insulated conductor constant (values of k2 are given in Figure G52)
For a given insulated conductor, the maximum permissible current varies according to the
environment. For instance, for a high ambient temperature (a1 > a2), Iz1 is less than Iz2
(see Fig. G5). means temperature.
Note:
Fig. G5: I2t characteristic of an insulated conductor at two different ambient temperatures.
Its tripping current I2 conventional setting is less than 1.45 Iz which corresponds to zone b
in Figure G6
The conventional setting tripping time may be 1 hour or 2 hours according to local
standards and the actual value selected for I2. For fuses, I2 is the current (denoted If) which
will operate the fuse in the conventional time.
Its 3-phase short-circuit fault-current breaking rating is greater than the 3-phase short-circuit
current existing at its point of installation. This corresponds to zone c in Figure G6.
Fig. G6: Current levels for determining circuir breaker or fuse characteristics IB In Iz zone a I2
1.45 Iz zone b ISCB ISC zone c
Applications
Protection by circuit-breaker
By virtue of its high level of precision the current I2 is always less than 1.45 In (or 1.45 Ir) so that the
condition I2 1.45 Iz (as noted in the general rules above) will always be respected.
Particular case
If the circuit-breaker itself does not protect against overloads, it is necessary to ensure that,
at a time of lowest value of short-circuit current, the overcurrent device protecting the circuit
will operate correctly. This particular case is examined in Calculation of minimum levels of
short-circuit current.
Protection by fuses
The condition I2 1.45 Iz must be taken into account, where I2 is the fusing (melting level) current,
equal to k2 x In (k2 ranges from 1.6 to 1.9) depending on the particular fuse concerned.
In < 16 A k3 = 1.31
In 16 A k3 = 1.10
Moreover, the short-circuit current breaking capacity of the fuse ISCF must exceed the level of 3-
phase short-circuit current at the point of installation of the fuse(s).
The use of protective devices which have fault-current ratings lower than the fault level existing at
their point of installation are permitted by IEC and many national standards in the following
conditions:
There exists upstream, another protective device which has the necessary short-circuit
rating, and
The amount of energy allowed to pass through the upstream device is less than that which
can be withstood without damage by the downstream device and all associated cabling and
appliances.
The technique known as cascading or series rating in which the strong current-limiting
performance of certain circuit-breakers effectively reduces the severity of downstream short-
circuits
Possible combinations which have been tested in laboratories are indicated in certain manufacturers
catalogues.
The different admissible methods of installation are listed in Figure G8, in conjonction with the
different types of conductors and cables.
trunking) rackets
Bare conductors - - - - - - + -
[b] [a]
Insulated conductors - - + + + - + -
Sheathed Multi- + + + + + + 0 +
cables core
Single 0 + + + + + 0 +
(including -core
armoured and
mineral
insulated)
+ : Permitted.
: Not Permitted.
[a] Insulated conductors are admitted if the cable trunking systems provide at least he degree of protection IP4X or
IPXXD and if the cover can only be removed by means of a tool or a deliberate action.
[b] Insulated conductors which are used as protective conductors or protective bonding conductors may use any
appropriate method of installation and need not be laid in conduits, trunking or ducting systems.
The number given in this table refer to the different wiring systems considered.
Not 40 0 41, 42 0 43 0 0 0
accessible
Window frames 16 0 16 0 0 0 - -
Architrave 15 0 15 0 0 0 - -
Immersed 1 + + + - + 0 - -
: Not permitted.
Note: The number in each box, e.g. 40, 46, refers to the number of the method of installation in Table A.52.3.
An illustration of some of the many different wiring systems and methods of installation is provided
in Figure G10.
Several reference methods are defined (with code letters A to G), grouping installation methods
having the same characteristics relative to the current-carrying capacities of the wiring systems.
Room
2 Multi-core cables in conduit in a A2
thermally insulated wall
Room
C
30 Single-core or multi-core cables:
horizontally or vertically
31 Single-core or multi-core cables: E or F
or vertically
Fig. G10: Examples of methods of installation (part of table A.52.3 of IEC 60364-5-52)
The current-carrying capacities given in the subsequent tables have been determined so that the
maximum insulation temperature is not exceeded for sustained periods of time.
For different type of insulation material, the maximum admissible temperature is given
in Figure G11.
Mineral (bare not exposed to touch and not in contact with 105 at the seath
combustible material)
Fig. G11: Maximum operating temperatures for types of insulation (table 52.1 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Correction factors
In order to take environment or special conditions of installation into account, correction factors have
been introduced.
The cross sectional area of cables is determined using the rated load current IB divided by different
correction factors, k1, k2, ...:
IB is the corrected load current, to be compared to the current-carrying capacity of the considered
cable.
Ambient temperature
The current-carrying capacities of cables in the air are based on an average air temperature equal to
30 C. For other temperatures, the correction factor is given in FigureG12 for PVC, EPR and XLPE
insulation material.
10 1.22 1.15
15 1.17 1.12
20 1.12 1.08
25 1.06 1.04
30 1 1
35 0.94 0.96
40 0.87 0.91
45 0.79 0.87
50 0.71 0.82
55 0.61 0.76
60 0.50 0.71
65 - 0.65
70 - 0.58
75 - 0.50
80 - 0.41
Fig. G12: Correction factors for ambient air temperatures other than 30 C to be applied to the current-carrying
capacities for cables in the air (from table B.52.14 of IEC 60364-5-52)
The current-carrying capacities of cables in the ground are based on an average ground
temperature equal to 20 C. For other temperatures, the correction factor is given in Figure G13 for
PVC, EPR and XLPE insulation material.
10 1.10 1.07
15 1.05 1.04
20 1 1
25 0.95 0.96
30 0.89 0.93
35 0.84 0.89
40 0.77 0.85
45 0.71 0.80
50 0.63 0.76
55 0.55 0.71
60 0.45 0.65
65 - 0.60
70 - 0.53
75 - 0.46
80 - 0.38
Fig. G13: Correction factors for ambient ground temperatures other than 20 C to be applied to the current-carrying
capacities for cables in ducts in the ground (from table B.52.15 of IEC 60364-5-52)
The current-carrying capacities of cables in the ground are based on a ground resistivity equal to 2.5
Km/W. For other values, the correction factor is given in Figure G14.
Correction factor for cables in buried ducts 1.28 1.20 1.18 1.1 1.05 1 0.96
Correction factor for direct buried cables 1.88 1.62 1.5 1.28 1.12 1 0.90
Note 1: The correction factors given have been averaged over the range of conductor sizes and types of installation
included in Tables B.52.2 to B.52.5. The overall accuracy of correction factors is within 5 %.
Note 2: The correction factors are applicable to cables drawn into buried ducts; for cables laid direct in the ground the
correction factors for thermal resistivities less than 2.5 Km/W will be higher. Where more precise values are required
Note 3: The correction factors are applicable to ducts buried at depths of up to 0.8 m.
Note 4: It is assumed that the soil properties are uniform. No allowance had been made for the possibility of moisture
migration which can lead to a region of high thermal resistivity around the cable. If partial drying out of the soil is
foreseen, the permissible current rating should be derived by the methods specified in the IEC 60287 series.
Fig. G14: Correction factors for cables in buried ducts for soil thermal resistivities other than 2.5 K.m/W to be applied
to the current-carrying capacities for reference method D (table B.52.16 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Based on experience, a relationship exist between the soil nature and resistivity. Then, empiric
values of correction factors k3 are proposed in Figure G15, depending on the nature of soil.
Nature of soil k3
Very wet soil (saturated) 1.21
Two insulated conductors or two single-core cables, or one twin-core cable (applicable to
single-phase circuits);
Three insulated conductors or three single-core cables, or one three-core cable (applicable
to three-phase circuits).
Where more insulated conductors or cables are installed in the same group, a group reduction factor
(here noted k4) shall be applied.
Examples are given in Figures G16 to G18 for different configurations (installation methods, in free
air or in the ground).
Figure G16 gives the values of correction factor k4 for different configurations of unburied cables or
conductors, grouping of more than one circuit or multi-core cables.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12 16 20
Bunched in air, on 1.00 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.54 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.41 0.38 Methods A
a surface,
embedded
orenclosed 0 0 5 0 7 2 0 5 to F
Single layer on 1.00 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.72 0.7 0.7 No further Method C
wall, floor or 5 9 5 3 2 1 0 reduction factor
unperforated tray for more than
nine circuits or
multi-core cables
Single layer fixed 0.95 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.63 0.6 0.6
directly under a 1 2 8 6 4 2 1
wooden ceiling
Single layer on a 1.00 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.73 0.7 0.7 Methods E and F
perforated 8 2 7 5 3 2 2
horizontal or
vertical tray
Single layer on 1.00 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.79 0.7 0.7
ladder support or 7 2 0 0 9 8 8
cleats etc.
Fig. G16: Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit or of more than one multi-core cable (table B.52.17 of
IEC 60364-5-52)
Figure G17 gives the values of correction factor k4 for different configurations of unburied cables or
conductors, for groups of more than one circuit of single-core cables in free air.
1 2 3
Fig. G17: Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit of single-core cables to be applied to reference rating
for one circuit of single-core cables in free air - Method of installation F. (table B.52.21 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Figure G18 gives the values of correction factor k4 for different configurations of cables or
conductors laid directly in the ground.
Fig. G18: Reduction factors for more than one circuit, single-core or multi-core cables laid directly in the ground.
Harmonic current
The current-carrying capacity of three-phase, 4-core or 5-core cables is based on the assumption
that only 3 conductors are fully loaded.
However, when harmonic currents are circulating, the neutral current can be significant, and even
higher than the phase currents. This is due to the fact that the 3 rd harmonic currents of the three
phases do not cancel each other, and sum up in the neutral conductor.
This of course affects the current-carrying capacity of the cable, and a correction factor noted here
k5 shall be applied.
In addition, if the 3rd harmonic percentage h3 is greater than 33%, the neutral current is greater than
the phase current and the cable size selection is based on the neutral current. The heating effect of
harmonic currents in the phase conductors has also to be taken into account.
The values of k5 depending on the 3rd harmonic content are given in Figure G19.
0 - 15 1.0
15 - 33 0.86
33 - 45 0.86
> 45 1.0[a]
[a] If the neutral current is more than 135 % of the phase current and the cable size is selected on the basis of the
neutral current then the three phase conductors will not be fully loaded. The reduction in heat generated by the phase
conductors offsets the heat generated by the neutral conductor to the extent that it is not necessary to apply any
reduction factor to the current carrying capacity for three loaded conductors.
Fig. G19: Correction factors for harmonic currents in four-core and five-core cables (table E.52.1 of IEC 60364-5-52)
IEC standard 60364-5-52 proposes extensive information in the form of tables giving the admissible
currents as a function of cross-sectional area of cables. Many parameters are taken into account,
such as the method of installation, type of insulation material, type of conductor material, number of
loaded conductors.
As an example, Figure G20 gives the current-carrying capacities for different methods of installation
of PVC insulation, three loaded copper or almunium conductors, free air or in ground.
A1 A2 B1 B2 C D1 D2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Copper
4 24 23 28 27 32 30 33
6 31 29 36 34 41 38 41
10 42 39 50 46 57 50 54
16 56 52 68 62 76 64 70
25 73 68 89 80 96 82 92
4 18.5 17.5 22 21 25 24
6 24 23 28 27 32 30
10 32 31 39 36 44 39
16 43 41 53 48 59 50 53
25 57 53 70 62 73 64 69
35 70 65 86 77 90 77 83
50 84 78 104 92 110 91 99
Note: In columns 3, 5, 6, 7 and 8, circular conductors are assumed for sizes up to and including 16 mm2. Values for
larger sizes relate to shaped conductors and may safely be applied to circular conductors.
Fig. G20: Current-carrying capacities in amperes for different methods of installation, PVC insulation, three loaded
where
U20 = phase-to-phase voltage of the open circuited secondary windings of the power supply
transformer(s).
ZT = total impedance per phase of the installation upstream of the fault location (in )
Method of calculating ZT
Each component of an installation (MV network, transformer, cable, busbar, and so on...) is
characterized by its impedance Z, comprising an element of resistance (R) and an inductive
reactance (X). It may be noted that capacitive reactances are not important in short-circuit current
calculations.
The parameters R, X and Z are expressed in ohms, and are related by the sides of a right angled
triangle, as shown in the impedance diagram of Figure G33.
Fig. G33: Impedance diagram
The method consists in dividing the network into convenient sections, and to calculate the R and X
values for each.
Where sections are connected in series in the network, all the resistive elements in the section are
added arithmetically; likewise for the reactances, to give RT and XT.
The impedance (ZT) for the combined sections concerned is then calculated
from
Any two sections of the network which are connected in parallel, can, if predominantly both resistive
(or both inductive) be combined to give a single equivalent resistance (or reactance) as follows:
Let R1 and R2 be the two resistances connected in parallel, then the equivalent resistance R3 will
be given by:
or for reactances
It should be noted that the calculation of X3 concerns only separated circuit without mutual
inductance. If the circuits in parallel are close togother the value of X3 will be notably higher.
The 3-phase short-circuit fault level PSC, in kA or in MVA[1] is given by the power supply authority
concerned, from which an equivalent impedance can be deduced.
Fig. G34: The impedance of the MV network referred to the LV side of the MV/LV transformer
A formula which makes this deduction and at the same time converts the impedance to an
equivalent value at LV is given, as follows:
where
The upstream (MV) resistance Ra is generally found to be negligible compared with the
corresponding Xa, the latter then being taken as the ohmic value for Za. If more accurate
calculations are necessary, Xa may be taken to be equal to 0.995 Za and Ra equal to 0.1 Xa.
Figure G36 gives values for Ra and Xa corresponding to the most common MV[2] short-circuit levels
in utility power-supply networks, namely, 250 MVA and 500 MVA.
Transformers
The impedance Ztr of a transformer, viewed from the LV terminals, is given by the formula:
where:
The transformer windings resistance Rtr can be derived from the total load-losses as follows:
so that in milli-ohms
where
Note: for an approximate calculation, in the absence of more precise information on transformer
characteristics, Cenelec 50480 suggests to use the following guidelines:
if U20 is not known, it may be assumed to be 1.05 Un
in the absence of more precise information, the following values may be used: Rtr = 0.31 Ztr
and Xtr = 0.95 Ztr
Example: for a transformer of 630kVA with Usc=4% / Un = 400V, approximate calculation gives:
Usc (%) Rtr (m) Xtr (m) Ztr (m) Usc (%) Rtr (m) Xtr (m) Ztr (m)
Fig. G35: Resistance, reactance and impedance values for typical distribution 400 V transformers (no-load voltage =
Busbars
The resistance of busbars is generally negligible, so that the impedance is practically all reactive,
and amounts to approximately 0.15 m/metre[3] length for LV busbars (doubling the spacing between
the bars increases the reactance by about 10% only).
In practice, it's almost never possible to estimate the busbar length concerned by a short-circuit
downstream a switchboard.
Circuit conductors
where
has to be considered:
20 C PR/XLPE 90 C PVC 70 C
Fig. G35b: Values of as a function of the temperature, cable insulation and cable core material, according to
Cable reactance values can be obtained from the manufacturers. For c.s.a. of less than 50
mm2 reactance may be ignored. In the absence of other information, a value of 0.08 m/metre may
be used (for 50 Hz systems) or 0.096 m/metre (for 60 Hz systems). For busways (busbar trunking
systems) and similar pre-wired ducting systems, the manufacturer should be consulted.
Motors
At the instant of short-circuit, a running motor will act (for a brief period) as a generator, and feed
current into the fault.
In general, this fault-current contribution may be ignored. However, if the total power of motors
running simultaneously is higher than 25% of the total power of transformers, the influence of motors
must be taken into account. Their total contribution can be estimated from the formula:
Iscm = 3.5 In from each motor i.e. 3.5m In for m similar motors operating concurrently.
The motors concerned will be the 3-phase motors only; single-phase-motor contribution being
insignificant.
Fault-arc resistance
Short-circuit faults generally form an arc which has the properties of a resistance. The resistance is
not stable and its average value is low, but at low voltage this resistance is sufficient to reduce the
fault-current to some extent. Experience has shown that a reduction of the order of 20% may be
expected. This phenomenon will effectively ease the current-breaking duty of a CB, but affords no
relief for its fault-current making duty.
Recapitulation table
Figure G34
Transformer
with
Figure G35 where
[a]
formula:
Circuit Cables: Xc = 0.08 m/m
conductors[b]
[a]
[b] If there are several conductors in parallel per phase, then divide the resistance of one conductor by the number of
Psc: 3-phase short-circuit power at MV terminals of the MV/LV transformers (in kVA).
Fig. G36: Recapitulation table of impedances for different parts of a power-supply system
0.035 0.351
MV network
Psc = 500
MVA
RT : Total resistance. XT: Total reactance. Isc : 3-phase maximum short-circuit current Calculations
Fig. G37: Example of maximum short-circuit current calculations for a LV installation supplied at 400 V (nominal)
Notes
The length and composition of the circuit between the point at which the short-circuit current
level is known, and the point at which the level is to be determined
It is then sufficient to select a circuit-breaker with an appropriate short-circuit fault rating immediately
above that indicated in the tables.
If more precise values are required, it is possible to make a detailed calculation or to use a software
package, such as Ecodial. In such a case, moreover, the possibility of using the cascading technique
should be considered, in which the use of a current limiting circuit-breaker at the upstream position
would allow all circuit-breakers downstream of the limiter to have a short-circuit current rating much
lower than would otherwise be necessary (See chapter LV switchgear: functions and selection ).
Method
Select the c.s.a. of the conductor in the column for copper conductors (in this example the c.s.a. is
47.5 mm2).
Search along the row corresponding to 47.5 mm2 for the length of conductor equal to that of the
circuit concerned (or the nearest possible on the low side). Descend vertically the column in which
the length is located, and stop at a row in the middle section (of the 3 sections of the Figure)
corresponding to the known fault-current level (or the nearest to it on the high side).
In this case 30 kA is the nearest to 28 kA on the high side. The value of short-circuit current at the
downstream end of the 20 metre circuit is given at the intersection of the vertical column in which the
length is located, and the horizontal row corresponding to the upstream Isc (or nearest to it on the
high side).
A Compact rated at 160 A with an Isc capacity of 25 kA (such as a NS160 unit) can be used to
protect the 160 A circuit.
Fig. G38: Determination of downstream short-circuit current level Isc using Figure G39
Note: for a 3-phase system having 230 V between phases, divide the above lengths by
Fig. G39: Isc at a point downstream, as a function of a known upstream fault-current value and the length and c.s.a.
In general, on LV circuits, a single protective device protects against all levels of current, from the
overload threshold through the maximum rated short-circuit current breaking capability of the device.
The protection device should be able to operate in a maximum time to ensure people and circuit
safety, for all short-circuit current or fault current that may occur. To check that behavior, calculation
of minimal short-circuit current or fault current is mandatory.
In addition, in certain cases overload protective devices and separate short-circuit protective devices
are used.
Figures G40 to G42 show some common arrangements where overload and short-circuit
protections are achieved by separate devices.
Fig. G42a: Circuit breaker D provides protection against short-circuit faults as far as and including
the load
As shown in Figures G40 and G41, the most common circuits using separate devices control and
protect motors.
Figure G42a constitutes a derogation in the basic protection rules, and is generally used on circuits
of prefabricated bustrunking, lighting rails, etc.
Figure G42b shows the functions provided by the variable speed drive, and if necessary some
additional functions provided by devices such as circuit-breaker, thermal relay, RCD.
Protection to be Protection generally Additional protection if not
provided provided by the variable provided by the variable
speed drive speed drive
Overvoltage Yes
Undervoltage Yes
(short-circuit tripping)
tripping)
Conditions to be fulfilled
The protective device must therefore satisfy the two following conditions:
Its breaking capacity must be greater than Isc, the 3-phase short-circuit current at its point of
installation
Elimination of the minimum short-circuit current possible in the circuit, in a time tc compatible
with the thermal constraints of the circuit conductors, where:
where S is the cross section area of the cable, k is a factor depending of the cable conductor
material, the insulation material and initial temperature.
Example: for copper XLPE, initial temperature 90 C, k = 143 (see IEC60364-4-43 434.3.2 table
43A).
Comparison of the tripping or fusing performance curve of protective devices, with the limit curves of
thermal constraint for a conductor shows that this condition is satisfied if:
Isc (min) > Im (instantaneous or short timedelay circuit-breaker trip setting current level),
(see Fig. G43 )
Isc (min) > Ia for protection by fuses. The value of the current Ia corresponds to the crossing
point of the fuse curve and the cable thermal withstand curve (see Fig. G44 and Fig. G45)
In practice this means that the length of circuit downstream of the protective device must not exceed a
The limiting effect of the impedance of long circuit conductors on the value of short-circuit currents
must be checked and the length of a circuit must be restricted accordingly.
The method of calculating the maximum permitted length has already been demonstrated in TN- and
IT- earthed schemes for single and double earth faults, respectively. Two cases are considered
below:
Using the conventional method, the voltage at the point of protection P is assumed to be 80% of
the nominal voltage during a short-circuit fault, so that 0.8 U = Isc Zd, where:
where:
The condition for the cable protection is Im Isc with Im = magnetic trip current setting of the CB.
with U = 400 V
therefore
In general, the value of Im is given with +/- 20% tolerance, so Lmax should be calculated for
Im+20% (worst case).
k factor values are provided in the following table, taking into account these 20%, and as a function
of cross-section for Sph > 120 mm2[1]
The minimum Isc will occur when the short-circuit is between a phase conductor and the neutral at
the end of the circuit.
A calculation similar to that of example 1 above is required, but for a single-phase fault (230V).
Lmax = k Sph / Im with k calculated for 230V, as shown in the table below
Figure G47 below gives maximum circuit lengths (Lmax) in metres, for:
In other cases, apply correction factors (given in Figure G51) to the lengths obtained.
In general, the value of Im is given with +/- 20% tolerance.
Lmax values below are therefore calculated for Im+20% (worst case).
For the 50 mm2 c.s.a., calculation are based on a 47.5 mm2 real c.s.a.
Operating current level Im of the instantaneous c.s.a. (nominal cross-sectional-area) of conductors (in mm2)
magnetic tripping element (in A)
1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25 35 50 70 95 12
63 79 133 21 317
2
80 63 104 16 250 41
7 7
100 50 83 13 200 33
3 3
1600 5 8 13 21 33 52 73 99 14 198 25
6
2500 5 8 13 21 33 47 63 93 127 16
3200 4 6 10 17 26 36 49 73 99 12
4000 5 8 13 21 29 40 58 79 10
5000 4 7 11 17 23 32 47 63 80
6300 5 8 13 19 25 37 50 63
8000 4 7 10 15 20 29 40 50
10000 5 8 12 16 23 32 40
12500 4 7 9 13 19 25 32
Fig. G47: Maximum circuit lengths in metres for copper conductors (for aluminium, the lengths must be multiplied by
0.62)
Figures G48 to G50 give maximum circuit length (Lmax) in metres for:
1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25
6 200 333 533 800
Fig. G48: Maximum length of copper-conductor circuits in metres protected by B-type circuit-breakers
1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25
Fig. G49: Maximum length of copper-conductor circuits in metres protected by C-type circuit-breakers
1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25
1 429 714
Fig. G50: Maximum length of copper-conductor circuits in metres protected by D-type circuit-breakers
Circuit detail
3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit or 1-phase 2-wire 400 V circuit (no neutral)
3-phase 4-wire 230/400 V circuit or 2-phase 3-wire 230/400 V circuit (i.e with neutral) Sph / S neutra
Sph / S neutra
Fig. G51: Correction factor to apply to lengths obtained from Figures G47 to G50
Note: IEC 60898 accepts an upper short-circuit-current tripping range of 10-50 In for type D circuit-
breakers. European standards, and Figure G50 however, are based on a range of 10-20 In, a range
which covers the vast majority of domestic and similar installations.
Examples
Example 1
In Figure G47, the row Im = 500 A crosses the column c.s.a. = 10 mm2 at the value for Lmax of 67
m. The circuit-breaker protects the cable against short-circuit faults, therefore, provided that its
length does not exceed 67 metres.
Example 2
In a 3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit (without neutral), the protection is provided by a 220 A circuit-
breaker type NSX250N with an instantaneous short-circuit current trip unit type MA set at 2,000 A (
20%), i.e. a worst case of 2,400 A to be certain of tripping. The cable c.s.a. = 120 mm 2 and the
conductor material is copper.
In Figure G47 the row Im = 2,000 A crosses the column c.s.a. = 120 mm2 at the value for Lmax of
200 m. Being a 3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit (without neutral), a correction factor
from Figure G51 must be applied. This factor is seen to be 1.73.
The circuit-breaker will therefore protect the cable against short-circuit current, provided that its
length does not exceed 200 x 1.73 = 346 metres.
Notes
1. ^ a b For larger c.s.a.s, the resistance calculated for the conductors must be increased to
account for the non-uniform current density in the conductor (due to skin and proximity
effects Suitable values are as follows:
150 mm2: R + 15 %
185 mm2: R + 20 %
240 mm2: R + 25 %
300 mm2: R + 30 %
2. ^ Resistivity for copper EPR/XLPE cables when passing short-circuit current, eg for the max
temperature they can withstand = 90C (cf Figure G35b).
When the duration of short-circuit current is brief (several tenths of a second up to five seconds
maximum) all of the heat produced is assumed to remain in the conductor, causing its temperature
to rise. The heating process is said to be adiabatic, an assumption that simplifies the calculation and
gives a pessimistic result, i.e. a higher conductor temperature than that which would actually occur,
since in practice, some heat would leave the conductor and pass into the insulation.
For a period of 5 seconds or less, the relationship I2t = k2S2 characterizes the time in seconds during
which a conductor of c.s.a. S (in mm 2) can be allowed to carry a current I, before its temperature
reaches a level which would damage the surrounding insulation.
Conductor insulation
PVC 300 mm2 PVC > 300 mm2 EPR XLPE Rubber 60 C
Initial temperature C 70 70 90 60
Material of conductor
Aluminium 76 68 94 93
Fig. G52: Value of the constant k according to table 43A of IEC 60364-4-43
The method of verification consists in checking that the thermal energy I 2t per ohm of conductor
material, allowed to pass by the protecting circuit-breaker (from manufacturers catalogues) is less
than that permitted for the particular conductor (as given in Figure G53 below).
[a] For 50mm2 cable, the values are calculated for the actual cross-section of 47.5mm2
Fig. G53: Maximum allowable thermal stress for cables I2t (expressed in ampere2 x second x 106)
Example
Figure G53 shows that the I2t value for the cable is 0.3272 x 106, while the maximum let-through
value by the circuit-breaker, as given in the manufacturers catalogue, is considerably less ( <
0.1.106 A2s).
The cable is therefore adequately protected by the circuit-breaker up to its full rated breaking
capability.
Electrodynamic constraints
For all type of circuit (conductors or bus-trunking), it is necessary to take electrodynamic effects into
account.
To withstand the electrodynamic constraints, the conductors must be solidly fixed and the connection
must be strongly tightened.
For bus-trunking, rails, etc. it is also necessary to verify that the electrodynamic withstand
performance is satisfactory when carrying short-circuit currents. The peak value of current, limited by
the circuit-breaker or fuse, must be less than the busbar system rating. Tables of coordination
ensuring adequate protection of their products are generally published by the manufacturers and
provide a major advantage of such systems.
Fig. G53b: Example of energy limitation of a MCB for different ratings.
The main earthing terminal is connected to the earthing electrode (see Chapter E) by the earthing
conductor (grounding electrode conductor in the USA).
Connection
PE conductors must:
Not include any means of breaking the continuity of the circuit (such as a switch, removable
links, etc.)
Connect exposed conductive parts individually to the main PE conductor, i.e. in parallel, not
in series, as shown in Figure G54
Fig. G54: A poor connection in a series arrangement will leave all downstream appliances
unprotected
TT scheme
The PE conductor need not necessarily be installed in close proximity to the live conductors of the
corresponding circuit, since high values of earth-fault current are not needed to operate the RCD-
type of protection used in TT installations.
IT and TN schemes
The PE or PEN conductor, as previously noted, must be installed as close as possible to the
corresponding live conductors of the circuit and no ferro-magnetic material must be interposed
between them. A PEN conductor must always be connected directly to the earth terminal of an
appliance, with a looped connection from the earth terminal to the neutral terminal of the appliance
(see Fig. G55).
TN-C scheme (the neutral and PE conductor are one and the same, referred to as a PEN
conductor)
The protective function of a PEN conductor has priority, so that all rules governing PE
conductors apply strictly to PEN conductors
Fig. G55: Direct connection of the PEN conductor to the earth terminal of an appliance
Types of materials
Materials of the kinds mentioned below in Figure G57 can be used for PE conductors, provided that
the conditions mentioned in the last column are satisfied.
Supplementary In the same cable Strongly Strongly Correct The PE conductor must be
conductor as the phases, or ecommended recommended insulated to the same level as
in the same cable the phases
run
must be adequate
[g]
Water pipes
Metallic cable ways, such as, Possible[d] PE possible[d] Possible
conduits[i]ducts, trunking, trays, PEN not
ladders, and so on recommended[b][d]
Forbidden for use as PE conductors, are: metal conduits[i], gas pipes, hot-water pipes, cable-armouring tapes[i]or wires[i]
[a] In TN and IT schemes, fault clearance is generally achieved by overcurrent devices (fuses or circuit-breakers) so
that the impedance of the fault-current loop must be sufficiently low to assure positive protective device operation.
The surest means of achieving a low loop impedance is to use a supplementary core in the same cable as the circuit
conductors (or taking the same route as the circuit conductors). This solution minimizes the inductive reactance and
[b] The PEN conductor is a neutral conductor that is also used as a protective earth conductor. This means that a
current may be flowing through it at any time (in the absence of an earth fault). For this reason an insulated conductor
[c] The manufacturer provides the necessary values of R and X components of the impedances (phase/PE,
Measurements on the completed installation are the only practical means of assuring adequate protection for
persons.
[e] It must allow the connection of other PE conductors. Note: these elements must carry an indivual green/yellow
striped visual indication, 15 to 100 mm long (or the letters PE at less than 15 cm from each extremity).
[f] These elements must be demountable only if other means have been provided to ensure uninterrupted continuity
of protection.
[h] In the prefabricated pre-wired trunking and similar elements, the metallic housing may be used as a PEN
conductor, in parallel with the corresponding bar, or other PE conductor in the housing.
[i] Forbidden in some countries only. Universally allowed to be used for supplementary equipotential conductors.
After consulting applicable regulations, Figure E16 and Figure E17 can be used as an aid in
deciding on divisions and possible galvanic isolation of appropriate sections of a proposed
installation.
Division of source
This technique concerns the use of several transformers instead of employing one high-rated unit. In
this way, a load that is a source of network disturbances (large motors, furnaces, etc.) can be
supplied by its own transformer.
The quality and continuity of supply to the whole installation are thereby improved.
Network islands
Conclusion
The optimisation of the performance of the whole installation governs the choice of earthing system.
Including:
Future operational expenditures, hard to assess, that can arise from insufficient reliability,
quality of equipment, safety, continuity of service, etc.
An ideal structure would comprise normal power supply sources, local reserve power supply sources
(see Selection criteria for the TT, TN and IT systems ) and the appropriate earthing arrangements.
A very effective method of obtaining a low-resistance earth connection is to bury a conductor in the form of a
closed loop in the soil at the bottom of the excavation for building foundations.
The resistance R of such an electrode (in homogeneous soil) is given (approximately) in ohms by:
where
The quality of an earth electrode (resistance as low as possible) depends essentially on two factors:
Installation method
Type of soil
Installation methods
Buried ring
The electrode should be buried around the perimeter of the excavation made for the foundations. It
is important that the bare conductor be in intimate contact with the soil (and not placed in the gravel
or aggregate hard-core, often forming a base for concrete). At least four (widely-spaced) vertically
arranged conductors from the electrode should be provided for the installation connections and,
where possible, any reinforcing rods in concrete work should be connected to the electrode.
The conductor forming the earth electrode, particularly when it is laid in an excavation for
foundations, must be in the earth, at least 50 cm below the hard-core or aggregate base for the
concrete foundation. Neither the electrode nor the vertical rising conductors to the ground floor,
should ever be in contact with the foundation concrete.
For existing buildings, the electrode conductor should be buried around the outside wall of the
premises to a depth of at least 1 metre. As a general rule, all vertical connections from an electrode
to above-ground level should be insulated for the nominal LV voltage (600-1,000 V).
where
Fig. E20: Conductor buried below the level of the foundations, i.e. not in the concrete
Earthing rods
(see Fig. E21)
For n rods:
Vertically driven earthing rods are often used for existing buildings, and for improving (i.e. reducing
the resistance of) existing earth electrodes.
Copper or (more commonly) copper-clad steel. The latter are generally 1 or 2 metres long
and provided with screwed ends and sockets in order to reach considerable depths, if necessary
(for instance, the water-table level in areas of high soil resistivity)
It is often necessary to use more than one rod, in which case the spacing between them should
exceed the depth to which they are driven, by a factor of 2 to 3.
The total resistance (in homogeneous soil) is then equal to the resistance of one rod, divided by the
number of rods in question.
The approximate resistance R obtained is: if the distance separating the rods > 4L
where
Vertical plates
Rectangular plates, each side of which must be 0.5 metres, are commonly used as earth
electrodes, being buried in a vertical plane such that the centre of the plate is at least 1 metre below
the surface of the soil.
Copper of 2 mm thickness
where
Measurements on earth electrodes in similar soils are useful to determine the resistivity value to be applied for
the design of an earth-electrode system
Soft clay 50
Jurassic marl 30 - 40
Clayey sand 50 - 500
Measurement and constancy of the resistance between an earth electrode and the
earth
Among the principal factors affecting this resistance are the following:
Frost
Frozen earth can increase the resistivity of the soil by several orders of magnitude. This is
one reason for recommending the installation of deep electrodes, in particular in cold
climates
Ageing
The materials used for electrodes will generally deteriorate to some extent for various
reasons, for example:
Galvanic: due to stray DC currents in the earth, for example from electric railways, etc. or
due to dissimilar metals forming primary cells. Different soils acting on sections of the
same conductor can also form cathodic and anodic areas with consequent loss of surface
metal from the latter areas. Unfortunately, the most favourable conditions for low earth-
electrode resistance (i.e. low soil resistivity) are also those in which galvanic currents can
most easily flow.
Oxidation
Brazed and welded joints and connections are the points most sensitive to oxidation.
Thorough cleaning of a newly made joint or connection and wrapping with a suitable
greased-tape binding is a commonly used preventive measure.
Measurement of the earth-electrode resistance
There must always be one or more removable links to isolate an earth electrode so that it can be
tested.
There must always be removable links which allow the earth electrode to be isolated from the
installation, so that periodic tests of the earthing resistance can be carried out. To make such tests,
two auxiliary electrodes are required, each consisting of a vertically driven rod.
Fig. E25: Measurement of the resistance to earth of the earth electrode of an installation by means
of an ammeter
When the source voltage U is constant (adjusted to be the same value for each test) then:
In order to avoid errors due to stray earth currents (galvanic -DC- or leakage currents from power
and communication networks and so on) the test current should be AC, but at a different frequency
to that of the power system or any of its harmonics. Instruments using hand-driven generators to
make these measurements usually produce an AC voltage at a frequency of between 85 Hz and 135
Hz.
The distances between the electrodes are not critical and may be in different directions from the
electrode being tested, according to site conditions. A number of tests at different spacings and
directions are generally made to cross-check the test results.
These instruments use a hand-driven or electronic-type AC generator, together with two auxiliary
electrodes, the spacing of which must be such that the zone of influence of the electrode being
tested should not overlap that of the test electrode (C). The test electrode (C) furthest from the
electrode (X) under test, passes a current through the earth and the electrode under test, while the
second test electrode (P) picks up a voltage. This voltage, measured between (X) and (P), is due to
the test current and is a measure of the contact resistance (of the electrode under test) with earth. It
is clear that the distance (X) to (P) must be carefully chosen to give accurate results. If the distance
(X) to (C) is increased, however, the zones of resistance of electrodes (X) and (C) become more
remote, one from the other, and the curve of potential (voltage) becomes more nearly horizontal
about the point (O).
In practical tests, therefore, the distance (X) to (C) is increased until readings taken with electrode
(P) at three different points, i.e. at (P) and at approximately 5 metres on either side of (P), give
similar values. The distance (X) to (P) is generally about 0.68 of the distance (X) to (C).
[a] the principle of [b] showing the
measurement is based on effect on the
assumed homogeneous soil potential gradient
conditions. Where the zones of when (X) and (C)
influence of electrodes C and X are widely spaced.
overlap, the location of test The location of test
electrode P is difficult to electrode P is not
determine for satisfactory critical and can be
results. easily determined.
Fig. E26: Measurement of the resistance to the mass of earth of electrode (X) using an earth-electrode-testing
ohmmeter
Notes
1. ^ a b Where galvanised conducting materials are used for earth electrodes, sacrificial cathodic
protection anodes may be necessary to avoid rapid corrosion of the electrodes where the
soil is aggressive. Specially prepared magnesium anodes (in a porous sack filled with a
suitable soil) are available for direct connection to the electrodes. In such circumstances, a
specialist should be consulted.
Selection criteria for the TT, TN and IT systems.
Selection does not depend on safety criteria.
The three systems are equivalent in terms of protection of persons if all installation and operating rules are
correctly followed.
The selection criteria for the best system(s) depend on the regulatory requirements, the required continuity of
service, operating conditions and the types of network and loads
In terms of the protection of persons, the three system earthing arrangements (SEA) are equivalent
if all installation and operating rules are correctly followed. Consequently, selection does not depend
on safety criteria.
Above all, the applicable regulations which in some cases impose certain types of SEA
Secondly, the decision of the owner if supply is via a private MV/LV transformer (MV
subscription) or the owner has a private energy source (or a separate-winding transformer)
If the owner effectively has a choice, the decision on the SEA is taken following discussions with the
network designer (design office, contractor).
First of all, the operating requirements (the required level of continuity of service) and the
operating conditions (maintenance ensured by electrical personnel or not, in-house personnel or
outsourced, etc.)
Secondly, the particular characteristics of the network and the loads (see Fig. E17 ).
Electrical characteristics
Fault current - -- -- + --
Fault voltage - - - + -
Protection
Continuous overvoltage + + + - +
Transient overvoltage + - - + -
Overvoltage if transformer - + + + +
breakdown(primary/secondary)
Electromagnetic compatibility
Continuity of service
Installation
Special devices - + + - -
Maintenance
Cost of repairs - -- -- - --
Installation damage + - - ++ -
Very large network with high-quality earth electrodes for exposed conductive parts (10 max.)
Very large network with low-quality earth electrodes for exposed conductive parts (> 30 ) TN
Type of loads
Loads with a low insulation level (electric furnaces,welding machines, heating elements, TN[i]
immersion heaters, equipment in large kitchens)
Installation where the continuity of earth circuits is uncertain (work sites, old installations) TT[s]
[a] When the SEA is not imposed by regulations, it is selected according to the level of operating characteristics
(continuity of service that is mandatory for safety reasons or desired to enhance productivity, etc.). Whatever the
SEA, the probability of an insulation failure increases with the length of the network. It may be a good idea to break
up the network, which facilitates fault location and makes it possible to implement the system advised above for each
type of application.
[b] The risk of flashover on the surge limiter turns the isolated neutral into an earthed neutral. These risks are high for
regions with frequent thunder storms or installations supplied by overhead lines. If the IT system is selected to ensure
a higher level of continuity of service, the system designer must precisely calculate the tripping conditions for a
second fault.
[d] Whatever the SEA, the ideal solution is to isolate the disturbing section if it can be easily identified.
[g] The TN system is not advised due to the risk of damage to the generator in the case of an internal fault. What is
more, when generator sets supply safety equipment, the system must not trip for the first fault.
[h] The phase-to-earth current may be several times higher than In, with the risk of damaging or accelerating the
[i] To combine continuity of service and safety, it is necessary and highly advised, whatever the SEA, to separate
these loads from the rest of the installation (transformers with local neutral connection).
[j] When load equipment quality is not a design priority, there is a risk that the insulation resistance will fall rapidly.
[k] The mobility of this type of load causes frequent faults (sliding contact for bonding of exposed conductive parts)
that must be countered. Whatever the SEA, it is advised to supply these circuits using transformers with a local
neutral connection.
[l] Requires the use of transformers with a local TN system to avoid operating risks and nuisance tripping at the first
[m] Excessive limitation of the phase-to-neutral current due to the high value of the zero-phase impedance (at least 4
to 5 times the direct impedance). This system must be replaced by a star-delta arrangement.
[n] The high fault currents make the TN system dangerous. The TN-C system is forbidden.
[o] Whatever the system, the RCD must be set to n 500 mA.
[p] An installation supplied with LV energy must use the TT system. Maintaining this SEA means the least amount of
modifications on the existing network (no cables to be run, no protection devices to be modified).
[r] This type of installation requires particular attention in maintaining safety. The absence of preventive measures in
the TN system means highly qualified personnel are required to ensure safety over time.
[s] The risks of breaks in conductors (supply, protection) may cause the loss of equipotentiality for exposed
conductive parts. A TT system or a TN-S system with 30 mA RCDs is advised and is often mandatory. The IT system
[t] This solution avoids nuisance tripping for unexpected earth leakage.
Fig. E17: Influence of networks and loads on the selection of system earthing arrangements.
Technique for the protection of persons: the exposed conductive parts are earthed and residual current
devices (RCDs) are used
Note: If the exposed conductive parts are earthed at a number of points, an RCD must be installed
for each set of circuits connected to a given earth electrode.
Main characteristics
Simplest solution to design and install. Used in installations supplied directly by the public LV
distribution network.
Does not require continuous monitoring during operation (a periodic check on the RCDs may
be necessary).
Protection is ensured by special devices, the residual current devices (RCD), which also
prevent the risk of fire when they are set to 500 mA.
Each insulation fault results in an interruption in the supply of power, however the outage is
limited to the faulty circuit by installing the RCDs in series (selective RCDs) or in parallel (circuit
selection).
Loads or parts of the installation which, during normal operation, cause high leakage
currents, require special measures to avoid nuisance tripping, i.e. supply the loads with a
separation transformer or use specific RCDs (see TT system - Protective measures).
TN system
The TN system:
Interconnection and earthing of exposed conductive parts and the neutral are mandatory
Interruption for the first fault using overcurrent protection (circuit-breakers or fuses)
Main characteristics
Generally speaking, the TN system:
Requires that the initial check on effective tripping for the first insulation fault be
carried out by calculations during the design stage, followed by mandatory measurements to
confirm tripping during commissioning
May result, in the case of insulation faults, in greater damage to the windings of
rotating machines
May, on premises with a risk of fire, represent a greater danger due to the higher
fault currents
At first glance, would appear to be less expensive (elimination of a device pole and of
a conductor)
Due to the separation of the neutral and the protection conductor, provides a clean
PE (computer systems and premises with special risks)
IT system
(see Fig. E15)
IT system:
Protection technique:
Interruption for the second fault using overcurrent protection (circuit-breakers or fuses)
Operating technique:
Main characteristics
Indication of the first insulation fault, followed by mandatory location and clearing, ensures
systematic prevention of supply outages
Requires a high level of insulation in the network (implies breaking up the network if it is very
large and the use of circuit-separation transformers to supply loads with high leakage currents)
The check on effective tripping for two simultaneous faults must be carried out by
calculations during the design stage, followed by mandatory measurements during commissioning
on each group of interconnected exposed conductive parts
Protection of the neutral conductor must be ensured as indicated in Protection of the neutral
conductor inside chapter Sizing and protection of conductors.
he different earthing schemes (often referred to as the type of power system or system earthing arrangements)
described characterise the method of earthing the installation downstream of the secondary winding of a MV/LV
transformer and the means used for earthing the exposed conductive-parts of the LV installation supplied from it
The choice of these methods governs the measures necessary for protection against indirect-contact
hazards.
The earthing system qualifies three originally independent choices made by the designer of an
electrical distribution system or installation:
The type of connection of the electrical system (that is generally of the neutral conductor)
and of the exposed parts to earth electrod (s)
A separate protective conductor or protective conductor and neutral conductor being a single
conductor
The use of earth fault protection of overcurrent protective switchgear which clear only
relatively high fault currents or the use of additional relays able to detect and clear small insulation
fault currents to earth
In practice, these choices have been grouped and standardised as explained below.
Each of these choices provides standardised earthing systems with three advantages and
drawbacks:
Connection of the exposed conductive parts of the equipment and of the neutral conductor to
the PE conductor results in equipotentiality and lower overvoltages but increases earth fault
currents
A separate protective conductor is costly even if it has a small cross-sectional area but it is
much more unlikely to be polluted by voltage drops and harmonics, etc. than a neutral conductor
is. Leakage currents are also avoided in extraneous conductive parts
Installation of residual current protective relays or insulation monitoring devices are much
more sensitive and permits in many circumstances to clear faults before heavy damage occurs
(motors, fires, electrocution). The protection offered is in addition independent with respect to
changes in an existing installation
One point at the supply source is connected directly to earth. All exposed- and extraneous-
conductive-parts are connected to a separate earth electrode at the installation. This electrode may
or may not be electrically independent of the source electrode. The two zones of influence may
overlap without affecting the operation of protective devices.
TN-C system
The neutral conductor is also used as a protective conductor and is referred to as a PEN
(Protective Earth and Neutral) conductor. This system is not permitted for conductors of less than 10
mm2 or for portable equipment.
The TN-C system requires an effective equipotential environment within the installation with
dispersed earth electrodes spaced as regularly as possible since the PEN conductor is both the
neutral conductor and at the same time carries phase unbalance currents as well as 3 rd order
harmonic currents (and their multiples).
The PEN conductor must therefore be connected to a number of earth electrodes in the installation.
Caution: In the TN-C system, the protective conductor function has priority over the neutral
function. In particular, a PEN conductor must always be connected to the earthing terminal of a load
and a jumper is used to connect this terminal to the neutral terminal.
TN-S system
The protective conductor and the neutral conductor are separate. On underground cable systems
where lead-sheathed cables exist, the protective conductor is generally the lead sheath. The use of
separate PE and N conductors (5 wires) is obligatory for circuits with cross-sectional areas less than
10 mm2 for portable equipment.
TN-C-S system
The TN-C and TN-S systems can be used in the same installation. In the TN-C-S system, the TN-C
(4 wires) system must never be used downstream of the TN-S (5 wires) system, since any accidental
interruption in the neutral on the upstream part would lead to an interruption in the protective
conductor in the downstream part and therefore a danger.
Fig. E6: TN-C-S system
No intentional connection is made between the neutral point of the supply source and earth
(see Fig. E8).
In a LV 3-phase 3-wire system, 1 km of cable will have a leakage impedance due to C1, C2, C3 and
R1, R2 and R3 equivalent to a neutral earth impedance Zct of 3,000 to 4,000 , without counting the
filtering capacitances of electronic devices.
An impedance Zs (in the order of 1,000 to 2,000 ) is connected permanently between the neutral
point of the transformer LV winding and earth (see Fig. E11). All exposed- and extraneous-
conductive-parts are connected to an earth electrode. The reasons for this form of power-source
earthing are to fix the potential of a small network with respect to earth (Zs is small compared to the
leakage impedance) and to reduce the level of overvoltages, such as transmitted surges from the
MV windings, static charges, etc. with respect to earth. It has, however, the effect of slightly
increasing the first-fault current level.
Earthing connections.
In a building, the connection of all metal parts of the building and all exposed conductive parts of electrical
equipment to an earth electrode prevents the appearance of dangerously high voltages between any two
simultaneously accessible metal parts
Definitions
National and international standards (IEC 60364) clearly define the various elements of earthing
connections. The following terms are commonly used in industry and in the literature. Bracketed
numbers refer to Figure E1
Fig. E1: An example of a block of flats in which the main earthing terminal (6) provides the main
equipotential connection; the removable link (7) allows an earth-electrode-resistance check
Earth electrode (1): A conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with, and
providing an electrical connection with Earth (cf details in section 1.6 of Chapter E.)
Earth: The conductive mass of the Earth, whose electric potential at any point is
conventionally taken as zero
Electrically independent earth electrodes: Earth electrodes located at such a distance from
one another that the maximum current likely to flow through one of them does not significantly
affect the potential of the other(s)
Earth electrode resistance: The contact resistance of an earth electrode with the Earth
Earthing conductor (2): A protective conductor connecting the main earthing terminal (6) of
an installation to an earth electrode (1) or to other means of earthing (e.g. TN systems);
Protective conductor (3): A conductor used for some measures of protection against electric
shock and intended for connecting together any of the following parts:
Exposed-conductive-parts
Extraneous-conductive-parts
Earth electrode(s)
Metal conduits and pipework (not part of the electrical installation) for water, gas, heating,
compressed-air, etc. and metal materials
Main earthing terminal (6): The terminal or bar provided for the connection of protective
conductors, including equipotential bonding conductors, and conductors for functional earthing, if
any, to the means of earthing.
Connections
The bonding must be effected as close as possible to the point(s) of entry into the building, and be
connected to the main earthing terminal (6).
These connections are intended to connect all exposed-conductive-parts and all extraneous-
conductive-parts simultaneously accessible, when correct conditions for protection have not been
met, i.e. the original bonding conductors present an unacceptably high resistance.
The connection is made by protective conductors with the object of providing a low-resistance path
for fault currents flowing to earth.
Components
Effective connection of all accessible metal fixtures and all exposed-conductive-parts of electrical
appliances and equipment, is essential for effective protection against electric shocks.
as exposed-conductive-parts as extraneous-conductive-parts
Steel-framed structure
Impregnated-paper-insulated lead-covered cable,
armoured or unarmoured Reinforcement rods
etc.)
Switchgear Surface finishes:
Tiled surface
Metallic covering:
metallic fittings associated with cableways (cable Metal pipes, conduits, trunking, etc. for gas,water
tanks,reservoirs, radiators)
Close to aerial conductors or to busbars
Metallised papers
Component parts not to be considered:
as exposed-conductive-parts as extraneous-conductive-parts
Wooden-block floors
Conduits made of insulating material
Enclosures made of insulating material
Appliances
All appliances having class II insulation regardless of
Distribution takes place via cableways that carry single insulated conductors or cables and include a
fixing system and mechanical protection.
Fig. E36: Radial distribution using cables in a hotel
Busways, also referred to as busbar trunking systems, stand out for their ease of installation, flexibility and
number of possible connection points
Busbar trunking is intended to distribute power (from 20 A to 5000 A) and lighting (in this application,
the busbar trunking may play a dual role of supplying electrical power and physically holding the
lights).
A busbar trunking system comprises a set of conductors protected by an enclosure (see Fig. E37).
Used for the transmission and distribution of electrical power, busbar trunking systems have all the
necessary features for fitting: connectors, straights, angles, fixings, etc. The tap-off points placed at
regular intervals make power available at every point in the installation.
Fig. E37: Busbar trunking system design for distribution of currents from 25 to 4000A
Busbar trunking systems are present at every level in electrical distribution: from the link between
the transformer and the low voltage switch switchboard (MLVS) to the distribution of power sockets
and lighting to offices, or power distribution to workshops.
Fig. E38: Radial distribution using busways
Mid-sized premises (industrial workshops with injection presses and metalwork machines or
large supermarkets with heavy loads).
The short-circuit and current levels can be fairly high (respectively 20 to 70 kA and 100 to
1,000 A)
Dependability and continuity of service because tap-off units can be connected under
energized conditions in complete safety
The sub-distribution concept is also valid for vertical distribution in the form of 100 to 5,000 A
risers in tall buildings.
Busbar trunking systems are suited to the requirements of a large number of buildings.
Standards
Busbar trunking systems must meet all rules stated in IEC 61439-6.
This defines the manufacturing arrangements to be complied with in the design of busbar trunking
systems (e.g.: temperature rise characteristics, short-circuit withstand, mechanical strength, etc.) as
well as test methods to check them.
The new standard IEC61439-6 describes in particular the design verifications and routine
verifications required to ensure compliance.
By assembling the system components on the site according to the assembly instructions, the
contractor benefits from conformity with the standard.
Flexibility
Reusing components (components are kept intact): when an installation is subject to major
modifications, the busbar trunking is easy to dismantle and reuse.
Power availability throughout the installation (possibility of having a tap-off point every
meter).
Simplicity
Design can be carried out independently from the distribution and layout of current
consumers.
Performances are independent of implementation: the use of cables requires a lot of derating
coefficients.
Clear distribution layout
Reduction of fitting time: the trunking system allows fitting times to be reduced by up to 50%
compared with a traditional cable installation.
Manufacturers guarantee.
Controlled execution times: the trunking system concept guarantees that there are no
unexpected surprises when fitting. The fitting time is clearly known in advance and a quick solution
can be provided to any problems on site with this adaptable and scalable equipment.
Easy to implement: modular components that are easy to handle, simple and quick to
connect.
Dependability
Fool-proof units
Sequential assembly of straight components and tap-off units making it impossible to make
any mistakes
Continuity of service
The large number of tap-off points makes it easy to supply power to any new current
consumer. Connecting and disconnecting is quick and can be carried out in complete safety even
when energized. These two operations (adding or modifying) take place without having to stop
operations.
Quick and easy fault location since current consumers are near to the line
Busbar trunking systems allow circuits to be combined. Compared with a traditional cable
distribution system, consumption of raw materials for insulators is divided by 4 due to the busbar
trunking distributed network concept (see Fig. E39).
Reusable device and all of its components are fully recyclable.
Does not contain PVC and does not generate toxic gases or waste.
Fig. E39: Example of a set of 14 x 25A loads distributed along 34 meters (for busway, Canalis KS
250A)
Busbar trunking systems are getting even better. Among the new features we can mention:
Increased performance with a IP55 protection index and new ratings of 160 A through to
1000 A (Ks).
New lighting offers with pre-cabled lights and new light ducts.
New fixing accessories. Quick fixing system, cable ducts, shared support with VDI (voice,
data, images) circuits.
white color to enhance the working environment, naturally integrated in a range of electrical
distribution products.
conformity with European regulations on reducing hazardous materials (RoHS).
Fig. E41: Rigid busbar trunking able to support light fittings: Canalis KBA or KBB (25 and 40 A)
Fig. E43: A busway for medium power distribution: Canalis KN (40 up to 160 A)
Fig. E44: A busway for medium power distribution: Canalis KS (100 up to 1000A)
Fig. E45: A busway for high power distribution: Canalis KT (800 up to 5000A).
In buildings all consumers are connected in low voltage. It means that MV distribution consists in:
connection to utility,
The design of an electrical distribution architecture can be described by a 3-stage process, with
iterative possibilities. This process is based on taking account of the installation characteristics and
criteria to be satisfied.
Internal MV circuits.
Internal MV circuits are dedicated to the supply of the secondary MV/LV substations dispersed in the
installation. They are three typical principles commonly used for this purpose Fig. D11:
Single feeder
Dual feeder
Open ring.
Comparison of these three typical principles of internal distribution is given Fig. D12.
MV circuit configuration
Limit of the rated power. It is recommended to set this limit at 1250 kVA in order to facilitate
the handling and the replacement of the transformers
Need to separate the loads having a high level of sensitivity to the electrical perturbations
Need to dedicate a transformer to the load generating a high level of perturbation such as
voltage dips, harmonics, flicker
Need for partial or total redundancy. When required, two transformers each sized for the full
load and equipped with an automatic change-over are installed
Loads requiring a dedicated neutral system. IT for example to ensure the continuity of
operation in case of phase to earth fault.
Selection guide
As recommended in IEC60364-8-1 6.3, MV/LV substation location can be determined by using the
barycenter method:
taking into account service conditions: in dedicated premises if the layout in the workshop is
too restrictive (temperature, vibrations, dust, etc.)
Placing heavy equipment (transformers, generators, etc.) close to walls or to main exits for
ease of maintenance.
In centralized layout, each load is connected directly to the power source. (Fig. D14):
Fig. D14: Example of centralized layout with point to point links
In distributed layout, loads are connected to sources via a busway. This type of distribution is well
adapted to supply many loads that are spread out, where easy change is requested or future new
connection (need of flexibility) (Fig. D15):
Load distribution
Flexibility of design
Operation flexibility
The use of decentralized distribution with busway is a way to merge all the circuits in one: it makes it
possible to take into account the diversity factor (ks), which means cost savings on conductor sizing
(See Fig. D17). The choice between centralized and decentralized solutions, according to the
diversity factor, allows to find an economic optimum between investment costs, installation costs and
operating costs.
No electrical power can be delivered until the generator has reached its rated speed. This type of
device is therefore not suitable for an uninterrupted power supply. Depending, if the generator is
sized to supply power to all or only part of the installation, there is either total or partial redundancy.
A back-up generator runs generally disconnected from the network. A source changeover and an
interlocking system is therefore required (see Fig. D18).
Sensitivity of loads to power interruption (see Voltage Interruption Sensitivity for definition),
Availability of the public distribution network (see Service reliability for the definition),
In addition the presence of generators can be decided to reduce the energy bill or due to the
opportunity for co-generation. These two aspects are not taken into account in this guide.
The presence of a back-up generator is essential if the loads cannot be shed (only short interruption
acceptable) or if the utility network availability is low.
Determining the number of back-up generator units is in line with the same criteria as determining
the number of transformers, as well as taking account of economic and availability considerations
(redundancy, start-up reliability, maintenance facility).
Configuration of LV circuits.
Single feeder configuration
Fig. D20
This is the reference configuration and the most simple. A load is connected to one single source.
This configuration provides a minimum level of availability, since there is no redundancy in case of
power source failure.
Fig. D21
The power supply is provided by more than 1 transformer generally connected in parallel to the
same main LV switchboard.
Fig. D22
In order to increase the availability it is possible to split the main LV switchboard into 2 parts, with a
normally open bus-coupler (NO). This configuration may require an Automatic Transfer Switch
between the coupler and transformer incomers.
These 2 configurations are more often used when power demand is greater than 1 MVA.
Fig. D23
Transformers are physically distant, and operated in parallel. They are connected by a busway, the
load can always be supplied in the case of failure of one of the sources. The redundancy can be:
Partial: each transformer only being able to supply part of the installation. In this case, part of
the loads must be disconnected (load-shedding) in the case of one of transformer failure.
Fig. D23: Main LV switchboard interconnected by a busway
LV ring configuration
Fig. D24
As the previous configuration this type of installation is commonly used in automotive industry or
large site manufacturing industry.
Fig. D24: Ring configuration
Fig. D25
This configuration is implemented in cases where maximum availability is required. The principle
involves having 2 independent power sources, e.g.:
An automatic transfer switch (ATS) is used to avoid the sources being parallel connected. This
configuration allows preventive and curative maintenance to be carried out on all of the electrical
distribution system upstream without interrupting the power supply.
Fig. D25: Double-ended configuration with automatic transfer switch
Configuration combinations
Fig. D26
For the different possible configurations, the most probable and usual set of characteristics is given
in the following table:
Characteristic to be Configuration
considered
Installation characteristics
Characteristic Category
Activity Mechanical
Site topology single storey building 10000m2 (8000m2 dedicated to the process,
2000m2 for ancillary areas)
Maintainability Standard
Installation flexibility
No flexibility planned:
HVAC
Process utilities
Possible flexibility:
stage)
Power demand 3500kVA
Power interruptions
sensitivity
Sheddable circuits:
social premises
maintenance premises
printing machines
water)
No interruptions acceptable:
Average sensitivity:
motors, lighting
High sensitivity:
IT
Other constraints
arresters installed
Technological characteristics
Criteria Category
Service conditions
IP: standard (no dust, no water protection)
premises)
Criteria Category
Number and distribution of Surface area and power 2 possible solutions: 1 substation or 2 substations
substations distribution
between MLVS
interconnected by a busway
MV Generator Site activity No
from MLVS
Centralized with cables:
Presence of UPS Criticality UPS unit for IT devices and office workstations
Transformers Service conditions cast resin transfo (avoids constraints related to oil)
Sub-distribution: Prisma
MCBs.
Instantaneous Trip Setting.
6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 63, 80, 100 and 125 A.
Instantaneous tripping less than 0.1 sec. for tripping.
Permissible I2t (let-through energy) in A2s for circuit-breakers type B with rated
current up to and including 63A.
Permissible I2t (let-through energy) in A2s for circuit-breakers type C with rated
current up to and including 63A.
Cables withstanding capacities.
The code allows the breaking capacity of a circuit-breaker to be less than its
associated prospective fault current when back-up protection is employed in
cascading through a suitable upstream protective devices. Back-up protection
consists of an upstream short-circuit protective device (SCPD) that helps a
downstream circuit-breaker to break fault currents greater than its maximum
breaking current. However, where an MCCB, MCB or fuse is the upstream SCPD, and
the downstream SCPD is an MCB, coordination tests can be used to validate that the
I2t of the specific combination will not exceed the I2t value of the downstream MCB
at its maximum breaking capacity.
The I 2t of the upstream SCPD A and downstream MCB B operating together at
20 kA, will be equal to or less than the I 2t of MCB B at 10 kA. The I 2t to be used
in the conductor fault current assessment would be that of MCB B at 10 kA.
MCCBs.
(MCCBs) may have fixed or adjustable protection settings, normally a three position
toggle operating handle giving on-off-tripped indication plus reset function, and a
performance level relative to the incoming supply such that they can be installed at
a point close to the supply transformer.
Ratings: 16A to 1600A (may be upto 3200A), with the short circuit withstanding
capacities upto 100kA in selections.
Rated Short-Time Withstand Current.
Circuit-breakers of Selectivity Category B have a short-time delay (STD)
allowing timegraded
selectivity between circuit-breakers in series.
Icw is the fault current the circuit-breaker will withstand for the maximum
short-time
delay time.
Preferred times are: 0.05, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0 second.
This calculation is based on IEEE Std 80 (2000), "Guide for safety in AC substation grounding".
There are two main parts to this calculation:
IEEE Std 80 is quite descriptive, detailed and easy to follow, so only an overview will be
presented here and IEEE Std 80 should be consulted for further details (although references
will be given herein).
Prerequisites
Soil resistivity measurements at the site (for touch and step only)
Resistivity of any surface layers intended to be laid (for touch and step only)
Determining the minimum size of the earthing grid conductors is necessary to ensure
that the earthing grid will be able to withstand the maximum earth fault current. Like a
normal power cable under fault, the earthing grid conductors experience an adiabatic
short circuit temperature rise. However unlike a fault on a normal cable, where the
limiting temperature is that which would cause permanent damage to the cable's
insulation, the temperature limit for earthing grid conductors is the melting point of the
conductor. In other words, during the worst case earth fault, we don't want the
earthing grid conductors to start melting!
The minimum conductor size capable of withstanding the adiabatic temperature rise
associated with an earth fault is given by re-arranging IEEE Std 80 Equation 37:
is
Tm = 1084 C
r = 0.00381 C - 1
r = 1.78 .cm
As described in IEEE Std 80 Section 11.3.1.1, there are alternative methods to formulate
this equation, all of which can also be derived from first principles).
There are also additional factors that should be considered (e.g. taking into account
future growth in fault levels), as discussed in IEEE Std 80 Section 11.3.3.
Touch and Step Potential Calculations
When electricity is generated remotely and there are no return paths for earth faults
other than the earth itself, then there is a risk that earth faults can cause dangerous
voltage gradients in the earth around the site of the fault (called ground potential rises).
This means that someone standing near the fault can receive a dangerous electrical
shock due to:
Touch voltages - there is a dangerous potential difference between the earth and a
Step voltages - there is a dangerous voltage gradient between the feet of a person
standing on earth
The earthing grid can be used to dissipate fault currents to remote earth and reduce the
voltage gradients in the earth. The touch and step potential calculations are performed in
order to assess whether the earthing grid can dissipate the fault currents so that
dangerous touch and step voltages cannot exist.
The resistivity properties of the soil where the earthing grid will be laid is an important
factor in determining the earthing grid's resistance with respect to remote earth. Soils
with lower resistivity lead to lower overall grid resistances and potentially smaller
earthing grid configurations can be designed (i.e. that comply with safe step and touch
potentials).
It is good practice to perform soil resistivity tests on the site. There are a few standard
methods for measuring soil resistivity (e.g. Wenner four-pin method). A good discussion
on the interpretation of soil resistivity test measurements is found in IEEE Std 80 Section
13.4.
Sometimes it isn't possible to conduct soil resistivity tests and an estimate must suffice.
When estimating soil resistivity, it goes without saying that one should err on the side of
caution and select a higher resistivity. IEEE Std 80 Table 8 gives some guidance on range
of soil resistivities based on the general characteristics of the soil (i.e. wet organic soil =
10 .m, moist soil = 100 .m, dry soil = 1,000 .m and bedrock = 10,000 .m).
Step 2: Surface Layer Materials
Applying a thin layer (0.08m - 0.15m) of high resistivity material (such as gravel, blue
metal, crushed rock, etc) over the surface of the ground is commonly used to help
protect against dangerous touch and step voltages. This is because the surface layer
material increases the contact resistance between the soil (i.e. earth) and the feet of a
person standing on it, thereby lowering the current flowing through the person in the
event of a fault.
IEEE Std 80 Table 7 gives typical values for surface layer material resistivity in dry and
wet conditions (e.g. 40mm crushed granite = 4,000 .m (dry) and 1,200 .m (wet)).
The effective resistance of a person's feet (with respect to earth) when standing on a
surface layer is not the same as the surface layer resistance because the layer is not thick
enough to have uniform resistivity in all directions. A surface layer derating factor needs
to be applied in order to compute the effective foot resistance (with respect to earth) in
the presence of a finite thickness of surface layer material. This derating factor can be
approximated by an empirical formula as per IEEE Std 80 Equation 27:
This derating factor will be used later in Step 5 when calculating the maximum allowable
touch and step voltages.
A good earthing grid has low resistance (with respect to remote earth) to minimise
ground potential rise (GPR) and consequently avoid dangerous touch and step voltages.
Calculating the earthing grid resistance usually goes hand in hand with earthing grid
design - that is, you design the earthing grid to minimise grid resistance. The earthing
grid resistance mainly depends on the area taken up by the earthing grid, the total length
of buried earthing conductors and the number of earthing rods / electrodes.
IEEE Std 80 offers two alternative options for calculating the earthing grid resistance
(with respect to remote earth) - 1) the simplified method (Section 14.2) and 2) the
Schwarz equations (Section 14.3), both of which are outlined briefly below. IEEE Std 80
also includes methods for reducing soil resistivity (in Section 14.5) and a treatment for
concrete-encased earthing electrodes (in Section 14.6).
Simplified Method
IEEE Std 80 Equation 52 gives the simplified method as modified by Sverak to include the
effect of earthing grid depth:
Schwarz Equations
The Schwarz equations are a series of equations that are more accurate in modelling the
effect of earthing rods / electrodes. The equations are found in IEEE Std 80 Equations 53,
54, 55(footnote) and 56, as follows:
is the mutual earth resistance between the grid conductors and earthing electrodes
()
And the grid, earthing electrode and mutual earth resistances are:
Where in both
cases, is
the length-to-
width ratio of th
earthing grid.
Step 4:
Maximum Gri
Current
The maximum
grid current is t
worst case eart
fault current tha
would flow via
the earthing gri
back to remote
earth. To
calculate the
maximum grid
current, you
firstly need to
calculate the
worst case
symmetrical
earth fault
current at the
facility that wou
have a return
path through
remote earth (c
this ). This
can be found
from the power
systems studies
or from manual
calculation.
Generally
speaking, the
highest relevan
earth fault level
will be on the
primary side of
the largest
distribution
transformer (i.e
either the
terminals or the
delta windings).
Current Division
Factor
factor must
be applied to
account for the
proportion of th
fault current
flowing back
through remote
earth.
Computing the
current division
factor is a task
that is specific t
each project an
the fault locatio
and it may
incorporate som
subjectivity (i.e
"engineeing
judgement"). In
any case, IEEE
Std 80 Section
15.9 has a good
discussion on
calculating the
current division
factor. In the
most
conservative
case, a current
division factor
of can
be applied,
meaning that
100% of earth
fault current
flows back
through remote
earth.
The symmetrica
grid current
calculated by:
Decrement Fact
The symmetrica
current is not th
maximum grid c
because of asym
in short circuits
namely a dc cur
offset. This is ca
by the decreme
factor, which ca
calculated from
Std 80 Equation
Where is t
decrement facto
Where is th
fault location
The maximum g
calculated by:
Step 5: Touch
The maximum t
touch scenarios
from IEEE Std S
50kg and 70kg:
Touch voltage li
difference betw
the potential of
during a fault (d
50kg person:
70kg person:
50kg person:
70kg person:
Where
The choice of bo
expected weigh
women are exp
to choose 50kg.
Step 6: Groun
Normally, the p
around the site
they are at the
(where the faul
flow of current
gradients in and
difference betw
ground potentia
a maximum po
potentials aroun
fault.
The maximum G
Where
Now we just ne
and step potent
exceed either o
the grid design
However if it do
further analysis
of the maximum
16.5.
Mesh Voltage C
The geometric s
Where is th
for grids with earth electrodes along the grid perimeter or corners
The geometric f
With
for square grids, or otherwise
Where is th
and are the maximum length of the grids in the x and y directions (m)
is the maximum distance between any two points on the grid (m)
Irregularity Fa
The irregularity
Where is the
Effective Buri
The effective bu
For grids wi
Where is th
For grids wi
Where is th
and are the maximum length of the grids in the x and y directions (m)
Step Voltage Ca
The maximum a
Where :: is
is the irregularity factor (as derived above in the mesh voltage calculation)
The geometric s
Where is th
The effective bu
Where is th
, and
If not, however,
Redesign the earthing grid to lower the grid resistance (e.g. more grid conductors,
Limit the total earth fault current or create alternative earth fault return paths
Worked Ex
In this example
line and a delta
Step 1: Soil
Step 2: Surf
A thin 100mm l
Step 3: Eart
Figure 1. Propose
A rectangular e
22 earthing rods will be installed on the corners and perimeter of the grid
Suppose that th
The decrement
kA
Step 5: Touc
Based on the av
The maximum a
V
The maximum a
Step 6: Gro
The maximum g
Step 7: Eart
Mesh Voltage
The component
and is the number of parallel rows and columns respectively (e.g. 6 and 7)
m
m
V.
ntroduction
Number of Earthing Electrode and Earthing Resistance depends on the resistivity of
soil and time for fault current to pass through (1 sec or 3 sec). If we divide the area for
earthing required by the area of one earth plate gives the number of earth pits
required.
There is no general rule to calculate the exact number of earth pits and size of
earthing strip, but discharging of leakage current is certainly dependent on the
cross section area of the material so for any equipment the earth strip size is
calculated on the current to be carried by that strip.
First the leakage current to be carried is calculated and then size of the strip is
determined.
For most of the electrical equipment like transformer, diesel generator set etc., the
general concept is to have 4 number of earth pits. 2 nos for body earthing with 2
separate strips with the pits shorted and 2 nos for Neutral with 2 separate strips with
the pits shorted.
The Size of Neutral Earthing Strip should be capable to carry neutral current of that equipment.
The Size of Body Earthing should be capable to carry half of neutral Current.
For example for 100kVA transformer, the full load current is around 140A.
The strip connected should be capable to carry at least 70A (neutral current) which
means a strip of GI 25x3mm should be enough to carry the current and for body a
strip of 253 will do the needful. Normally we consider the strip size that is generally
used as standards.
However a strip with lesser size which can carry a current of 35A can be used for body
earthing. The reason for using 2 earth pits for each body and neutral and then shorting
them is to serve as back up. If one strip gets corroded and cuts the continuity is
broken and the other leakage current flows through the other run thery by completing
the circuit.
Similarly for panels the no of pits should be 2 nos. The size can be decided on the
main incomer circuit breaker.
For example if main incomer to breaker is 400A, then body earthing for panel can have a strip
size of 256 mm which can easily carry 100A.
Number of earth pits is decided by considering the total fault current to be dissipated
to the ground in case of fault and the current that can be dissipated by each earth pit.
Normally the density of current for GI strip can be roughly 200 amps per square cam.
Based on the length and dia of the pipe used the number of earthing pits can be
finalized.
The earth resistance of single rod or pipe electrode is calculated as per BS 7430:
Example:
Calculate isolated earthing rod resistance. The earthing rod is 4 meter long and having
12.2mm diameter, soil resistivity 500 meter.
The earth resistance of single rod or pipe electrode is calculated as per IS 3040:
R=100x/23.14xL (loge(4xL/d))
Where:
Example:
Calculate number of CI earthing pipe of 100mm diameter, 3 meter length. System has
fault current 50KA for 1 sec and soil resistivity is 72.44 -Meters.
In cases where a single electrode is not sufficient to provide the desired earth
resistance, more than one electrode shall be used. The separation of the electrodes
shall be about 4 m. The combined resistance of parallel electrodes is a complex
function of several factors, such as the number and configuration of electrode the
array.
2 1.0
3 1.66
4 2.15
5 2.54
6 2.87
7 3.15
3.39
8
9 3.61
10 3.8
For electrodes equally spaced around a hollow square, e.g. around the perimeter of a
building, the equations given above are used with a value of taken from following
table.
2 2.71
3 4.51
4 5.48
5 6.13
6 6.63
7 7.03
8 7.36
9 7.65
10 7.9
12 8.3
14 8.6
16 8.9
18 9.2
20 9.4
The rule of thumb is that rods in parallel should be spaced at least twice their length to
utilize the full benefit of the additional rods. If the separation of the electrodes is much
larger than their lengths and only a few electrodes are in parallel, then the resultant
earth resistance can be calculated using the ordinary equation for resistances in
parallel.
In practice, the effective earth resistance will usually be higher than calculation.
The Resistance of Original Earthing Rod will be lowered by Total of 40% for Second
Rod, 60% for third Rod,66% for forth rod.
Example:
Calculate Total Earthing Rod Resistance of 200 Number arranges in Parallel having 4
Meter Space of each and if it connects in Hollow Square arrangement. The Earthing
Rod is 4 Meter Long and having 12.2mm Diameter, Soil Resistivity 500 .
a = 500/(23.14x136x4) =0.146
Ra (Parallel in Line) =136.23x (1+100.146/200) = 1.67 .
If earthing rod is connected in Hollow square than rod in each side of square is 200 =
(4n-1) so n = 49 No.
The word demand itself says the meaning of Demand Factor. The ratio of the maximum coincident demand
of a system, or part of a system, to the total connected load of the system.
For example, an over sized motor 20 Kw drives a constant 15 Kw load whenever it is ON. The motor
demand factor is then 15/20 =0.75= 75 %.
Demand Factor is express as a percentage (%) or in a ratio (less than 1).
Demand Factor is always change with the time to time or hours to hours of use and it will not constant.
The connected load is always known so it will be easy to calculate the maximum demand if the demand
factor for a certain supply is known at different time intervals and seasons.
The lower the demand factor, the less system capacity required to serve the connected load.
Calculation:
(1) A Residence Consumer has 10 Nos Lamp of 400 W but at the same time It is possible that only 9 Nos of
Bulbs are used at the same time. Here Total Connected load is 1040=400 W. Consumer maximum demand is
940=360 W. Demand Facto of this Load = 360/400 =0.9 or 90%.
(2) One Consumer have 10 lights at 60 Kw each in Kitchen, the load is 60 Kw x 10 = 600 KW. This will be
true only if All lights are Turns ON the same time (Demand factor=100% or 1)
For this Consumer it is observed that only half of the lights being turned ON at a time so we can say that the
demand factor is 0.5 (50%). The estimated load = 600 Kw X 0.5 = 300 Kw.
Feeder conductors should have sufficient Ampere Capacity to carry the load. The Ampere Capacity does not
always be equal to the total of all loads on connected branch-circuits.
This factor must be applied to each individual load, with particular attention to electric motors, which are very
rarely operated at full load.
As per National Electrical Code (NEC) demand factor may be applied to the total load. The demand factor
permits a feeder ampearcity to be less than 100 percent of all the branch-circuit loads connected to it.
Demand factor can be applied to calculate the size of the sub-main which is feeding a Sub panel or a fixed
load like a motor etc. If the panel have total load of 250 kVA , considering a Demand factor of 0.8, we can size the
feeder cable for 250 x 0.8= 200 kVA.
Demand factors for buildings typically range between 50 and 80 % of the connected load.
In an industrial installation this factor may be estimated on an average at 0.75 for motors.
For incandescent-lighting loads, the factor always equals 1.
1 No of Motor 1
Demand Factor
Hospital 0.5
Compressor 0.5
Demand Factor
Commercial 0.7
Flats 0.7
Hotel 0.75
Mall 0.7
Restaurant 0.7
Office 0.7
School 0.8
Workshops 0.6
Farms 0.9
Factories 0.9
Demand Factor
Restaurant 0.7
Theatre 0.6
Hotel 0.5
School 0.55
Store 0.7
Diversity Factor is ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the various sub circuit of a system
to the maximum demand of the whole system.
Diversity Factor is always >1 because sum of individual max. Demands >Max. Demand.
In other terms, Diversity Factor (0 to 100%) is a fraction of Total Load that is particular item contributed to
peak demand. 70% diversity means that the device operates at its nominal or maximum load level 70% of the
time that it is connected and turned ON.
It is expressed as a percentage (%) or a ratio more than 1.
If we use diversity value in % than it should be multiply with Load and if we use in numerical value
(>1) than it should be divided with Load.
Diversity occurs in an operating system because all loads connected to the System are not operating
simultaneously or are not simultaneously operating at their maximum rating. The diversity factor shows that the
whole electrical load does not equal the sum of its parts due to this time Interdependence (i.e. diverseness).
In general terms we can say that diversity factor refers to the percent of time available that a machine. 70%
diversity means that the device operates at its nominal or maximum load level 70% of the time that it is connected
and turned ON.
Consider two Feeders with the same maximum demand but that occur at different intervals of time. When
supplied by the same feeder, the demand on such is less the sum of the two demands. In electrical design, this
condition is known as diversity.
Diversity factor is an extended version of demand factor. It deals with maximum demand of different units at
a time/Maximum demand of the entire system.
Greater the diversity factor, lesser is the cost of generation of power.
Many designers prefer to use unity as the diversity factor in calculations for planning conservatism because
of plant load growth uncertainties. Local experience can justify using a diversity factor larger than unity, and
smaller service entrance conductors and transformer requirements chosen accordingly.
The diversity factor for all other installations will be different, and would be based upon a local evaluation of
the loads to be applied at different moments in time. Assuming it to be 1.0 may, on some occasions, result in a
supply feeder and equipment rating that is rather larger than the local installation warrants, and an over-
investment in cable and equipment to handle the rated load current. It is better to evaluate the pattern of usage of
the loads and calculate an acceptable diversity factor for each particular case.
Calculation:
One Main Feeder have two Sub feeder (Sub Feeder A and Sub Feeder B), Sub Feeder-A have demand at a
time is 35 KW and Sub Feeder-B have demands at a time is 42 KW, but the maximum demand of Main Feeder is
70 KW.
Total individual Maximum Demand =35+42=77 KW.
Maximum Demand of whole System=70 KW
So Diversity factor of The System= 77/70 =1.1
Diversity factor can shoot up above 1.
The Diversity Factor is applied to each group of loads (e.g. being supplied from a distribution or sub-
distribution board).
Diversity factor is commonly used for a complete a coordination study for a system. This diversity factor is
used to estimate the load of a particular node in the system.
Diversity factor can be used to estimate the total load required for a facility or to size the Transformer
Diversity factors have been developed for main feeders supplying a number of feeders, and typically 1.2 to
1.3 for Residence Consumer and 1.1 to 1.2 for Commercial Load. 1.50 to 2.00 for power and lighting loads.
Note: Reciprocal of the above ratio (will be more than 1) also is used in some other countries.
Diversity factor is mostly used for distribution feeder size and transformer as well as to determine the
maximum peak load and diversity factor is always based on knowing the process. You have to understand what
will be on or off at a given time for different buildings and this will size the feeder. Note for typical buildings
diversity factor is always one. You have to estimate or have a data records to create 24 hours load graph and you
can determine the maximum demand load for node then you can easily determine the feeder and transformer
size.
The diversity factor of a feeder would be the sum of the maximum demands of the individual consumers
divided by the maximum demand of the feeder. In the same manner, it is possible to compute the diversity factor
on a substation, a transmission line or a whole utility system.
The residential load has the highest diversity factor. Industrial loads have low diversity factors usually of 1.4,
street light practically unity and other loads vary between these limits.
Diversity Factor in distribution Network
General
Elements of System Residential Commercial Large Industrial
Power
From users to
transformers 2.00 1.46 1.44
4 and 5 80%
6 to 9 70%
Lighting 90%
Socket-outlets 70%
2 To 4 1
5To 19 0.78
10To 14 0.63
15To 19 0.53
20To 24 0.49
25To 29 0.46
30 To 34 0.44
35 To 39 0.42
40To 40 0.41
50 To Above 0.40
Diversity Factor
It is the ratio of actual kilowatt-Hours used in a given period, divided by the total possible kilowatt -hours that
could have been used in the same period at the peak KW level.
Load Factor = ( energy (kWh per month) ) / ( peak demand (kW) x hours/month )
In other terms Load factor is defined as the ratio of Average load to maximum demand during a given period.
Load Factor= Average Load / Maximum Demand during given Time Period
Load Factor is always less than 1 because maximum demand is always more than average demand.
Load Factor can be calculated for a single day, for a month or for a year.
Load factor in other terms of efficiency.
It is used for determining the overall cost per unit generated.
Higher the load factor is GOOD and it will more Output of Plan, lesser the cost per unit which means an
electricity generator can sell more electricity at a higher spark spread, Fixed costs are spread over more kWh of
output. A power plant may be highly efficient at High load factors.
Low load factor is a BED. A low load factor will use electricity inefficiently relative to what we could be if we
were controlling our peak demand. A power plant may be less efficient at low load factors.
For almost constant loads, the load factor is close to unity.
For Varying Load Factor is closed Zero.
Load Factor is a measure of the effective utilization of the load and distribution equipment, i.e. higher load
factor means better utilization of the transformer, line or cable.
A high load factor means power usage is relatively constant. Low load factor shows that occasionally a high
demand is set. To service that peak, capacity is sitting idle for long periods, thereby imposing higher costs on the
system. Electrical rates are designed so that customers with high load factor are charged less overall per kWh.
Sometimes utility companies will encourage industrial customers to improve their load factors.
Load factor is term that does not appear on your utility bill, but does affect electricity costs. Load
factor indicates how efficiently the customer is using peak demand.
Calculation:
Motor of 20 hp drives a constant 15 hp load whenever it is on.
The motor load factor is then 15/20 = 75%.
Usually Confidence Factor will decrease as the number of connected customers increases.
The factor ks is applied to each group of loads (e.g. distribution or sub-distribution board).
The determination of these factors is the responsibility of the designer, since it requires a detailed knowledge
of the installation and the conditions in which the individual circuits are to be exploited. For this reason, it is not
possible to give precise values for general application.
The maximum demand of an installation is the maximum rate of consumption expressed in amperes, kW or
kVA. It is generally taken as the average rate of consumption over a period of time. Example the 15-minute
maximum kW demand for the week was 150 kW. Maximum demand does not include motor starting currents or
other transient effects. Fault currents and overload currents are also excluded. Maximum demand in KW is
relevant only for metering/tariff purposes.
Maximum demand (often referred to as MD) is the largest current normally carried by circuits, switches and
protective devices. It does not include the levels of current flowing under overload or short circuit conditions.
Maximum Demand is a greatest of all demands that occur during a specific time
The major disadvantage of allocating load using the diversity factors is that most utilities will not have a table
of diversity factors and sometime it is not viable to determine accurate Diversity Factor. In this situation Maximum
Demand is very helpful to calculate size of Feeder or TC.
The kVA rating of all distribution transformers is always known for a feeder. The metered readings can be
taken to each transformer based upon the transformer rating. An allocation factor (AF) can be calculate.
Allocation Factor= Metered Demand (KVA) / Total KVA.
Equipment Demand= AF x Total KVA of Equipments
Calculation:
Actual Loading or Size of TC-1 and TC-2.
Total Load on TC-1 =10+11+12+08= 41 KW.
Maximum Diversity Demand of TC-1= 41 / 1.1 = 37.3 KW.
Total Load on TC-2 =4+3+12+02= 21 KW.
Maximum Diversity Demand of TC-2= 21 / 1.2 = 17.5 KW.
Total Load= 37.3 + 17.5 =54.8 KW.
Allocating Factor (AF)= M.D / Total Load
Allocating Factor (AF)= 0.27.
Actual Load on TC-1=0.2737.3 = 1.20 KW.
Actual Load on TC-2=0.2717.5 = 4.8 KW.
Assessment of maximum demand is very easy for Resistive Load , For example, the maximum demand of a
240 V single-phase 8 kW shower heater can be calculated by dividing the power (8 kW) by the voltage (240 V) to
give a current of 33.3 A. This calculation assumes a power factor of unity, which is a reasonable assumption for
such a purely resistive load.
Lighting circuits pose a special problem when determining MD. Discharge lamps are particularly difficult to
assess, and current cannot be calculated simply by dividing lamp power by supply voltage. The reasons for this
are Control gear losses result in additional current, the power factor is usually less than unity so current is greater,
and Chokes and other control gear usually distort the waveform of the current so that it contains harmonics which
are additional to the fundamental supply current.
So long as the power factor of a discharge lighting circuit is not less than 0.85, the current demand for the
circuit can be calculated from:
current (A) = (lamp power x 1.8) / supply voltage (V)
For example, the steady state current demand of a 240 V circuit supplying ten 65 W fluorescent lamps would
be: I = 10X65X1.8A / 240 = 4.88A
Switches for circuits feeding discharge lamps must be rated at twice the current they are required to carry,
unless they have been specially constructed to withstand the severe arcing resulting from the switching of such
inductive and capacitive loads.
There is generally confusion between Demand factor and Diversity factor. Demand factors should be
ideally applied to individual loads and diversity factor to a group of loads.
When you talk about diversity, there are naturally more than one or many loads involved.
Demand factor can be applied to calculate the size of the sub-main, which is feeding a Sub panel or a fixed
load like a motor etc, individual Load.
Demand factors are more conservative and are used by NEC for service and feeder sizing.
If the Sub panel have total load is 250 kVA , considering a Demand factor of 0.8, we can size the feeder
cable for 250 x 0.8= 200 kVA.
The Diversity Factor is applied to each group of loads (e.g. being supplied from a distribution or sub-
distribution board), size the Transformer.
Demand factors and diversity factors are used in design. For example, the sum of the connected loads
supplied by a feeder is multiplied by the demand factor to determine the load for which the feeder must be sized.
This load is termed the maximum demand of the feeder. The sum of the maximum demand loads for a number of
sub feeders divided by the diversity factor for the sub feeders will give the maximum demand load to be supplied
by the feeder from which the sub feeders are derived.
The estimated electrical demand for all feeders served directly from the service entrance is calculated by
multiplying the total connected loads by their demand factors and then adding all of these together. This sum is
divided by the diversity factor (frequently assumed to be unity) to calculate the service entrance
demand which is used to determine ampacity requirements for the service entrance conductors.
When used Diversity and Demand Factor in an electrical design it should be applied as follows, the sum of
the connected loads supplied by a feeder-circuit can be multiplied by the demand factor to determine the load
used to size the components of the system.
The sum of the maximum demand loads for two or more feeders is divided by the diversity factor for the
feeders to derive the maximum demand load.
Example-1: Calculate Size of Transformer having following details:
Load factor and diversity factor play an important part in the cost of the supply of electrical energy. Higher
the values of load factor and diversity factors, lower will be the overall cost per unit generated.
The capital cost of the power station depends upon the capacity of the power station. Lower the maximum
demand of the power station, the lower is the capacity required and therefore lower is the capital cost of the
plant. With a given number of consumers the higher the diversity factor of their loads, the smaller will be the
capacity of the plant required and consequently the fixed charges due to capital investment will be much reduced.
Similarly higher load factor means more average load or more number of units generated for a given
maximum demand and therefore overall cost per unit of electrical energy generated is reduced due to distribution
of standing charges which are proportional to maximum demand and independent of number of units generated.
Thus the suppliers should always try to improve the load factor as well as diversity factor by inducing the
consumers to use the electrical energy during off peak hours and they may be charged at lower rates for such
schemes.
Main-Tie-Main.
Load Configuration.
Both Bus#1 & Bus#2 are supplying normal loads that mean interruption for PT1 or PT2 is accepted for fault located
between M2-PT2 and main supply.
No critical load (instantaneous interruption is not allowed) connected on Bus #1 and Bus #2. It shall be supplied
from UPS.
Load on Bus #1 has a standby load on Bus#2 or vice versa, so if the bus #2 fail, load on bus #1 is operated.
Basic Operation.
This diagram may be useful for our discussion. The basic M1-T-M2 configuration is shown. During normal
operation M1 & M2 breakers are closed and tie breaker T is opened. Supply coming from PT-1 and PT-2.
This drawing indicate when M2 open, T and M1 CBs are closed (abnormal condition). This condition is done for
maintenance purpose for equipment located between M2 to upstream (main source). Load transfer from
bus #2 to bus #1 can be carried out without interruption done by ATS scheme.
If fault located on bus #2 to tie breaker T or bus #1 to tie breaker T, load transfer is prohibited by ATS
scheme. But for fault located from M2 to upstream load transfer is allowed with deenergizing bus #2 loads
first, then tie-breaker T closed by ATS scheme. Loads may be in service after this tranfer, if the loads is set
in auto position.
We cannot maintain the supply on fault bus (e.g. bus #2 or bus #1) before correction is made.
A redundant bus tie or switch isolator acting as maintenance bypass to ATS operation.
Based on discussion above, I do not know, where we have to install those equipment to maintain supply
for fault on respectively bus.
Normally Closed Tie Breaker Operation.
It is possible to operate tie breaker in closed position, but we have to consider a short-circuit level on that
bus. By calculation (Short-circuit study), a fault on bus #1 or bus #2 the magnitude become double. So, we
have to ensure the equipment s.c. rating (buse, breakers, feeder loads, feeder breakers, and etc) meet the
requirements for tie-in in closed position.
Note:
Temporary closing three breakers for maintenance purpose is allowed within 3 cycles to 1 (one) second is
accepted.
Relay application.
1). Bus differential for bus#1 and bus #2 may be applied (we apply on 4.16 kV systems).
2). Directional relay may be applied on incoming breaker M1 & M2 if the NC for tie breaker T is applied.
3). Restrictive earth fault is applied for transformer with low resistance grounding.
4). Please consider to provide better coordination for instantaneous relay between incoming breaker and
load breakers as well as ground fault protection.
5). Syncheck relay is required for synchronising bus # & bus #2 before closing tie breaker T. We provide
permissive closed for ATS schecme. ATS can only be operated if the upstream system is in synchronising
condition (Generating buses are in remote but located closed to each other).
Conclusions.
1). We cannot maintain load on bus faulted before repairing is made.
2). I do not know the location for instaling redudant bus tie breaker or isolator to prevent faulted bus total
failure.
3). Comprehensive study shall be caried out to operate tie breaker in NC. Especially in selecting electrical
equipment and relay coordination.
4). Pay more attention on safety aspect in establishing the ATS scheme.
http://www.sayedsaad.com/substation/index_SF6circuitbreaker.html.
This article discusses the design issues in implementation that must be considered by
the designer.
This power must be dropped down to a lower voltage level for the controls and DC
power supplies. 110Vac is common in North America, and 220 V AC Is common in
Europe and the Commonwealth countries. It is also common for a control cabinet to
supply a higher voltage to other equipment, such as motors.
Motor controller example
An example of a wiring diagram for a motor controller is shown in Figure 1. Note
that symbols are discussed in detail later).
Dashed lines indicate a single purchased component. This system uses 3 phase AC
power (L1, L2 and L3) connected to the terminals. The three phases are then
connected to a power interrupter. Next, all three phases are supplied to a motor starter
that contains three contacts, M, and three thermal overload relays (breakers).
Figure 1 A Motor Controller Schematic
The contacts, M, will be controlled by the coil, M. The output of the motor starter goes
to a three phase AC motor. Power is supplied by connecting a step down
transformer to the control electronics by connecting to phases L2 and L3. The lower
voltage is then used to supply power to the left and right rails of the ladder below. The
neutral rail is also grounded.
The system controls the motor starter coil M, and uses a spare contact on the
starter, M, to seal in the motor starter.
The diagram also shows numbering for the wires in the device. This is essential for
industrial control systems that may contain hundreds or thousands of wires. These
numbering schemes are often particular to each facility, but there are tools to help
make wire labels that will appear in the final controls cabinet.
Figure 2 A
Physical Layout for the Control Cabinet
Once the electrical design is complete, a layout for the controls cabinet is developed, as
shown in Figure 2. The physical dimensions of the devices must be considered, and adequate
space is needed to run wires between components.
In the cabinet the AC power would enter at the terminal block, and be connected to the main
breaker.
It would then be connected to the contactors and overload relays that constitute the
motor starter. Two of the phases are also connected to the transformer to power the
logic. The start and stop buttons are at the left of the box (note: normally these are
mounted elsewhere, and a separate layout drawing would be needed).
The final layout in the cabinet might look like the one shown in Figure 1.
Figure 3 Final PLC Panel Wiring
When being built the system will follow certain standards that may be company policy,
or legal requirements. This often includes items such as;
Hold downs the will secure the wire so they dont move
Labels wire labels help troubleshooting
Strain reliefs these will hold the wire so that it will not be pulled out of screw
terminals
Grounding grounding wires may be needed on each metal piece for safety
Figure 4
An industrial control cabinet with wire runs, terminal strip, buttons on PLC panel
front, etc.
When including a PLC in the ladder diagram still remains. But, it does tend to become
more complex. Figure 5 below shows a schematic diagram for a PLC based motor
control system, similar to the previous motor control example.
This figure shows the E-stop wired to cutoff power to all of the devices in the circuit,
including the PLC. All critical safety functions should be hardwired this way.
The voltage drops interfere with the test voltage and thereby disturb the measurement.
Internal test voltage (approx. 40V, AC, <15 mA) is used, as there is no mains voltage
between neutral and protection conductors.
Important advantage of this measurement against Fault Loop test (LPE) is, that the RCD
does definitly not trip during the measurement, this is due to the low test current.
Used test instrument Eurotest 61557 uses special (patented) measurement principle
to filter the test signal and therefore assures correct measurement results.
Resistance value, this is why the test instrument can also calculate the Fault
Loop Prospective Short circuit current.
Result = Ut / It = RN-PE
Where:
The test result in this case is quite low (maximum a couple of ohms), showing that
a TN-system is involved.
Figure 2
Resistance measurement between neutral and protection conductor in TN-system
Result 1 = RN + RPE
The test result in this case is quite high (in excess of ten ohms), showing that a TT-
system is involved.
Figure 3
Resistance measurement between the neutral and the protection conductor in a TT-
system
Result 1 = RN + RPE + RE + RO
As it could be presumed, that resistance R E is much higher than the sum of all
other resistances, the following can be noted:
Result 1 RE
Figure 4
Resistance measurement between neutral and protection conductor in IT-system
Attention! A high test result in itself is not sufficient evidence that an IT-system is involved
(it could be just an interrupted protection conductor in a TN or TT-system).
For non-linear (or distorting) loads, the quadratic sum of the fundamental current and the
harmonic currents must be calculated in order to obtain the actual rms current.
Lets break the calculation of the power into few parts, so we can easily follow:
But beware, very few loads are totally resistive. Incandescent lighting is losing ground to
solutions that offer higher performance levels, but which are on the other hand less pure
from an electrical viewpoint.
The current consumed (Ia) is given by the following formulae. For single-phase:
The displacement factors are cos 1 = 0.92 for M1 and cos2 = 0.72 for M2 the efficiencies are
1 = 0.91 and 2 = 0.93 respectively.
Calculation of the total current consumption for M1, M2, M1 + M2 and the
corresponding power factor:
The active power (in W) and the reactive power (in VAr) can be added together algebraically,
while the apparent power and currents can only be added together geometrically.
Active power circuits which corresponds (to the nearest efficiency) to the energy
supplied,
Reactive power so that the compensation devices (capacitors) can be sized,
Apparent power so that the power of the source can be determined and
Current consumed so that the trunking and protection devices can be calculated.
M1 M2 M1 + M2 (Total t)
The THDi (Total Harmonic Distortion) expresses the ratio between the share of all the
harmonic currents and the total current as a percentage.
I1 being the rms value of the fundamental and in In the rms value of the nth order
harmonic. The principle is to apply a current reduction factor that can be calculated
based on the THDi.
For a permissible THDi value of 33%, the current must thus in theory be reduced in
each phase by a factor K:
If the factor is not applied, the current will then be increased by:
This remains acceptable and explains why the standard does not recommend any
derating or oversizing of cross-sections up to 33% THDi.
Above 33%. the standard recommends an increase in the current IB which results in
necessary oversizing of the neutral conductor.
Reduction of the current or oversizing of multi-core cables may also be necessary for
the phase conductors. It should be noted that the standard recommends a
reduction factor of 0.84. which in fact corresponds to a pessimistic THDi of 65%.
Related to the neutral conductor, it is considered that if all the harmonics are 3rd order
and its multiples, they will be added together and the current due to the harmonics in
the neutral will then be IN = 3 Iph, which can be expressed using an equivalent
notation, THDn = 3 THDi.
Devices whose load is said to be non-linear do not consume a current that is a reflection
of the voltage applied. This leads to unnecessary power consumption: the distorting power
that generates an additional current, the consequences of which must not be overlooked.
But this current is never expressed directly because it involves a fairly complex
mathematical calculation, the fourier transform, to ascertain its relative overall part (THDi:
total harmonic distortion) or the value order by order: ih 2, ih3, ih4, ih5,..ihn.
With no precise measurements, it is difficult to know exactly the current level that
corresponds to each harmonic order. It is therefore preferable to simply increase the
cross-section of the neutral conductor as a precaution, since it is known that the main
3rd order harmonics and their multiples are added together in the neutral. and to adapt
the protection of this conductor.
Standard IEC 60364 indicates the increasing factors to be applied to the cross-section
In principle, the neutral must be the same cross-section as the phase conductor in all
single-phase circuits. In three-phase circuits with a cross-section greater than 16
mm2 [25 mm2 aluminium]. The cross-section of the neutral can be reduced to cross-
section/2.
If this total is greater than 33%, the cross-section of the active conductors of multi-core
cables is chosen by increasing the current In by a fixed multiplication factor of 1.65.
For single-core cables, only the cross-section of the neutral is increased.
The current reduction factor KN or rather its inverse which will be used to oversize
the neutral conductor will then be:
With a total 3rd order harmonic distortion of 65%, the current of the phase
conductors must be increased by 119% and that in the neutral conductor by 163%.
If the THDi were to reach 100%, 1/KN would theoretically reach 2.12. This value
would be impossible to reach as it would mean that the harmonic had totally replaced
the fundamental.
The theoretical overcurrent limit for the neutral in relation to the phases is:
These calculations demonstrate that the harmonic currents above all must not be ignored both
in terms of hidden power consumption and in terms of sizing the conductors which may
be overloaded. The relative complexity of the calculations leads to the use of generic derating
values which normally cover most cases, just as software is used elsewhere.
This requires a minimum cross-section of 70 mm2 per phase. The neutral conductor
of 95 mm2.
A circuit breaker must therefore be chosen that is capable of withstanding the current
that may cross the neutral:
where:
The measured current consumed Ia is 0.07 A. As cos and the power factor are
different, it is not possible to calculate the value of the tan or that of the reactive
power Q (VAR) for the receiver in question.
The measured cos and power Q which would be calculated can only be calculated for the
reactive power part connected with the sinusoidal component of the signal, in fact the current
of the fundamental at 50Hz: 0.045 A measured in this case.
The powers relative to this linear and sinusoidal part of the load can be calculated as
follows
It can also be seen that the sinusoidal active power of the device 8.7 W is very similar
to the measured total active power 9 W. It can therefore be deduced that a large part
of power S (16 10.3 = 5.7 VA) is consumed without producing any active power. The
fluorescent luminaire and electronic ballast in the example consumes unproductive
power in the form of harmonic currents.
The total harmonic distortion is easy to calculate and represents expressed as a rate.
The spectral decomposition of the signal carried out on this luminaire shows that
the main harmonic is 3rd order (34 mA) but that all the following odd-order
harmonics are present and decaying. The main purpose of the above example is to
demonstrate that active power information (in W) only for a non-linear receiver is very
inadequate.
The cos has no real relevance or meaning as it is only applicable to the fundamental
signal. Only the apparent power and power factor (PF or ?\.,) information can really quantify
and qualify the power that must be supplied by the source.
Many modern devices (light bulbs, computer equipment, domestic appliances and
electronic equipment) have this particular feature of consuming non-linear currents.
For domestic use, where only the power in W is billed (sic), the power savings shown
for these products is attractive. In practice, the currents consumed are higher than it
seems and the energy distributor is supplying wasted energy.
Important: Unlike linear loads (page 29), for non-linear loads the active powers (in W)
can be added together algebraically, the apparent powers must only be added
together geometrically, and likewise the currents which must be the same order.
The reactive powers Q must not be added together except to as certain the relative
part of the power associated with the sinusoidal fundamental signal and the part
connected with the harmonic signals.
Pick Up Current | Current Setting | Plug Setting Multiplier and Time Setting
Multiplier of Relay.
Pick Up Current of Relay
In all electrical relays, the moving contacts are not free to move. All the
contacts remain in their respective normal position by some force applied on
them continuously. This force is called controlling force of the relay. This
controlling force may be gravitational force, may be spring force, may be
magnetic force.
The force applied on the relays moving parts for changing the normal
position of the contacts, is called deflecting force. This deflecting force is
always in opposition of controlling force and presents always in the relay.
Although the deflecting force always presents in the relay directly connected
to live line, but as the magnitude of this force is less than controlling force in
normal condition, the relay does not operate. If the actuating current in the
relay coil increases gradually, the deflecting force in electro mechanical relay,
is also increased. Once, the deflecting force crosses the controlling force, the
moving parts of the relay initiate to move to change the position of the
contacts in the relay. The current for which the relay initiates it operation is
called pick up current of relay.
Now, if we can change the number of active turns of any coil, the required
current to reach at minimum pick value of the deflecting force, in the coil
also changes. That means if active turns of the relay coil is reduced, then
proportionately more current is required to produce desired relay actuating
force. Similarly if active turns of the relay coil is increased, then
proportionately reduced current is required to produce same desired
deflecting force. Practically same model relays may be used in different
systems. As per these systems requirement the pick up current of relay is
adjusted. This is known as current setting of relay. This is achieved by
providing required number of tapping in the coil. These taps are brought out
to a plug bridge. The number of active turns in the coil can be changed by
inserting plug in different points in the bridge. The current setting of
relay is expressed in percentage ratio of relay pick up current to rated
secondary current of CT.
The operating time of an electrical relay mainly depends upon two factors :
1. How long distance to be traveled by the moving parts of the relay for
closing relay contacts and
2. How fast the moving parts of the relay cover this distance.
So far adjusting relay operating time, both of the factors to be adjusted. The
adjustment of travelling distance of an electromechanical relay is commonly
known as time setting. This adjustment is commonly known as time setting
multiplier of relay. The time setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps
0.05 sec. But by adjusting only time setting multiplier, we can not set the
actual time of operation of an electrical relay. As we already said, the time of
operation also depends upon the speed of operation. The speed of moving
parts of relay depends upon the force due to current in the relay coil. Hence,
it is clear that, speed of operation of an electrical relay depends upon the
level of fault current. In other words, time of operation of relay depends
upon plug setting multiplier. The relation between time of operation and plug
setting multiplier is plotted on a graph paper and this is known as time /
PSM graph. From this graph one can determine, the total time taken by the
moving parts of an electromechanical relay, to complete its total travelling
distance for different PSM. In time setting multiplier, this total travelling
distance is divided and calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05. So when time
setting is 0.1, the moving parts of the relay has to travel only 0.1 times of
the total travelling distance, to close the contact of the relay. So, if we get
total operating time of the relay for a particular PSM from time / PSM graph
and if we multiply that time with the time setting multiplier, we will get,
actual time of operation of relay for said PSM and TSM. For getting clear
idea, let us have a practical example. Say a relay has time setting 0.1 and
you have to calculate actual time of operation for PSM 10. From time / PSM
graph of the relay as shown below, we can see the total operating time of
the relay is 3 seconds. That means, the moving parts of the relay take total
3 seconds to travel 100 % travelling distance. As the time setting multiplier
is 0.1 here, actually the moving parts of the relay have to travel only 0.1
100% or 10% of the total travel distance, to close the relay contacts. Hence,
actual operating time of the relay is 3 0.1 = 0.3 sec. i.e. 10% of 3 sec.
This is relation curve between operating time and plug setting multiplier of
an electrical relay. The x-axis or horizontal axis of the Time / PSM graph
represents, PSM and Y-axis or vertical axis represents time of operation of
the relay. The time of operation represents in this graph is that, which
required to operate the relay when time setting multiplier set at 1. From the
Time / PSM curve of a typical relay shown below, it is seen that, if PSM is 10,
the time of operation of relay is 3 sec. That means, the relay will take 3
seconds to complete its operation, with time setting 1. It is also seen from
the curve that, for lower value of plug setting multiplier, i.e. for lower value
of fault current, the time of operation of the relay is inversely proportional to
the fault current. But when PSM becomes more than 20, the operating time
of relay becomes almost constant. This feature is necessary in order to
ensure discrimination on very heavy fault current flowing through sound
feeders.
For calculating actual relay operating time, we need to know these following
operation.
1. Current setting.
2. Fault current level.
3. Ratio of current transformer.
4. Time / PSM curve.
5. Time setting.
Step-1 From CT ratio, we first see the rated secondary current of CT. Say
the CT ratio is 100 / 1 A, i.e. secondary current of CT is 1 A. Step-2 From
current setting we calculate the trick current of the relay. Say current setting
of the relay is 150 % therefore pick up current of the relay is 1 150% =
1.5 A. Step-3 Now we have to calculate PSM for the specified faulty current
level. For that, we have to first divide primary faulty current by CT ratio to
get relay faulty current. Say the faulty current level is 1500 A, in the CT
primary, hence secondary equivalent of faulty current is 1500/(100/1) = 15
A Step-4 Now, after
calculating PSM, we have to find out the total time of operation of the relay
from Time / PSM curve. From the curve, say we found the time of operation
of relay is 3 second for PSM = 10. Step-5 Finally that operating time of relay
would be multiplied with time setting multiplier, in order to get actual time of
operation of relay. Hence say time setting of the relay is 0.1. Therefore
actual time of operation of the relay for PSM 10, is 3 0.1 = 0.3 sec or 300
ms.
This relay is created by applying intentional time delay after crossing pick up
value of the current. A definite time over current relay can be adjusted
to issue a trip output at definite amount of time after it picks up. Thus, it has
a time setting adjustment and pick up adjustment.
Inverse time is a natural character of any induction type rotating device. This
means the speed of rotation of rotating art of the device is faster if input
current is increased. In other words, time of operation inversely varies with
input current. This natural characteristic of electromechanical induction disc
relay in very suitable for over current protection. This is because, in this
relay, if fault is more severe, it would be cleared more faster. Although time
inverse characteristic is inherent to electromechanical induction disc relay,
but the same characteristic can be achieved in microprocessor based relay
also by proper programming.
Inverse Definite Minimum Time Over Current Relay or IDMT O/C Relay
From this phenomenon it is clear that from trick value to certain range of
faulty level, an inverse time relay shows exact inverse characteristic. But
after this level of fault, the CT becomes saturated and relay current does not
increase further with increasing faulty level of the system. As the relay
current is not increased further, there would not be any further reduction in
time of operation in the relay. This time is referred as minimum time of
operation. Hence, the characteristic is inverse in the initial part, which tends
to a definite minimum operating time as the current becomes very high.
That is why the relay is referred as inverse definite minimum time over
current relay or simply IDMT relay.
To understand this we need to know the cost associated with the failure of
motor, i.e.
Loss of production (Cost of production)
Replacement of motor (Replacement cost)
Cost of repair
Cost of man hours due to this emergency
The basic function of a protective relay is to identify the fault and
isolate it from the healthy part of the system. This will improve the
reliability of power system. For protection of motor, we have to identify
the various causes of failure and to address the same. The various causes of
failure are as below.
Thermal stress on winding
Single phasing
Earth fault
Short circuit
Locked rotor
Number of hot starts
Bearing failure
Thermal Stress on Winding If a motor runs continuously more
than its rated capacity then this will over heat the winding and insulation.
Subsequently deteriorate the winding insulation resulting in failure of
motor. If the voltage is less than the designed value then also it will over
heat the winding at rated load and fail the motor.
Single Phasing Loss of one phase supplied to the motor (in case
of 3-phase motor) leads to single phasing. If we start the motor on load,
then the motor will fail due to unbalance.
Earth Fault If any part of winding comes in contact with the ground
then we can say the motor is earthed. If we start the motor then it will
lead to failure of motor.
Short Circuit If there is a contact between two phases of a three
phase winding or between the turns of a phase, then this will termed as
short circuit.
Locked Rotor If the driven equipment is in jammed condition or the
motor shaft is jam, then this is known as locked rotor. If we start the
motor then it will fail.
Number of Hot Start Each motor is designed to withstand a certain
number of hot starts. Consider a motor is in running condition, if we stop
the motor & immediately start the same, then this is called as hot start.
Depending upon the thermal curve of a motor we have to give certain
time to bring down the temperature of winding.
Bearing Failure If bearing fails then rubbing of rotor on stator will
occur, resulting physical damage of insulation and winding. The bearing
failure can be avoided by monitoring the bearing temperature. Bearing
temperature detector (BTD) is used for monitoring and tripping of motor
in case of abnormality.
All motor protection relays operate on the basis of current taken by the
motor. Motor protection relay is used for high voltage area having the
following features
Thermal overload protection
Short circuit protection
Single phasing protection
Earth fault protection
Locked rotor protection
Number of start protection
For setting of the relay we require the CT ratio & full load current of the
motor. The setting of different element is listed below
Thermal over Load Element - To set this element we have to
identify the % of Full load current on which the motor is running
continuously. Thermal setting = (Full load current x % of Full load) / CT
ratio.
Short circuit Element - The range available for this element is 1 to 5
times of starting current. Time delay is also available. We normally set at
2 times of I starting with a time delay of 0.1 second.
Single Phasing Element - This element will operate, if there is an
unbalance in current of three phases. It is also called as unbalance
protection. The element is set for 1/3rd of starting current. If it tripped
during starting, then the parameter will changed to 1/2 of starting
current.
Earth Fault Protection - This element measures the neutral current
of star connected CT secondary. The range available for this element is
0.02 to 2 times of CT primary current. Time delay is also available. We
normally set at 0.1 times of CT primary current with a time delay of 0.2
seconds. If tripped during starting of motor, then the time setting can be
raised to 0.5 sec.
Locked rotor protection - The range available for this element is 1
to 5 times of full load current. Time delay is also available. We normally
set at 2 times of FLC. The time delay will be more than the starting time
of the motor. "Starting time means the time require by the motor to reach
its full speed."
Number of hot start protection - Here we will provide the number
of start allowed in specified time duration. By this we will limit the number
of hot start given to the motor.
The schematic diagram to connect a motor protection relay is as below
Modern digital motor protection relays are having some extra features, i.e.
protection against no load running of a motor and thermal protection. In
case of no load running, the relay senses the motor current. If it is less than
the specified value then it will trip the motor. We can also connect the
temperature probe to the relay, which will monitor the bearing and winding
temperature and trip the motor if it exceeds the specified value.
Feeder Protection Relays.
And plot parallelogram with a slope of RCA angle. Thus we will get a
parallelogram graph and the protection zone is inside the parallelogram.
Means during fault the impedance will reach inside the parallelogram then
the relay will trip. In graph there are 4 quadrants of operation
Reset Level: The value of current or voltage below which a relay opens its
contacts and comes in original position. Operating Time of Relay: Just
after exceeding pickup level of actuating quantity the moving mechanism
(for example rotating disc) of relay starts moving and it ultimately close the
relay contacts at the end of its journey. The time which elapses between the
instant when actuating quantity exceeds the pickup value to the instant
when the relay contacts close. Reset Time of Relay: The time which
elapses between the instant when the actuating quantity becomes less than
the reset value to the instant when the relay contacts returns to its normal
position. Reach of Relay: A distance relay operates whenever the distance
seen by the relay is less than the pre-specified impedance. The actuating
impedance in the relay is the function of distance in a distance protection
relay. This impedance or corresponding distance is called reach of the relay.
Power system protection relays can be categorized into different types of
relays.
Types of Relays
1. Differential.
2. Unbalance.
3. Neutral displacement.
4. Directional.
5. Restricted earth fault.
6. Over fluxing.
7. Distance schemes.
8. Bus bar protection.
9. Reverse power relays.
10. Loss of excitation.
11. Negative phase sequence relays etc.
Based on actuating parameter the protection relay can be categorized as-
1. Current relays.
2. Voltage relays.
3. Frequency relays.
4. Power relays etc.
Based on application the protection relay can be categorized as-
1. Primary relay.
2. Backup relay.
Primary relay or primary protection relay is the first line of power system
protection whereas backup relay is operated only when primary relay fails to
be operated during fault. Hence backup relay is slower in action than
primary relay. Any relay may fail to be operated due to any of the following
reasons,
1. The protective relay itself is defective.
2. DC Trip voltage supply to the relay is unavailable.
3. Trip lead from relay panel to circuit breaker is disconnected.
4. Trip coil in the circuit breaker is disconnected or defective.
5. Current or voltage signals from CT or PT respectively is unavailable.
As because backup relay operates only when primary relay fails, backup
protection relay should not have anything common with primary protection
relay. Some examples of Mechanical Relay are-
1. Thermal
o OT trip (Oil Temperature Trip)
o WT trip (Winding Temperature Trip)
o Bearing temp trip etc.
2. Float type
o Buchholz
o OSR
o PRV
o Water level Controls etc.
3. Pressure switches.
4. Mechanical interlocks.
5. Pole discrepancy relay.
List Different Protective Relays are used for Different Power System
Equipment Protection
Now lets have a look on which different protective relays are used in
different power system equipment protection schemes.
Lines to be
SL Relays to be used
protected
Voltage Ratio
and Common
SL Relays on HV Side Relays on LV Side
Capacity of Relays
Transformer
Differential
Relay or
Overall
differential
Relay
13.8/220 KV 3 nos Non-Directional
Overflux
15.75/220 KV O/L Relay
Relay
18/400 KV 1 no Non-Directional
2 -- Buchholz
21/400 KV E/L Relay
Relay
Generator and/or standby E/F +
OLTC
Transformer REF Relay
Buchholz
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential
Relay
Overflux
3 nos Non-Directional Relay
O/L Relay Buchholz
220 /6.6KV 3 nos Non-
1 no Non-Directional Relay
3 Station Directional O/L
E/L Relay OLTC
Transformer Relay
and/or standby E/F + Buchholz
REF Relay Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential
Relay
Overflux
Relay
Buchholz
3 nos Non-
Gen-volt/6.6KV 3 nos Non-Directional Relay
4 Directional O/L
UAT O/L Relay OLTC
Relay
Buchholz
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Buchholz
Relay
OLTC
132/33/11KV 3 nos O/L Relay 2 nos O/L Relays Buchholz
5
upto 8 MVA 1 no E/L Relay 1 no E/L Relay Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential
Relay
Buchholz
Relay
132/33/11KV 3 nos O/L Relay
3 nos O/L Relay OLTC
6 above 8 MVA & 1 no Directional E/L
1 no E/L Relay Buchholz
below 31.5 MVA Relay
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential
Relay
Overflux
Relay
220/33 KV,
Buchholz
31.5MVA & 3 nos O/L Relay 3 nos O/L Relay
Relay
8 50MVA 1 no Directional E/L 1 no Directional E/L
OLTC
220/132KV, 100 Relay Relay
Buchholz
MVA
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential
Relay
Overflux
3 nos Directional O/L Relay
Relay 3 nos Directional Buchholz
(with dir.highset) O/L Relay Relay
400/220KV 1 no Directional E/L (with dir.highset) OLTC
9
315MVA relay. 1 no Directional E/L Buchholz
Restricted E/F relay relay. Relay
3 nos Directional O/L Restricted E/F relay PRV Relay
Relay for action OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Over Load
(Alarm) Relay
In the figure above, the applied voltage to the primary is V1 and voltage
across the primary winding is E1. Total current supplied to primary is I1. So
the voltage V1 applied to the primary is partly dropped by I1Z1 or I1R1 +
j.I1X1 before it appears across primary winding. The voltage appeared across
winding is countered by primary induced emf E1. So voltage equation of this
portion of the transformer can be written as,
The equivalent circuit for that equation can be drawn as below,
Now if we
see the voltage drop in secondary from primary side, then it would be K
times greater and would be written as K.Z2.I2. Again I2.N1 = I2.N2
Therefore,
Suppose one current transformer has rating 100/1 A and ISF is 1.5 and
another current transformer has same rating with ISF 2. That means, in first
CT, the metering core would be saturated at 1.5 100 or 150 A, whereas is
second CT, core will be saturated at 2 100 or 200 A. That means whatever
may be the primary current of both CTs, secondary current will not increase
further after 150 and 200 A of primary current of the CTs respectively. Hence
maximum secondary current of the CTs would be 1.5 and 2.0 A.
As the maximum current can flow through the instrument connected to the
first CT is 1.5 A which is less than the maximum value of current can flow
through the instrument connected to the second CT i.e. 2 A. Hence security
or safety of the instruments of first CT is better than later.
Another significance of ISF is during huge electrical fault, the short circuit
current, flows through primary of the CT does not affect destructively,
the measuring instrument attached to it as because, the secondary current
of the CT will not rise above the value of rated secondary current multiplied
by ISF.
For protection current transformer, the ratio of accuracy limit primary current
to the rated primary current. First we will explain, what is rated accuracy
limit primary current?.
Broadly, this is the maximum value of primary current, beyond which core of
the protection CT or simply protection core of of a CT starts saturated. The
value of rated accuracy limit primary current is always many times more
than the value of instrument limit primary current. Actually CT transforms
the fault current of the electrical power system for operation of
the protection relays connected to the secondary of that CT. If the core of
the CT becomes saturated at lower value of primary current, as in the case
of metering CT, the system fault will not reflect properly to the secondary,
which may cause, the relays remain inoperative even the fault level of the
system is large enough. That is why the core of the protection CT is made
such a way that saturation level of that core must be high enough. But still
there is a limit as because, it is impossible to make one magnetic core with
infinitely high saturation level and secondly most important reason is that
although the protection care should have high saturation level but that must
be limited up to certain level otherwise total transformation of primary
current during huge fault may badly damage the protection relays. So it is
clear from above explanation, rated accuracy limit primary current, should
not be so less, that it will not at all help the relays to be operated on the
other hand this value must not be so high that it can damage the relays.
So, accuracy limit factor or ALF should not have the value nearer to unit
and at the same time it should not be as high as 100. The standard values of
ALF as per IS-2705 are 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30.
The electrical power system load current always flows through current
transformer primary; irrespective of whether the current transformer is open
circuited or connected to burden at its secondary.
Theory of Transformer
Let us consider one electrical transformer with only core losses, which
means, it has only core losses but no copper loss and no leakage reactance
of transformer. When an alternating source is applied in the primary, the
source will supply the current for magnetizing the core of transformer.
But this current is not the actual magnetizing current, it is little bit greater
than actual magnetizing current. Actually, total current supplied from the
source has two components, one is magnetizing current which is merely
utilized for magnetizing the core and other component of the source current
is consumed for compensating the core losses in transformer. Because of this
core loss component, the source current in transformer on no-
load condition supplied from the source as source current is not exactly at
90 lags of supply voltage, but it lags behind an angle is less than 90. If
total current supplied from source is I o, it will have one component in phase
with supply voltage V1 and this component of the current I w is core loss
component. This component is taken in phase with source voltage, because
it is associated with active or working losses in transformer. Other
component of the source current is denoted as I . This component produces
the alternating magnetic flux in the core, so it is watt-less; means it is
reactive part of the transformer source current. Hence I will be in
quadrature with V1 and in phase with alternating flux .
Now you have seen how simple is to explain the theory of transformer in
no-load.
Again in the case of secondary, the voltage induced across the secondary
winding, E2 does not totally appear across the load since it also drops by an
amount I2R2, where R2 is the secondary winding resistance and I2 is
secondary current or load current. Similarly, voltage equation of the
secondary side of the transformer will be
The main reason of motor over heating that means over heating of motor
winding is due to either of mechanical over loading, reduced supply voltage,
unbalanced supply voltage and single phasing. The over heating may cause
deterioration of insulation life of motor hence it must be avoided by
providing proper motor protection scheme. To avoid over heating, the motor
should be isolated in 40 to 50 minutes even in the event of small overloads
of the order of 10 %. The protective relay should take into account the
detrimental heating effects on the motor rotor due to negative sequence
currents in the stator arising out of unbalance in supply voltage. The motor
should also be protected by instantaneous motor protection relay against
single phasing such as a stall on loss of one phase when running at full load
or attempting to start with only two of three phases alive.
Specially in the case of conveyor belt, the reverse motor rotation must be
avoided. The reverse rotation during starting can be caused due to
inadvertent reversing of supply phases. A comprehensive motor protection
relay with an instantaneous negative sequence unit will satisfy this
requirement. If such relay has not been provided, a watt-meter type relay
can be employed. NB: However, we have to provide some additional
motor protection system for synchronous motor which is discussed
in details in synchronous motor protection topic.
Motor Thermal Overload Protection.
For understanding motor thermal overload protection in induction
motor we can discuss the operating principle of three phase induction motor.
There is one cylindrical stator and a three phase winding is symmetrically
distributed in the inner periphery of the stator. Due to such symmetrical
distribution, when three phase power supply is applied to the stator winding,
a rotating magnetic field is produced. This field rotates at synchronous
speed. The rotor is created in induction motor mainly by numbers solid
copper bars which are shorted at both ends in such a manner that they form
a cylinder cage like structure. This is why this motor is also referred as
squirrel cage induction motor. Anyway let's come to the basic point of three
phase induction motor - which will help us to understand clearly
about motor thermal overload protection.As the rotating magnetic
flux cuts each of the bar conductor of rotor, there will be an induced
circulating current flowing through the bar conductors. At starting the rotor
is stand still and stator field is rotating at synchronous speed, the relative
motion between rotating field and rotor is maximum.
Hence, the rate of cuts of flux with rotor bars is maximum, the induced
current is maximum at this condition. But as the cause of induced current is,
this relative speed, the rotor will try to reduce this relative speed and hence
it will start rotating in the direction of rotating magnetic field to catch the
synchronous speed. As soon as the rotor will come to the synchronous speed
this relative speed between rotor and rotating magnetic field becomes zero,
hence there will not be any further flux cutting and consequently there will
not be any induced current in the rotor bars. As the induced current
becomes zero, there will not be any further need of maintaining zero relative
speed between rotor and rotating magnetic field hence rotor speed falls. As
soon as the rotor speed falls the relative speed between rotor and rotating
magnetic field again acquires a non zero value which again causes induced
current in the rotor bars then rotor will again try to achieve the synchronous
speed and this will continue till the motor is switch on. Due to this
phenomenon the rotor will never achieve the synchronous speed as well as it
will never stop running during normal operation. The difference between the
synchronous speed with rotor speed in respect of synchronous speed, is
termed as slip of induction motor.
If we look at any electrical power system, we will find, these are several
voltage levels. For example, suppose a typical power system where electrical
power is generated at 6.6 kV then that 132 kV power is transmitted to
terminal substation where it is stepped down to 33 kV and 11 kV levels and
this 11 kV level may further step down to 0.4kv. Hence from this example it
is clear that a same power system network may have different voltage
levels. So calculation of fault at any location of the said system becomes
much difficult and complicated it try to calculate impedance of different parts
of the system according to their voltage level. This difficulty can be avoided
if we calculate impedance of different part of the system in reference to a
single base value. This technique is called impedance notation of power
system. In other wards, before electrical fault calculation, the system
parameters, must be referred to base quantities and represented as uniform
system of impedance in either ohmic, percentage, or per unit values.
Electrical power and voltage are generally taken as base quantities. In three
phase system, three phase power in MVA or KVA is taken as base power and
line to line voltage in KV is taken as base voltage. The base impedance of
the system can be calculated from these base power and base voltage, as
Network Reduction
After choosing the correct impedance notation, the next step is to reduce
network to a single impedance. For this first we have to convert the
impedance of all generators, lines, cables, transformer to a common base
value. Then we prepare a schematic diagram of electrical power system
showing the impedance referred to same base value of all those generators,
lines, cables and transformers. The network then reduced to a common
equivalent single impedance by using star/delta transformations. Separate
impedance diagrams should be prepared for positive, negative and zero
sequence networks. There phase faults are unique since they are balanced
i.e. symmetrical in three phase, and can be calculated from the single phase
positive sequence impedance diagram. Therefore three phase fault current
Therefore,
The impedance offered by the system to the flow of zero sequence current is
known as zero sequence impedance. In previous fault calculation, Z1,
Z2 and Z0 are positive, negative and zero sequence impedance respectively.
The sequence impedance varies with the type of power system
components under consideration:-
1. In static and balanced power system components like transformer and
lines, the sequence impedance offered by the system are the same for
positive and negative sequence currents. In other words, the positive
sequence impedance and negative sequence impedance are same
for transformers and power lines.
2. But in case of rotating machines the positive and negative
sequence impedance are different.
3. The assignment of zero sequence impedance values is a more
complex one. This is because the three zero sequence current at any point
in a electrical power system, being in phase, do not sum to zero but must
return through the neutral and /or earth. In three phase transformer and
machine fluxes due to zero sequence components do not sum to zero in
the yoke or field system. The impedance very widely depending upon the
physical arrangement of the magnetic circuits and winding.
1. The reactance of transmission lines of zero sequence currents
can be about 3 to 5 times the positive sequence current, the lighter
value being for lines without earth wires. This is because the spacing
between the go and return(i.e. neutral and/or earth) is so much
greater than for positive and negative sequence currents which return
(balance) within the three phase conductor groups.
2. The zero sequence reactance of a machine is compounded of
leakage and winding reactance, and a small component due to winding
balance (depends on winding tritch).
3. The zero sequence reactance of transformers depends both on
winding connections and upon construction of core.
The principle faults which occurs inside a power transformer are categorized
as,
1. Insulation breakdown between winding and earth
2. Insulation breakdown in between different phases
3. Insulation breakdown in between adjacent turns i.e. inter - turn fault
4. Transformer core fault
Internal Earth Faults in a Star Connected Winding with Neutral Point Earthed
through an Impedance
In this case the fault current is dependent on the value of earthing
impedance and is also proportional to the distance of the fault point from
neutral point as the voltage at the point depends upon, the number of
winding turns come under across neutral and fault point. If the distance
between fault point and neutral point is more, the number of turns come
under this distance is also more, hence voltage across the neutral point and
fault point is high which causes higher fault current. So, in few words it can
be said that, the value of fault current depends on the value of earthing
impedance as well as the distance between the faulty point and neutral
point. The fault current also depends up on leakage reactance of the portion
of the winding across the fault point and neutral. But compared to the
earthing impedance,it is very low and it is obviously ignored as it comes in
series with comparatively much higher earthing impedance.
Internal Earth Faults in a Star Connected Winding with Neutral Point Solidly
Earthed
In this case, earthing impedance is ideally zero. The fault current is
dependent up on leakage reactance of the portion of winding comes across
faulty point and neutral point of transformer. The fault current is also
dependent on the distance between neutral point and fault point in the
transformer. As said in previous case the voltage across these two points
depends upon the number of winding turn comes across faulty point and
neutral point. So in star connected winding with neutral point solidly
earthed, the fault current depends upon two main factors, first the leakage
reactance of the winding comes across faulty point and neutral point and
secondly the distance between faulty point and neutral point. But the
leakage reactance of the winding varies in complex manner with position of
the fault in the winding. It is seen that the reactance decreases very rapidly
for fault point approaching the neutral and hence the fault current is highest
for the fault near the neutral end. So at this point, the voltage available for
fault current is low and at the same time the reactance opposes the fault
current is also low, hence the value of fault current is high enough. Again at
fault point away from the neutral point, the voltage available for fault current
is high but at the same time reactance offered by the winding portion
between fault point and neutral point is high. It can be noticed that the fault
current stays a very high level throughout the winding. In other word, the
fault current maintain a very high magnitude irrelevant to the position of the
fault on winding.
Phase to phase fault in the transformer are rare. If such a fault does occur, it
will give rise to substantial current to operate instantaneous over current
relay on the primary side as well as the differential relay.
Another range of setting on earth fault relay is also available and may be
selected where the earth fault current is restricted due to insertion of
impedance in the neutral grounding. In the case of transformer winding with
neutral earthed, unrestricted earth fault protection is obtained by connecting
an ordinary earth fault relay across a neutral current transformer. The
unrestricted over current and earth fault relays should have proper time lag
to co-ordinate with the protective relays of other circuit to avoid
indiscriminate tripping.
Transformer Protection and Transformer Fault.
There are different kinds of transformers such as two winding or three
winding electrical power transformers, auto transformer, regulating
transformers, earthing transformers, rectifier transformers etc. Different
transformers demand different schemes of transformer
protection depending upon their importance, winding connections, earthing
methods and mode of operation etc.It is common practice to
provide Buchholz relay protection to all 0.5 MVA and above transformers.
While for all small size distribution transformers, only high voltage fuses are
used as main protective device. For all larger rated and important
distribution transformers, over current protection along with restricted earth
fault protectionis applied. Differential protection should be provided in
the transformers rated above 5 MVA.
4% 2
5% 3
6% 4
7 % and over 5
The general winding faults in transformer are either earth faults or inter-
turns faults. Phase to phase winding faults in a transformer is rare. The
phase faults in an electrical transformer may be occurred due to bushing
flash over and faults in tap changer equipment. Whatever may be the faults,
the transformer must be isolated instantly during fault otherwise major
breakdown may occur in the electrical power system. Incipient faults are
internal faults which constitute no immediate hazard. But it these faults are
over looked and not taken care of, these may lead to major faults. The faults
in this group are mainly inter-lamination short circuit due to insulation failure
between core lamination, lowering the oil level due to oil leakage, blockage
of oil flow paths. All these faults lead to overheating. So transformer
protection scheme is required for incipient transformer faults also. The earth
fault, very nearer to neutral point of transformer star winding may also be
considered as an incipient fault. Influence of winding connections and
earthing on earth fault current magnitude. There are mainly two conditions
for earth fault current to flow during winding to earth faults,
1. A current exists for the current to flow into and out of the winding.
2. Ampere-turns balance is maintained between the windings.
The value of winding earth fault current depends upon position of the fault
on the winding, method of winding connection and method of earthing. The
star point of the windings may be earthed either solidly or via a resistor. On
delta side of the transformer the system is earthed through an earthing
transformer. Grounding or earthing transformer provides low impedance path
to the zero sequence current and high impedance to the positive and
negative sequence currents.
In radial feeder, the power flows in one direction only, that is from source to
load. This type of feeders can easily protected by using either definite time
relays or inverse time relays.
Line Protection by Definite Time Relay
This protection scheme is very simple. Here total line is divided into different
sections and each section is provided with definite time relay. The relay
nearest to the end of the line has minimum time setting while time setting of
other relays successively increased, towards the source. For example,
suppose there is a source at point A, in the figure below
At point D the circuit breaker CB-3 is installed with definite time of relay
operation 0.5 sec. Successively, at point C an other circuit breaker CB-2 is
installed with definite time of relay operation 1 sec. The next circuit breaker
CB-1 is installed at point B which is nearest of the point A. At point B, the
relay is set at time of operation 1.5 sec.
Now, assume a fault occurs at point F. Due to this fault, the faulty current
flow through all the current transformers or CTs connected in the line. But as
the time of operation of relay at point D is minimum the CB-3, associated
with this relay will trip first to isolate the faulty zone from rest part of the
line. In case due to any reason, CB-3 fails to trip, then next higher timed
relay will operate the associated CB to trip. In this case, CB-2 will trip. If CB-
2 also fails to trip, then next circuit breaker i.e. CB-1 will trip to isolate
major portion of the line.
In the above figure, overall time setting of relay at point D is minimum and
successively this time setting is increased for the relays associated with the
points towards the point A. In case of any fault at point F will obviously trip
CB-3 at point D. In failure of opening CB-3, CB-2 will be operated as overall
time setting is higher in relay at point C. Although, the time setting of relay
nearest to the source is maximum but still it will trip in shorter period, if
major fault occurs near the source, as the time of operation of relay is
inversely proportional to faulty current.
So, it is clear that under normal condition there is no current flows through
the busbar protection tripping relay. This relay is generally referred as
Relay 87. Now, say fault is occurred at any of the feeders, outside the
protected zone. In that case, the faulty current will pass through primary of
the CT of that feeder. This fault current is contributed by all other feeders
connected to the bus. So, contributed part of fault current flows through the
corresponding CT of respective feeder. Hence at that faulty condition, if we
apply KCL at node K, we will still get, iR = 0.
That means, at external faulty condition, there is no current flows through
relay 87. Now consider a situation when fault is occurred on the bus itself.
Let us draw and discuss about protection of busbar with two sections.
Here, bus section A or zone A is bounded by CT 1, CT2 and CT3 where CT1 and
CT2 are feeder CTs and CT3 is bus CT. Similarly bus section B or zone B is
bounded by CT4, CT5 and CT6where CT4 is bus CT, CT5 and CT6 are feeder CT.
Therefore, zone A and B are overlapped to ensure that, there is no zone left
behind this busbar protection scheme. ASI terminals of CT1, 2 and 3 are
connected together to form secondary bus ASI BSI terminals of CT 4, 5 and 6
are connected together to form secondary bus BSI. S 2 terminals of all CTs
are connected together to form a common bus S 2. Now, busbar protection
relay 87A for zone A is connected across bus ASI and S 2. Relay 87B for zone
B is connected across bus BSI and S 2. This section busbar differential
protection scheme operates in some manner simple current differential
protection of busbar. That is, any fault in zone A, with trip only CB 1, CB2and
bus CB. Any fault in zone B, will trip only CB 5, CB6 and bus CB. Hence, fault in
any section of bus will isolate only that portion from live system. In current
differential protection of busbar, if CT secondary circuits, or bus wires is open
the relay may be operated to isolate the bus from live system. But this is not
desirable.
The current differential scheme is sensitive only when the CTs do not get
saturated and maintain same current ratio, phase angle error under
maximum faulty condition. This is usually not 80, particularly, in the case of
an external fault on one of the feeders. The CT on the faulty feeder may be
saturated by total current and consequently it will have very large errors.
Due to this large error, the summation of secondary current of all CTs in a
particular zone may not be zero. So there may be a high chance of tripping
of all circuit breakers associated with this protection zone even in the case of
an external large fault. To prevent this maloperation of current
differential busbar protection, the 87 relays are provided with high pick up
current and enough time delay. The greatest troublesome cause of current
transformer saturation is the transient dc component of the short circuit
current. This difficulties can be overcome by using air core CTs. This current
transformer is also called linear coupler. As the core of the CT does not use
iron the secondary characteristic of these CTs, is straight line. In voltage
differential busbar protection the CTs of all incoming and outgoing feeders
are connected in series instead of connecting them in parallel.
The secondaries of all CTs and differential relay form a closed loop. If
polarity of all CTs are properly matched, the sum of voltage across all CT
secondaries is zero. Hence there would be no resultant voltage appears
across the differential relay. When a buss fault occurs, sum of the all CT
secondary voltage is no longer zero. Hence, there would be current circulate
in the loop due to the resultant voltage. As this loop current also flows
through the differential relay, the relay is operated to trip all the circuit
beaker associated with protected bus zone. Except when ground fault
current is severally limited by neutral impedance there is usually no
selectivity problem when such a problem exists, it is solved by use of an
additional more sensitive relaying equipment including a supervising
protective relay.
Protection of Capacitor Bank.
Like other electrical equipments, shunt capacitor may also be subjected to
internal and external electrical faults. Hence this equipment is also to be
protected from internal and external faults. There are numbers of schemes
available for protection of capacitor bank, but during applying any of the
schemes, we should remember the initial investment on that capacitor for
economical point of view. We should compare the initial investment in the
capacitor and the cost of the protection applying on it. There are mainly 3
types of protection arrangement are applied to a capacitor bank.
1. Element Fuse.
2. Unit. Fuse.
3. Bank Protection.
Element Fuses
Unit Fuse
The unit fuse protection is generally provided to limit the duration of arc
inside a faulty capacitor unit. As the arc duration is limited, there is less
chance of major mechanical deformation and huge production of gas in the
faulty unit, and hence the neighborhood units of the bank are saved. If each
unit of a capacitor bank is individually protected against fuse, then in case of
failure of one unit, the capacitor bank can still be running without
interruption before removing and replacing the faulty unit. Another major
advantage of providing fuse protection to each unit of the bank is that, it
indicates the exact location of the faulty unit. But during choosing the size of
the fuse for this purpose, it should be taken into consideration that the fuse
element must withstand the excessive loading due to harmonics in the
system. In the view of that the current rating of the fuse element for this
purpose is taken as 65 % above the full load current. Whenever the
individual unit of capacitor bank is protected by fuse, it is necessary to
provide discharge resistance in each of the units.
Bank Protection
This article discusses the design issues in implementation that must be considered by
the designer.
This power must be dropped down to a lower voltage level for the controls and DC
power supplies. 110Vac is common in North America, and 220 V AC Is common in
Europe and the Commonwealth countries. It is also common for a control cabinet to
supply a higher voltage to other equipment, such as motors.
Dashed lines indicate a single purchased component. This system uses 3 phase AC
power (L1, L2 and L3) connected to the terminals. The three phases are then
connected to a power interrupter. Next, all three phases are supplied to a motor starter
that contains three contacts, M, and three thermal overload relays (breakers).
Figure 1 A Motor Controller Schematic
The contacts, M, will be controlled by the coil, M. The output of the motor starter goes
to a three phase AC motor. Power is supplied by connecting a step down
transformer to the control electronics by connecting to phases L2 and L3. The lower
voltage is then used to supply power to the left and right rails of the ladder below. The
neutral rail is also grounded.
The system controls the motor starter coil M, and uses a spare contact on the
starter, M, to seal in the motor starter.
The diagram also shows numbering for the wires in the device. This is essential for
industrial control systems that may contain hundreds or thousands of wires. These
numbering schemes are often particular to each facility, but there are tools to help
make wire labels that will appear in the final controls cabinet.
Figure 2 A
Physical Layout for the Control Cabinet
Once the electrical design is complete, a layout for the controls cabinet is developed, as
shown in Figure 2. The physical dimensions of the devices must be considered, and adequate
space is needed to run wires between components.
In the cabinet the AC power would enter at the terminal block, and be connected to the main
breaker.
It would then be connected to the contactors and overload relays that constitute the
motor starter. Two of the phases are also connected to the transformer to power the
logic. The start and stop buttons are at the left of the box (note: normally these are
mounted elsewhere, and a separate layout drawing would be needed).
The final layout in the cabinet might look like the one shown in Figure 1.
Figure 3 Final PLC Panel Wiring
When being built the system will follow certain standards that may be company policy,
or legal requirements. This often includes items such as;
Hold downs the will secure the wire so they dont move
Labels wire labels help troubleshooting
Strain reliefs these will hold the wire so that it will not be pulled out of screw
terminals
Grounding grounding wires may be needed on each metal piece for safety
Figure 4
An industrial control cabinet with wire runs, terminal strip, buttons on PLC panel
front, etc.
When including a PLC in the ladder diagram still remains. But, it does tend to become
more complex. Figure 5 below shows a schematic diagram for a PLC based motor
control system, similar to the previous motor control example.
This figure shows the E-stop wired to cutoff power to all of the devices in the circuit,
including the PLC. All critical safety functions should be hardwired this way.
Figure 5 An Electrical
Schematic with a PLC.
Electrical Distribution Architecture In Water Treatment Plants.
For both drinking water and wastewater treatment, 4 different sizes of plants have
been distinguished. The size of plants can be expressed in quantity of treated water
per day, or in corresponding number of inhabitants.
Four different types of (waste) water treatment plants have been distinguished,
depending on destination and size:
Electrical Distribution
The most relevant characteristics of the electrical installation are taken into
The impact of such errors may range from simply being a nuisance (tripping occurs
repeatedly on energisation, requiring investigation to locate and correct the errors) through
to failure to trip under fault conditions, leading to major equipment damage, disruption to
supplies and potential hazards to personnel.
The strategies available to remove these risks are many, but all involve some kind
of testing at site. Commissioning tests at site are therefore invariably performed
before protection equipment is set to work. The aims of commissioning tests are:
1. To ensure that the equipment has not been damaged during transit or installation
2. To ensure that the installation work has been carried out correctly
3. To prove the correct functioning of the protection scheme as a whole
The tests carried out will normally vary according to the protection scheme
involved, the relay technology used, and the policy of the client. In many cases, the
The following tests are invariably carried out, since the protection scheme will
not function correctly if faults exist.
Wiring diagram check, using circuit diagrams showing all the reference numbers of the
interconnecting wiring
General inspection of the equipment, checking all connections, wires on relays
terminals, labels on terminal boards, etc.
Insulation resistance measurement of all circuits [details]
Perform relay self-test procedure and external communications checks on
digital/numerical relays [details]
Test main current transformers
Polarity check
Magnetisation Curve
Test main voltage transformers
Polarity check
Ratio check
Phasing check
Check that protection relay alarm/trip settings have been entered correctly [details]
Tripping and alarm circuit checks to prove correct functioning
In addition, the following checks may be carried out, depending on the factors noted
above (not covered in this technical article):
Secondary injection test on each relay to prove operation at one or more setting values
Primary injection tests on each relay to prove stability for external faults and to
determine the effective current setting for internal faults (essential for some types of
electromechanical relays)
Testing of protection scheme logic
All the deliberate earth connections on the wiring to be tested should first be removed,
for example earthing links on current transformers, voltage transformers and
DC supplies. Some insulation testers generate impulses with peak voltages
exceeding 5kV. In these instances any electronic equipment should be disconnected
while the external wiring insulation is checked.
The insulation resistance should be measured to earth and between electrically
separate circuits. The readings are recorded and compared with subsequent routine
The insulation resistance measured depends on the amount of wiring involved, its
grade, and the site humidity. Generally, if the test is restricted to one cubicle, a reading
of several hundred megohms should be obtained. If long lengths of site wiring are
Digital and numerical relays will have a self-test procedure that is detailed in the
appropriate relay manual. These tests should be followed to determine if the relay is
operating correctly.
This will normally involve checking of the relay watchdog circuit, exercising all
digital inputs and outputs and checking that the relay analogue inputs are within
For these tests, the relay outputs are normally disconnected from the remainder of the
protection scheme, as it is a test carried out to prove correct relay, rather than
scheme, operation.
To shorten
testing and commissioning times of SIPROTEC relays, extensive test and diagnostic
functions are available to the user in DIGSI 5
Unit protection schemes involve relays that need to communicate with each
other. This leads to additional testing requirements. The communications path
between the relays is tested using suitable equipment to ensure that the path is
complete and that the received signal strength is within specification. Numerical relays
may be fitted with loopback test facilities that enable either part of or the entire
communications link to be tested from one end.
After completion of these tests, it is usual to enter the relay settings required. This
can be done manually via the relay front panel controls, or using a portable PC and
suitable software.
Whichever, method is used, a check by a second person that the correct settings have
been used is desirable, and the settings recorded. Programmable scheme logic that is
required is also entered at this stage.
SIPRO
TEC relay wiring test editor for monitoring and testing of binary inputs, binary
outputs and LED (click to expand)
The following tests are normally carried out prior to energisation of the main circuits :
checking of polarity and current transformer magnetisation curve.
Polarity checks.
Each current transformer should be individually tested to verify that the primary and
secondary polarity markings are correct (see Figure 1).
Figure 1 Current
transformer polarity check
The characteristic is measured at suitable intervals of applied voltage, until the magnetising
current is seen to rise very rapidly for a small increase in voltage. This indicates the
approximate knee-point or saturation flux level of the current transformer.
The magnetising current should then be recorded at similar voltage intervals as it is
reduced to zero.
Care must be taken that the test equipment is suitably rated. The short-time
current rating must be in excess of the CT secondary current rating, to allow for
measurement of the saturation current. This will be in excess of the CT secondary
current rating. As the magnetising current will not be sinusoidal, a moving iron or
dynamometer type ammeter should be used.
It is often found that current transformers with secondary ratings of 1A or less have a knee-
point voltage higher than the local mains supply. In these cases, a step-up interposing
transformer must be used to obtain the necessary voltage to check the magnetisation curve.
The voltage transformer polarity can be checked using the method for CT polarity
tests. Care must be taken to connect the battery supply to the primary winding, with
the polarity ammeter connected to the secondary winding. If the voltage transformer is
of the capacitor type, then the polarity of the transformer at the bottom of the capacitor
stack should be checked.
Ratio check of VT
This check can be carried out when the main circuit is first made live. The voltage
transformer secondary voltage is compared with the secondary voltage shown on the
nameplate.
Na
mplate of a single phase voltage transformer (photo credit: emadrlc.blogspot.com)
Go back to Commissioning tests
Phasing check of VT
Provided an existing proven VT is available on the same primary system, and that
secondary earthing is employed, all that is now necessary to prove correct phasing is
a voltage check between, say, both A phase secondary outputs. There should be
nominally little or no voltage if the phasing is correct.
However, this test does not detect if the phase sequence is correct, but the phases are
displaced by 120o from their correct position, i.e. phase A occupies the position of phase C or
phase B in Figure 3.
This can be checked by removing the fuses from phases B and C (say) and measuring
the phase-earth voltages on the secondary of the VT. If the phasing is correct, only
phase A should be healthy, phases B and C should have only a small residual voltage.
Figure 3
Voltage transformer phasing check
Correct phasing should be further substantiated when carrying out on load tests
on any phase-angle sensitive relays, at the relay terminals. Load current in a known
phase CT secondary should be compared with the associated phase to neutral VT
secondary voltage.
The phase angle between them should be measured, and should relate to the
At some point during commissioning, the alarm and trip settings of the relay
elements involved will require to be entered and/or checked. Where the complete
scheme is engineered and supplied by a single contractor, the settings may already
have been entered prior to despatch from the factory, and hence this need not be
repeated.
The method of entering settings varies according to the relay technology used.
For electromechanical and static relays , manual entry of the settings for each relay
element is required. This method can also be used for digital/numerical relays.
However, the amount of data to be entered is much greater, and therefore it is usual to use
appropriate software, normally supplied by the manufacturer, for this purpose. The
software also makes the essential task of making a record of the data entered much easier.
The maximum allowable step potential is 5,664V, which exceeds the step
voltage calculated above and the earthing system passes the step potential
criteria. Having passed both touch and step potential criteria, we can
conclude that the earthing system is safe. Once the data has been entered, it
should be checked for compliance with the recommended settings as calculated from
the protection setting study. Where appropriate software is used for data entry, the
checks can be considered complete if the data is checked prior to download of the
settings to the relay.
Consider the network shown in Fig. 8.10. The system parameters are given below
We shall find the fault current for when a (a) 1LG, (b) LL and (c) 2LG fault occurs at bus-2.
Let us choose a base in the circuit of the generator. Then the per unit impedances of the generator are:
The MVA base of the motor is 40, while the base MVA of the total circuit is 50. Therefore the per unit
impedances of the motor are
Therefore
Example 8.5
Let us now assume that a 2LG fault has occurred in bus-4 instead of the one in bus-2. Therefore
Also we have
Hence
per unit
Also
per unit
per unit
We shall now compute the currents contributed by the generator and the motor to the fault. Let us
denote the current flowing to the fault from the generator side by Ig , while that flowing from the motor
by Im . Then from Fig. 8.11 using the current divider principle, the positive sequence currents contributed
by the two buses are
per unit
per unit
Similarly from Fig. 8.12, the negative sequence currents are given as
per unit
per unit
Finally notice from Fig. 8.13 that the zero sequence current flowing from the generator to the fault is 0.
Then we have
per unit
Therefore the fault currents flowing from the generator side are
In the above two examples we have neglected the phase shifts of the Y/ transformers. However
according to the American standard, the positive sequence components of the high tension side lead
those of the low tension side by 30 , while the negative sequence behavior is reverse of the positive
sequence behavior. Usually the high tension side of a Y/ transformer is Y-connected. Therefore as we
have seen in Fig. 7.16, the positive sequence component of Y side leads the positive sequence
component of the side by 30 while the negative sequence component of Y side lags that of the side
by 30 . We shall now use this principle to compute the fault current for an unsymmetrical fault.
Let us do some more examples.
Example 8.6
Let us consider the same system as given in Example 8.5. Since the phase shift does not alter the zero
sequence, the circuit of Fig. 8.13 remains unchanged. The positive and the negative sequence circuits
must however include the respective phase shifts. These circuits are redrawn as shown in Figs. 8.14 and
8.15.
Note from Figs. 8.14 and 8.15 that we have dropped the 3 vis--vis that of Fig. 7.16. This is because
the per unit impedances remain unchanged when referred to the either high tension or low tension side of
an ideal transformer. Therefore the per unit impedances will also not be altered.
Fig. 8.14 Positive sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10 including transformer
phase shift.
Fig. 8.15 Negative sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10 including transformer
phase shift.
Since the zero sequence remains unaltered, these currents will not change from those computed in
Example 8.6. Thus
Now the positive sequence fault current from the generator Iga1 , being on the Y-side of the Y/
transformer will lead I ma1 by 30 . Therefore
per unit
per unit
Finally the negative sequence current I ga2 will lag I ma2 by 30 . Hence we have
per unit
per unit
Therefore
Also the fault currents flowing from the motor remain unaltered. Also note that the currents flowing into the
fault remain unchanged. This implies that the phase shift of the Y/ transformers does not affect the fault
currents.
Example 8.7
Let us consider the same power system as given in Example 1.2, the sequence diagrams of which are
given in Figs. 7.18 to 7.20. With respect to Fig. 7.17, let us define the system parameters as:
Transformer T2 : Three single-phase units each rated 100 MVA, 130Y/25 kV, X = 10%
Line C-F : X1 = X2 = 50 , X0 = 75
Let us choose the circuit of Generator 3 as the base, the base MVA for the circuit is 300. The base
voltages are then same as those shown in Fig. 1.23. Per unit reactances are then computed as shown
below.
Generator G1 :
, X0 = 0.15
Generator G2 :
, X0 = 0.0656
Generator G3 : , X0 = 0.15
Transformer T1 :
Transformer T2 :
Transformer T3 :
Line B-C :
,
Line C-D :
,
Line C-F :
,
Neglecting the phase shifts of Y/ connected transformers and assuming that the system is unloaded, we
shall find the fault current for a 1LG fault at bus-1 (point C of Fig. 7.17).
From Figs. 7.18 and 7.19, we can obtain the positive and negative sequence Thevenin impedance at
point C as (verify)
Similarly from Fig. 7.20, the Thevenin equivalent of the zero sequence impedance is
per unit
(8.17)
(8.19)
Therefore
(8.20)
(8.21)
(8.22)
(8.23)
(8.24)
The Thevenin equivalent circuit for 2LG fault is shown in Fig. 8.8. From this figure we get
The zero and negative sequence currents can be obtained using the current divider principle as
(8.25)
(8.26)
Example 8.3
Let us consider the same generator as given in Examples 8.1 and 8.2. Let us assume that the generator
is operating without any load when a bolted 2LG fault occurs in phases b and c. The equivalent circuit for
this fault is shown in Fig. 8.9. From this figure we can write
Fig. 8.9 Equivalent circuit of the generator in Fig. 8.4 for a 2LG fault in phases b and c.
Combining the above three equations we can write the following vector-matrix form
Hence
We can also obtain the above values using (8.24)-(8.26). Note from Example 8.1 that
Then
Now the sequence components of the voltages are
and Vb = Vc = 0. Therefore
Line-to-Line Fault
The faulted segment for an L-L fault is shown in Fig. 8.5 where it is assumed that the fault has occurred at
node k of the network. In this the phases b and c got shorted through the impedance Zf . Since the system
is unloaded before the occurrence of the fault we have
(8.8)
(8.10)
(8.11)
Therefore no zero sequence current is injected into the network at bus k and hence the zero sequence
remains a dead network for an L-L fault. The positive and negative sequence currents are negative of
each other.
Now from Fig. 8.5 we get the following expression for the voltage at the faulted point
(8.12)
(8.13)
Again
(8.15)
Equations (8.12) and (8.15) indicate that the positive and negative sequence networks are in parallel. The
sequence network is then as shown in Fig. 8.6. From this network we get
(8.16)
Example 8.2
Let us consider the same generator as given in Example 8.1. Assume that the generator is unloaded
when a bolted ( Zf = 0) short circuit occurs between phases b and c. Then we get from (8.9) I fb = - I fc .
Also since the generator is unloaded, we have I fa = 0. Therefore from (7.34) we get
Then
We can also obtain the above equation from (8.16) as
Also since the neutral current I n is zero, we can write V a = 1.0 and
Single-Line-to-Ground Fault
Let a 1LG fault has occurred at node k of a network. The faulted segment is then as shown in Fig. 8.2
where it is assumed that phase-a has touched the ground through an impedance Zf . Since the system is
unloaded before the occurrence of the fault we have
(8.1)
Fig. 8.2 Representation of 1LG fault.
(8.2)
(8.3)
(8.4)
This implies that the three sequence currents are in series for the 1LG fault. Let us denote the zero,
positive and negative sequence Thevenin impedance at the faulted point
as Z kk0 , Z kk1 and Z kk2respectively. Also since the Thevenin voltage at the faulted phase is Vf we get three
(8.5)
sequence circuits that are similar to the ones shown in Fig. 7.7. We can then write
(8.6)
Again since
We get from (8.6)
(8.7)
Example 8.1
A three-phase Y-connected synchronous generator is running unloaded with rated voltage when a 1LG
fault occurs at its terminals. The generator is rated 20 kV, 220 MVA, with subsynchronous reactance of
0.2 per unit. Assume that the subtransient mutual reactance between the windings is 0.025 per unit. The
neutral of the generator is grounded through a 0.05 per unit reactance. The equivalent circuit of the
generator is shown in Fig. 8.4. We have to find out the negative and zero sequence reactances.
Since no current flows in phases b and c, once the fault occurs, we have from Fig. 8.4
Therefore
From (7.38) we can write Z1 = j ( Ls + Ms ) = j 0.225. Then from Fig. 7.7 we have
Introduction
The sequence circuits and the sequence networks developed in the previous chapter will now be used
for finding out fault current during unsymmetrical faults.
The power system is balanced before the fault occurs such that of the three sequence networks
only the positive sequence network is active. Also as the fault occurs, the sequence networks are
connected only through the fault location.
The fault current is negligible such that the pre-fault positive sequence voltages are same at all
nodes and at the fault location.
All the network resistances and line charging capacitances are negligible.
All loads are passive except the rotating loads which are represented by synchronous machines.
Based on the assumptions stated above, the faulted network will be as shown in Fig. 8.1 where the
voltage at the faulted point will be denoted by Vf and current in the three faulted phases
are Ifa , I fb and I fc .
We shall now discuss how the three sequence networks are connected when the three types of faults
discussed above occur.