CHAPTER 4

FRICTION

4.1 Introduction

4.1.1 Law of Dry Friction

4.1.2 The Limiting Angle of Friction

4.1.3 The Inclined Plane

4.2 Applications of Friction Screw Threads

4.2.1 Friction In Vee Threads

4.3 Application of Friction Friction Clutch

4.3.1 Analysis of Clutch

PROBLEMS - FRICTIONS, SCREW THREADS

AND CLUTCH
4.1 Introduction

Friction is the force that resists motion when the surface of

one object comes into contact with the surface of another

When one surfaces slides with over another, a force is

introduced, this acts to retard the motion. This resistive force is
known as force of friction.

Friction force exist due to most surfaces are not free from
ridges and depressions. This creates an imperfect smooth surface
that produces friction when it slides with another surface.

The friction force acts tangentially to the surfaces of two

bodies at the point of contact and acts in the opposite direction to
that of the relative motion.

Friction is required for the successful operation of belt and

rope drives, friction clutches, rolling of wheels on road and so on.
There are two forms of friction, kinetic and static.

Static friction

If you try to slide two objects past each other, a small amount
of force will result in no motion. The force of friction is greater
than the applied force.

Kinetic friction

If you apply a little more force, the object "breaks free" and
slides, although you still need to apply force to keep the object
sliding. You do not need to apply quite as much force to keep the
object sliding as you needed to originally break free of static
friction.
Mini-quiz to check your understanding

1. Is friction required when you are sleeping?

No, because you are not awake or doing anything

Scientists are not certain since the person is not awake

Yes, because without friction you could not roll over

2. What is the most common way to reduce

friction?
Lubrication

Warning signs

Eliminate the motion

3. Do you want to increase or decrease friction

when riding a bicycle?
Increase, because you don't want to go too fast

Both, because you want to be able to stop but yet peddle

easily

Decrease, because you don't want to peddle too hard

 4.1.1 Law of Dry Friction

RN
Direction of
motion
A
F

Figure 4.1

From Figure 4.1, let F be the force required to slide block A on surface B,
which is tangential to the surface of contact, RN is the normal reaction force
between the surfaces in contact. By law of dry friction,
F R N

F RN ... (1)
where is coefficient of friction.

This concludes that;

1. Friction force is independent of shape and area of the

contacting surface.

2. The friction force directly proportional to normal force

between surfaces of contact.
3. The friction force depends on the nature of the surfaces of
contact ( ). Some of the values of between various
surfaces.

Material

Wood on wood 0.45

Leather on metal 0.3 0.5
Cast iron on cast iron 0.16
Metal on wood 0.2 0.6
Glass on glass 0.4
Mild steel on cast iron 0.24
Table 4.1

Surfaces
Steel on steel 0.74
Glass on glass 0.94
Ice on ice 0.10
Teflon on Teflon 0.04
Tire on concrete 1.00
Tire on wet road 0.60
Tire on snow 0.30
4.1.2 The Limiting Angle of Friction
RN
R
RN

P F R N

W=mg W=mg

Figure 4.2

In the case where the surface of contact between A and B is

without any fluid or lubricant (dry friction), body A of weight W is
at rest on horizontal plane B as in Figure 4.2(a).
 Let P the force applied on block A as in Figure 4.2(b).

There will be no relative motion until magnitude of P F RN

acting opposite to the direction of motion.

In the limiting case, when motion is just about to start, body A

will be in equilibrium under action of three forces P, R and R
N

i.e the reaction of B on A.

F F F R
The inclination tan N = .(2)
RN W mg RN

Where is the limiting angle of friction.

If tan , body A will start to move over the surface of B.
If tan , body A will not move over the surface B.
For an inclined plane as in Figure 4.3, weight of body A can be
resolved into components:

W sin mg sin and W cos mg cos

The body A will begin to slide down the plane only when:
mg sin RN mg cos
tan but from (2),
tan thus tan tan
... (3)

RN R

F R N
A

W=mg

Figure 4.3
4.1.3 The Inclined Plane
Some of the various forces acting on a body on an inclined plane
are examined;

a) Motion Up the Plane

(i) Neglecting friction
(ii) Considering Friction

b) Motion Down the Plane

Let = limiting angle of friction for the contact surface

= Angle of inclination of plane to the horizontal
= Inclination of applied force to the vertical (W)
P = Force required to move the body up the plane
0

(neglecting friction)
P = Force acting on the body parallel to the plane with
uniform velocity
R = Resultant reaction force
R = Normal reaction force
N

W = Weight of the body

= Coefficient of friction

a) Motion Up the Plane

(i) Neglecting friction

 RN P0

Direction of
P0
motion
A
W

RN
W=mg

(a) (b)
Figure 4.4

The body is in equilibrium under the force triangle in Figure

4.4(b). Applying sine rule from Figure 4.4(b);

P0 W
. (4)
sin sin

(ii) Considering Friction

 RN P
R
Direction of

motion
A P W
F R N

W=mg

(a) (b)
Figure 4.5

The friction force F is acting in the direction opposite the

direction of motion of body as in Figure 4.5(a). The resultant
force R is inclined at angle with normal reaction R . N

From triangle of forces in Figure 4.5(b), applying sine rule

thus

P W
... (5)
sin sin
b) Motion Down the Plane

For the Figure 4.6(a), a case is taken where , so that additional

force P (when considering friction) or P (when neglecting
0

friction) has to be applied to initiate the down-sliding of the body

with uniform velocity. The force polygon for motion down the
plane without friction is shown in Figure 4.6(a).

R
RN
P0
P

A
Direction of motion W

RN
W=mg

Figure 4.6(a)

P0 sin
If neglecting friction force, applying sine rule;
W sin
....(6)
 R 180
RN
P P

F RN
R
A
Direction of motion W

W=mg

Figure 4.6(b)

From Figure 4.6(b), by considering friction force, the sine rule is;
P ca sin
... (7)
W ab sin180

Note: For the case , the direction of P is such that it lowers the body down the plane
at uniform speed since W P .
Example 1
A body of mass W resting on a horizontal plane requires a pull of
150 N to remove the block. The force P is inclined at an angle 20
to the plane. The body also requires a push of 200 N inclined at an
angle 20 to remove the block. Find the coefficient of friction and
the weight of the body.

Solution
For 1st Case:
Pull force = 150 N
RN
P
Resolve horizontally
F 20 F 150 cos 20 140.95 N
Resolve vertically,
W R N 150 sin 20 R N 51.30
W=mg
For 2nd Case:
RN Push force = 200 N
P
F
20
Resolve horizontally
F 200 cos 20 187.93 N
Resolve vertically,
W=mg
R N W 200 sin 20 W 68.40

Using formula F R N for both cases;

For 1st case: 140.95 W 51.30 .. (1)

For 2nd case: 187.93 W 68.40 ...... (2)

Divide 1 with 2,
140.95 W 51.30

187.95 W 68.40
This results with W 410.40 N and 0.39

#
Example 2
A body of mass m is initially at rest on a 40 inclined plane. The
coefficient of friction between the body and the inclined plane is
0.2. If the body slides down the plane until it reaches a speed of 15
m/s, what distance along the plane does the body slide at that
speed.

Solution

The free body diagram of the block and the plane is;

Resolve vertically and horizontally to get;

R mg cos 40
N

. (1)
mg sin 40 R ma . (2)

N

RN
Direction of motion
F R N

mg sin 40
40
40 m

Put (1) into (2) to get

mg sin 40 mg cos 40 ma
Thus acceleration, a 4.8 m/s2

From v 2 u 2 2as with v 15 m/s, u 0 and a 4.8

15 2 0 2 4.8 s

Thus distance, s 23.44 m

Example 3 #
A body has weight 500 N is been pulled by a force P up a steady
inclined plane at 20 to the horizontal. The coefficient of friction
between the body and the plane is 0.2 and the force P is applied
parallel to the inclined plane; calculate the force P needed to pull
up the load along the plane. Find also the work done in handling it
a distance of 10 m along the plane.

Solution
Draw the free body diagram of the problem;

Resolve along the plane,

500 sin 20 F P
171.01 R N P ...(1)

RN
Direction of motion
P

F R N
20
500 N

Resolve vertically to the plane,

R 500 cos 20 469.85 N..(2)
N

Put (2) in (1) to get; P 171.01 0.2(469.85) 264.98 N

The force required is P 264.98 N

Work done by P = 264.9810 2649.80 Nm.

4.2 Applications of Friction Screw Threads
#
 the screw - a generic name applied to a setscrew,
leadscrew, bolt, stud or other component equipped with
an external thread,

The distance between similar points on adjacent

threads is the thread's pitch.

the nut - refers to any component whose internal

thread engages the screw, such as the nut of a nut & bolt
or a large stationary casting with a tapped hole into
which a stud is screwed,
 screw

nut
p

d
Figure 4.7

Consider a screw thread system in Figure 4.7 where the nut

rotates and the screw is fixed. Let W the axial force against which
the screw is turned. Let P the tangential force at the mean thread
radius to turn the nut. The thread is the plane inclined at angle .
Let d = mean thread diameter
p = pitch
p'
Then tan
d
...... (8)

Turning the nut on the screw is equivalent to moving the load W up

or down the inclined plane by means of horizontal force P applied
at the mean thread radius.

(i) Motion Up the Plane

 Motion up the plane is done by raising the nut up the screw.
The triangle force is

RN tan tan
P W tan W
R
Since tan
1 tan tan

tan
P W
P 1 tan
. (9)

Torque is given by
W d
T P (10)
2

(ii) Motion Down the Plane (case )

Motion down the plane is done by lowering the nut down the
screw. The forces at the thread are;
tan tan
P W tan W
1 tan tan
R Since tan

tan
P W .. (11)
P 1 tan
Torque is given by
d
W T P .. (12)
2
Efficiency of Screw Threads

For motion up the plane, efficiency is the ratio of work done by W

to the work done by P.

Wp W tan d tan
(13)
P d W tan d tan
Where; tan=p/d
P=W tan(+ )

For motion down the plane the term (13) reversed.

P d tan
.. (14)
Wp tan

d
For maximum efficiency, then d
0

4.2.1 Friction In Vee Threads

 Figure beside shows a section of a Vee Thread Screw
RN
W type. In Vee Thread screw, the normal reaction force
RN is increased due to the axial component of the
Screw
weight W.

W
RN ... (15)
cos
Nut
This increased the friction force at ratio of
sec : 1 between a Vee Thread and a flat surface.

From the relation of F RN and tan thus

W W tan
F RN
cos cos

tan
So .. (16)
cos

Let P be the force applied at the mean radius of a screw thread. For
motion up the plane thus from equation;
tan tan
P W tan W for flat thread
1 tan tan

tan
tan
P W tan W
cos
W
cos tan tan
tan cos tan tan
1 tan
cos
The procedure is similar for motion down the plane.

Example 1
A threaded screw has a mean diameter of 60 mm and pitch of 13
mm. Given that the coefficient of friction between the nut and
screw is 0.2. Assuming the load to rotate with the screw,

(i) Determine the torque required on the screw to raise a load of 25 kN.
(ii) Find the percentage efficiency.
(iii) If a Vee thread of 10 is used to replace the present screw, what is

the torque required on the screw and its efficiency.

Solution
Given d 0.06 m, p ' 0.013 , 0.2 , W 25000 N
p' 0.013
From tan
d 0.06
0.069

Force to raise the load up on the screw

tan tan 0.069 0.2 25000 0.269
P W
1 tan tan
25000
1 0.069 0.2

0.9862
, P 6819.10 N
d 0.06
(i) Torque required; T P
2
6819.10
2
204.57 Nm.

(ii) Efficiency in raising the load up the plane

Wp ' 25000 0.013
% 100 25%
Pd 6819.10 0.06

(iii) Using Vee thread, the required torque

P W
cos tan tan 25000 cos10 0.069
cos tan tan cos10 0.069

0.26795
P 25000 6898.8 N
0.971
0.06
Torque required, T 6898.8
2
206.96 Nm

25000 0.013 325

Efficiency 0.249
6898.8 0.06 1300.39
Percentage efficiency % 24.9%

4.3 Application of Friction Friction Clutch

#
 Clutch is a mechanical device used in automobiles to engage
or disengaged the driving and driven shaft instantaneously using a
clutch pedal operated by the driver.

Clutch is situated between the engine crankshaft and gearbox.

The stopping of vehicles can be done with the use of clutch even
when the engine still running.

This permits the changing of gears since the engine

crankshaft and transmission system can be disconnected.

There are different types of clutch used today such as Friction

clutch, Centrifugal clutch, Conical Spring Clutch, Electromagnetic
clutch, Vacuum Clutch and Hydraulic Clutch.

However, in this section, discussions are limited to Friction

Clutch type only. Friction clutch can be classified as plate, cone or
centrifugal clutch type.

Basic clutch
i) Single Plate Clutch

It is the most common type of clutch used in automobiles. It

consists of only one plate, mounted on the splines of the clutch
shaft as in Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.8 (a) clutch disengaged Figure 4.8 (b) clutch engaged

ii) Multi Plate Clutch

 Multi plate clutch is a clutch that consists of multiple clutch
plates. Friction between clutch plates will increase with the number
of contact surface of clutch plate, thus higher torque can be
transmitted to the driven shaft. Applications of multi plate clutch
are such as in heavy commercial vehicles, racing cars, trucks and
cranes. Multi plate clutch normally assembled in a drum and the
driver and driven plate clutch are firmly pressed by a strong coil
springs. Figure 4.8(b) shows an example of a multi plate clutch.

Figure 4.8(b)

In a multi clutch plate the number of contact surface of the clutch

plate is given by
n n1 n2 1

Where n1 = number of disc at the driving shaft

n2 = number of disc at the driven shaft

4.3.1 Analysis of Clutch(a device that enables two rotating shafts to be

connected and disconnected smoothly, especially one in a motor vehicle that
transmits power from the engine to the transmission)
Consider two flat annular surfaces in Figure 4.9, maintained in
contact by a thrust force W. Let T is the torque transmitted, r1 is
the outer radius and r2 is the inner radius of the surfaces.

W W
r1

r2

dr
r

Figure 4.9

Consider an elemental ring of radius r and thickness dr;

Area of elemental ring = 2rdr

Load on the ring = p 2rdr
r1

Total load on the ring = W 2rpdr

r2

Friction force on the ring = RN 2rpdr

Moment on the ring = 2rpdr r

r1

Total moment on the ring =

T p 2r 2 dr
r2

1. Assume uniform pressure at all contact surface (new clutch

plate)
 r1
r12 r22 r 2 r22
W 2prdr 2p p 1 =
r2 2 2

r1
r13 r23
T 2pr 2 dr 2 p
r2 3

p r13 r23
2
T 3 2 r13 r23

p r12 r22

W 3 r12 r22

The total torque transmitted at the clutch plate before it slips is;

2 r3 r3
T W 12 22 ____________________(15)
3 r1 r2

For a worn clutch plate, a uniform wear theory can be

applied

For uniform wear condition, wear pressure x radius,

that is pr k =constant.
r1

W 2kdr 2k r1 r2
r2

r1

T 2krdr k r12 r22

r2

The total torque transmitted at the clutch plate before it slips is;
W
T r r 1 2... (16)
2
Example 1

A plate clutch has three discs on the driving shaft and two discs on the
driven shaft, providing four pairs of contact surfaces each of 240 mm
external diameter and 120 mm internal diameter. Assuming uniform
pressure, find the total spring load pressing the plates together to transmit 25
kW at 1575 rev/min using 0.3 . If there are six springs each of stiffness 13
kN/m, and each of the contact surfaces has worn away by 1.25 mm, what is
the maximum power that can be transmitted at the same rev/min, assuming
uniform wear and have same coefficient of friction.

Solution

Total torque transmitted at speed of 1575 rev/min

P 25000 60
T 151.6 Nm.
2 1575

But for uniform pressure, as with equation (15), but now with 4 pair of
contact surface
3 3
T
2
4 W r12 r22
3 r1 r2

4 0.3W 0.123 0.063
3 3
2
151.6
3 0.12 0.06

Total thrust force i.e the total spring load pressing plates together is
W 1355 N.
Since there are 4 pair of contact surface, it mean total contact surface = 8
Thus total wear = 8 1.25 10 mm

Reduction in spring force, use F kx , then

F 613000 0.01 780 N.
The new axial load considering the wear,
WR W F 1355 780 575 N.

Now the new torque transmitted due to wear is

r r 0.12 0.06
Twear 4 WR 1 2 4 0.3 575
2 2
Twear 62 Nm.
In order to find maximum power, before wear, 151.6 Nm of torque produce 25 kW of
power, thus for 62 Nm torque, thus power transmitted is
25000
Pwear 62 10250 W
151.6
PROBLEMS - FRICTIONS, SCREW THREADS AND CLUTCH

1. Discuss briefly the various types of friction experienced by a body. Explain the
following term; (a) Limiting friction (b) Angle of friction
 (c) Coefficient of friction (d) Angle of Repose

2. An effort of 2 kN is required just to move a certain body up an inclined plane of

angle 15, the force acting parallel to the plane. If the angle of inclination of the
plane is made 20, the effort required again, applied parallel to the plane is found
to be 2.3 kN. Find the weight of the body and the coefficient of friction.
(Ans: 0.26 , W = 3.9 kN)

3. A body of mass 50 kg and with a surface for which on the same plane, the
friction coefficient is 0.15, is to be moved by a force P directed at an angle 15 to
the plane, i.e at 35 to the horizontal. Calculate the value of P which will cause
steady upward movement, and also the value to which P must be reduce before
downward movement becomes possible. Any formulae use should be established
or explained by vector diagrams of forces.
(Ans: 235.8N, 106.4N)

4. The pitch of 50 mm mean diameter threaded screw of a screw jack is 12.5 mm.
The coefficient of friction between the screw and nut is 0.13. Determine the
torque required on the screw to raise a load of 25 kN, assuming the load to rotate
with screw. Determine the ratio of the torque required to raise the load, to the
torque required to lower the load.
(Ans: 132.35 Nm, 4.155)

5. A turnbuckle with right and left hand threads is used to couple two railway
coaches. It has single start square threads with pitch of 13 mm on a mean
diameter of 39 mm. Taking the coefficient of friction as 0.1, find the work done
in drawing the coaches together, a distance of 20.8 cm (a) against a steady load
of 2500 N (b) if the load increases over 20.8 cm from 2500 N to 7500 N (c)
Efficency.
(Ans: (a) 1021 Nm, (b) 2042 Nm, (c) 51%)

6. A screw jack having square threads of 5 cm mean diameter and 1.25 cm pitch is
operated by a 50 cm long hand lever. Coefficient of friction at the threads is 0.1.
Determine the effort needed to be applied at the end of the lever to lift a load of
20 kN.
(Ans: 181 N)

7. A sluice gate of mass 6 tonne, is subjected to a normal pressure of 2.5 MN. It is

raised by means of vertical screw which engages with a screwed bush fixed to the
top of the gate. The screw is rotated by a 37 kW motor running at maximum
speed of 600 rev/min, and bevel pinion on the motor shaft gearing with a bevel
wheel of 80 teeth keyed to the vertical screw. The screw is 125 mm mean
 diameter and 25 mm pitch. Coefficient of friction for the screw in the nut is 0.08
and between the gates is its guides are 0.10.
If friction losses, additional to those mentioned above, amount to 15% of the total
power available, determine the maximum number of teeth for the bevel pinion.
(Ans : 14)

8. Explain clearly the operation principle of engage and disengage of a single plate
clutch. Derive using single plate clutch, using assumptions of uniform pressure
2 r13 r23
over the contact area, equation T W 2 , and using assumptions
r1 r2
2
3
W
uniform wear over the contact area, equation T r1 r2 .
2
9. A motor car clutch is required to transmit 15 kW at 3000 rpm. It is of single plate
type, both sides of plate being effective. If 0.25 and the axial pressure is
limited to 0.85 bar of plate area and the external diameter of the plate is 1.5 times
the internal diameter, determine the dimensions of the plate.

10. A friction clutch is required to transmit 34.5 kW at 2000 rpm. It is to be of single

plate disc type with both sides of the plate effective, the pressure being applied
axially by means of springs and limited to 70 kN/m2. If the outer diameter of the
plate is to be 300 mm, find the required inner diameter of the clutch ring and the
total force exerted by the springs. Assume the wear to be uniform. Use 0.3
(Ans: 200 mm, 2.2 kN)

11. A multi plate clutch has 3 discs on the driving shaft and 2 on the driven shaft. The
outside diameter of the contact surfaces is 30 cm and inside diameter is 15 cm.
Assuming uniform wear and 0.3 , find the maximum axial intensity of
pressure between the discs for transmitting 30 kW at 1800 rpm.
(Ans: 33357 N/m2)

12. A multi plate clutch is to transmit 12 kW at 1500 rpm. The inner and outer radii
for the plates are 50 mm and 100 mm respectively. The maximum axial spring
force is restricted to 1 kN. Calculate the necessary number of pairs of surfaces if
0.35 and assuming constant wear. What will be the necessary axial force?
(Ans: 3, 970 N)