THE TECHNOLOGY OF SUGAR PRODUCTION

Sugar is a broad term applied to a large number of carbohydrates present in many plants
and characterized by a more or less sweet taste. The primary sugar, glucose, is a product of
photosynthesis and occurs in all green plants. In most plants, the sugars occur as a mixture that
cannot readily be separated into the components. In the sap of some plants, the sugar mixtures
are condensed into syrup. Juices of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) and sugar beet (Beta
vulgaris) are rich in pure sucrose, although beet sugar is generally much less sweet than cane
sugar. These two sugar crops are the main sources of commercial sucrose.

The Manufacturing Process

Planting and harvesting

1 Sugarcane requires an average temperature of 23.9 degrees Celsius and uniform
rainfall of about 203 centimeters per year.
Sugarcane takes about seven months to mature in a tropical area and about 12-22
months in a subtropical area. At this time, fields of sugarcane are tested for sucrose, and the most
mature fields are harvested first.
Preparation and processing
After the cane arrives at the mill yards, it is mechanically unloaded and excessive soil
and rocks are removed. The cane is cleaned by flooding the carrier with warm water (in the case
of sparse rock and trash clutter) or by spreading the cane on agitating conveyors that pass
through strong jets of water and combing drums (to remove larger amounts of rocks, trash and
leaves, etc.). At this point, the cane is clean and ready to be milled.
When the beets are delivered at the refinery, they are first washed and then cut into strips.
Next, they are put into diffusion cells with.
After being purifed, the clear juice undergoes vacuum evaporation to remove most of the
water. In this process, four vacuum-boiling cells are arranged in series so that each succeeding
cell has a higher vacuum. The vapors from one body can thus boil the juice in the next one, a
method called multiple-effect evaporation. Next, the syrupy solution is vacuum-crystallized to
form sugar crystals. The remaining liquid is removed using centrifugaling and drying and the
sugar is packaged.
After being purifed, the clear juice undergoes vacuum evaporation to remove most of
the water. In this process, four vacuum-boiling cells are arranged in series so that each
succeeding cell has a higher vacuum. The vapors from one body can thus boil the juice in the
next one, a method called multiple-effect evaporation. Next, the syrupy solution is vacuum-
crystallized to form sugar crystals. The remaining liquid is removed using centrifugaling and
drying, and the sugar is packaged.
Juice extraction pressing
4 Two or three heavily grooved crusher rollers break the cane and extract a large part
of the juice, or swing-hammer type shredders (1,200 RPM) shred the cane without extracting the
juice. Revolving knives cutting the stalks into chips are supplementary to the crushers. (In most
countries, the shredder precedes the crusher.) A combination of two, or even all three, methods
may be used. The pressing process involves crushing the stalks between the heavy and grooved
metal rollers to separate the fiber (bagasse) from the juice that contains the sugar.

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 Purification of juice clarification and evaporation
6 The juice from the mills, a dark green color, is acid and turbid. The clarification (or
defecation) process is designed to remove both soluble and insoluble impurities (such as sand,
soil, and ground rock) that have not been removed by preliminary screening. The process
employs lime and heat as the clarifying agents. Milk of lime (about one pound per ton of cane)
neutralizes the natural acidity of the juice, forming insoluble lime salts. Heating the lime juice to
boiling coagulates the albumin and some of the fats, waxes, and gums, and the precipitate formed
entraps suspended solids as well as the minute particles.
The sugar beet solution, on the other hand, is purified by precipitating calcium carbonate,
calcium sulfite, or both in it repeatedly. Impurities become entangled in the growing crystals of
precipitate and are removed by continuous filtration.
Crystallization
9 Crystallization is the next step in the manufacture of sugar. Crystallization takes place
in a single-stage vacuum pan. The syrup is evaporated until saturated with sugar. As soon as the
saturation point has been exceeded, small grains of sugar are added to the pan, or "strike." These
small grains, called seed, serve as nuclei for the formation of sugar crystals. (Seed grain is
formed by adding 56 ounces [1,600 grams] of white sugar into the bowl of a slurry machine and
mixing with 3.3 parts of a liquid mixture: 70 percent methylated spirit and 30 percent glycerine.
The machine runs at 200 RPM for 15 hours.) Additional syrup is added to the strike and
evaporated so that the original crystals that were formed are allowed to grow in size.
The growth of the crystals continues until the pan is full. When sucrose concentration
reaches the desired level, the dense mixture of syrup and sugar crystals, called massecuite, is
discharged into large containers known as crystallizers. Crystallization continues in the
crystallizers as the massecuite is slowly stirred and cooled.
Centrifugaling
11 The high-speed centrifugal action used to separate the massecuite into raw sugar
crystals and molasses is done in revolving machines called centrifugals. A centrifugal machine
has a cylindrical basket suspended on a spindle, with perforated sides lined with wire cloth,
inside which are metal sheets containing 400 to 600 perforations per square inch. The basket
revolves at speeds from 1,000 to 1,800 RPM. The raw sugar is retained in the centrifuge basket
because the perforated lining retains the sugar crystals. The mother liquor, or molasses, passes
through the lining (due to the centrifugal force exerted). The final molasses (blackstrap molasses)
containing sucrose, reducing sugars, organic nonsugars, ash, and water, is sent to large storage
tanks.
Once the sugar is centrifuged, it is "cut down" and sent to a granulator for drying. In
some countries, sugarcane is processed in small factories without the use of centrifuges, and a
dark-brown product (noncentrifugal sugar) is produced. Centrifugal sugar is produced in more
than 60 countries while noncentrifugal sugar in about twenty countries
Drying and packaging
12 Damp sugar crystals are dried by being tumbled through heated air in a granulator.
The dry sugar crystals are then sorted by size through vibrating screens and placed into storage
bins. Sugar is then sent to be packed in the familiar packaging we see in grocery stores, in bulk
packaging, or in liquid form for industrial use.

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 TYPES OF SUGAR

White Sugar

There are many different types of granulated sugar. Some of these are used only by the
food industry and professional bakers and are not available in the supermarket. The types of
granulated sugars differ in crystal size. Each crystal size provides unique functional
characteristics that make the sugar appropriate for a specific foods special need.

White sugar Regular or white sugar, extra fine or fine sugar

Regular or white sugar, as it is known to consumers, is the sugar found in every homes
sugar bowl, and most commonly used in home food preparation. White sugar is the sugar called
for in most cookbook recipes. The food industry stipulates regular sugar to be extra fine or
fine because small crystals are ideal for bulk handling and not susceptible to caking.

Fruit Sugar

Fruit sugar is slightly finer than regular sugar and is used in dry mixes such as gelatin
and pudding desserts, and powdered drinks. Fruit sugar has a more uniform small crystal size
than regular sugar. The uniformity of crystal size prevents separation or settling of larger
crystals to the bottom of the box, an important quality in dry mixes.

Bakers Special Sugar

The crystal size of Bakers Special is even finer than that of fruit sugar. As its name
suggests, it was developed specially for the baking industry. Bakers Special is used for sugaring
doughnuts and cookies, as well as in some commercial cake recipes to create a fine crumb
texture.

Superfine, ultrafine, or bar sugar

This sugars crystal size is the finest of all the types of granulated white sugar. It is ideal
for delicately textured cakes and meringues, as well as for sweetening fruits and iced-drinks
since it dissolves easily. In England, a sugar very similar to superfine sugar is known as caster or
castor, named after the type of shaker in which it is often packaged.

Confectioners or powdered sugar

This sugar is granulated sugar ground to a smooth powder and then sifted. It contains
about 3% cornstarch to prevent caking. Powdered sugar is ground into three different degrees of
fineness. The confectioners sugar available in supermarkets 10X is the finest of the three and
is used in icings, confections and whipping cream. The other two types of powdered sugar are
used by industrial bakers.

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 Coarse sugar

As its name implies, the crystal size of coarse sugar is larger than that of regular sugar.
Coarse sugar is recovered when molasses-rich, sugar syrups high in sucrose are allowed to
crystallize. The large crystal size of coarse sugar makes it highly resistant to color change or
inversion (natural breakdown to fructose and glucose) at cooking and baking temperatures. These
characteristics are important in making fondants, confections and liquors.

Sanding sugar

Another large crystal sugar, sanding sugar, is used mainly in the baking and confectionery
industries as a sprinkle on top of baked goods. The large crystals reflect light and give the
product a sparkling appearance.

Brown Sugar

Turbinado sugar

This sugar is raw sugar which has been partially processed, where only the surface
molasses has been washed off. It has a blond color and mild brown sugar flavor, and is often
used in tea and other beverages.

Evaporated Cane Juice

Evaporated Cane Juice is the common name for the food-grade cane based sweetener
produced directly from milled cane using a single-crystallization process. The filtered, clarified
juice is evaporated into syrup, crystallized and cured. This free flowing sweetener has a light
golden color and retains a hint of molasses flavor because there is no further processing.

Brown sugar (light and dark)

Brown sugar retains some of the surface molasses syrup, which imparts a characteristic
pleasurable flavor. Dark brown sugar has a deeper color and stronger molasses flavor than light
brown sugar. Lighter types are generally used in baking and making butterscotch, condiments
and glazes. The rich, full flavor of dark brown sugar makes it good for gingerbread, mincemeat,
baked beans, and other full flavored foods.

Brown sugar tends to clump because it contains more moisture than white sugar.

Muscovado or Barbados sugar

Muscovado sugar, a British specialty brown sugar, is very dark brown and has a
particularly strong molasses flavor. The crystals are slightly coarser and stickier in texture than
regular brown sugar.

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 Free-flowing brown sugars

These sugars are specialty products produced by a co-crystallization process. The process
yields fine, powder-like brown sugar that is less moist than regular brown sugar. Since it is less
moist, it does not clump and is free-flowing like white sugar.

Demerara sugar

Popular in England, Demerara sugar is a light brown sugar with large golden crystals,
which are slightly sticky from the adhering molasses. It is often used in tea, coffee, or on top of
hot cereals.

Liquid Sugar

There are several types of liquid sugar. Liquid sugar (sucrose) is white granulated sugar
that has been dissolved in water before it is used. Liquid sugar is ideal for products whose
recipes first require sugar to be dissolved. Amber liquid sugar is darker in color and can be used
in foods where brown color is desired.

Invert sugar

Sucrose can be split into its two component sugars (glucose and fructose). This process is
called inversion, and the product is called invert sugar. Commercial invert sugar is a liquid
product that contains equal amounts of glucose and fructose. Because fructose is sweeter than
either glucose or sucrose, invert sugar is sweeter than white sugar. Commercial liquid invert
sugars are prepared as different mixtures of sucrose and invert sugar. For example total invert
sugar is half glucose and half fructose, while 50% invert sugar (half of the sucrose has been
inverted) is one-half sucrose, one-quarter glucose and one-quarter fructose. Invert sugar is used
mainly by food manufacturers to retard the crystallization of sugar and to retain moisture in the
packaged food. Which particular invert sugar is used is determined by which function retarding
crystallization or retaining moisture is required.
Home cooks make invert sugar whenever a recipe calls for a sugar to be boiled gently in
a mixture of water and lemon juice.

SENSORY PROPERTIES

Taste - Sweetness is generally the most recognized functional property of sugar. The
preference for sweetness, regarded as being innate, is apparent soon after birth and prior to
postnatal learning. Perception of the relative sweetness of sugar depends on factors such as
temperature, pH, concentration, presence of other ingredients, and the difference in individuals'
ability to taste (e.g. detection threshold).
Caramelization - is a browning reaction that results from the action of heat on sugars. At
high temperatures, the chemical changes associated with melting sugars result in a deep brown
colour and new flavours.

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 Flavour - Flavours result when tastes (sweet, sour, bitter, salty) are combined with sense
of smell when food is consumed. Through interaction with other ingredients, sugar is an
important contributor to flavour. Depending on the food application, sugar has the unique ability
to heighten flavour or depress the perception of other flavours. For example, sugar is added to
tomato-based products (e.g. barbeque, spaghetti and chilli sauces) to reduce the acidity of the
tomatoes. Sugar itself also provides flavour when it is heated due to caramelization (see
Appearance).
Texture - Sugar makes an important contribution to the way we perceive the texture of
food. For example, adding sugar to ice-cream provides body and texture which is perceived as
smoothness. This addition helps prevent lactose crystallization and thus reduce sugar crystal
formation that otherwise causes a sandy, grainy texture that is sometimes associated with frozen
dairy products.
In candy-making, controlling the rate and extent of sugar crystallization provides a vast
array of textures. These range from the soft textures of fudges where crystallization is
minimized, to hard candies where crystallization results in a desired grainy structure.
Tenderizer - Sugar acts as an important tenderizing agent in foods such as baked
products. During the mixing process, sugar competes with other ingredients for water. In bread
making for example, the affinity of sugar to bind to available water will delay the development
of gluten, which is essential for maintaining a soft or tender product. Gluten strands, in general,
are highly elastic, and this property allows the batter to stretch under the expansion of gases. Too
much gluten formation, however, will cause the dough or batter to become rigid and tough.
When the correct proportion of sugar is added in the recipe, an appropriate amount of gluten
develops and optimum elasticity results.
Appearance - Sugar is responsible for the yellow-brown colours that develop in baked
foods. Sucrose itself develops colour through caramelization. However, the monosaccharide
components of its hydrolysis (glucose and fructose) can also undergo browning reactions
(Maillard reaction). For example, the reactivity of glucose upon heating contributes to the subtle
orange-red colour in bread crust that is a result of this browning.
Sugar also contributes to product colour of preserves and jellies through its capacity to
attract and hold water. By absorbing water more readily than other components, such as fruit,
sugar prevents the fruit from absorbing water which would otherwise cause colour to fade
through dilution.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Solubility - Sugar is very soluble in water. The ability to produce solutions of varying
sugar concentrations is important in many food applications. A high level of solubility, for
example, is essential in beverages to provide sweetness and to increase viscosity to create a
desirable mouthfeel'. Its solubility is also important in the preparation of canned fruits, jams,
jellies, preserves and syrups to impart the desired level of sweetness and to aid in preservation
(see Preservation).
Freezing Point - Sugar is effective in lowering freezing points. Freezing point depression
is an important property in ice-creams, frozen desserts and freeze-dried foods to ensure the
development of fine crystal structure and product smoothness.

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 Boiling Point - The concentration of sugar in a solution affects the boiling point by
raising it. This characteristic is important in candy manufacture as boiling point elevation allows
for more sugar to be dissolved in solution, creating a super saturated' and more concentrated
solution. It is this specific concentration of the supersaturated sugar syrup, which is achieved at
specific boiling points, which inevitably determine the candy's final consistency.