Theoretical Background

Typhoons are storms developed in the Northwest Pacific Ocean.

Its primary energy source is the latent heat released when water vapor

condenses supplying warm air with enough moisture (Grolier, 2000). Ocean

surfaces in this location are easily heated up creating a low pressure area

and eventually becomes a tropical depression. Nearby countries are already

dreadfully affected by the variability of typhoons and may be extremely

vulnerable to future changes in global and regional climate. These

catastrophes are challenges taking into account the integration on the design

of structures as typhoon-proof in rural and urban areas, especially its crucial

degree of priority in evacuation areas. Urban and rural communities on low

islands or in unprotected, low- lying coastal areas or river floodplains are

considered vulnerable to cyclones. Furthermore, the degree of exposure of

land and buildings will affect the velocity of the cyclone wind at ground level,

with open country, seashore areas and rolling plains being the most

vulnerable. Certain settlement patterns may create a "funnel effect" that

increases the wind speed between buildings, leading to even greater

damage. (Agarwal, 2007 page 2)

Kassimali (2011) described wind loads as being produced by the

ow of wind around the structure and the magnitudes of wind loads that

may act on a structure depend on the geographical location of the structure,

obstructions in its surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings, and the

geometry and the vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.

Collectively, various considerations are to be examined before the

construction and typhoon-proofing of a specific structural profile. The vital

sectors of a structure built are roofing, elevation, foundation and walling

systems possess the utmost protection against massive magnitudes of rain

and wind.

Urban areas are known to be occupied by a great density of

infrastructures mostly made out from the combination of steel and concrete.

Gunel and Ilgin (2014) expounded, Reinforced concrete is formed by

strengthening concrete with steel bars. The discovery of reinforced concrete

greatly increased the importance and use of concrete in the construction

industry. As a result, architects and structural engineers make use of this

discovery to bring into being unusual and aesthetic forms of buildings and

bridges. Furthermore, RC buildings are innately better at dampening wind

induced building sway, especially strong winds that is brought from heavy

rain. However, other design types of buildings are still used in the present

with particular purposes and limits.

Since typhoons convey heavy rains which produce floods, a

scheme must be proposed and managed dependent on how its carried water

will be transported away. Commonly in urbanizations, drainage systems and

the elevation of the grade line on where a structure or road rests are both

highly relevant in the reduction of flood damage. Additionally in urban areas,

there are outdoor advertising like billboards and posts. As investigated by

Wright (2001), these structures should consist of a certain number of display

panels, supporting frameworks and variation of the deep foundations directly

in contact to winds for it can generate massive amount of turning moment.

Modern billboards conform to engineering standards and typically

constructed with steel, attached to buildings or even mounted to other type

of structures. Generally, Chew Yit Lin (2009) explained, These features

produce an increased vulnerability to large deflection and stresses in the

building frame prone to wind damage. Uncontrollable pressures caused by

strong winds can lead to the deformation and failure of systems. Chew Yit

Lin added: The flow of air can be controlled by dividing the cavity into

compartments. Control and prevention portrays a huge unit of a structure

that is to be primarily based on its structural form design to withstand

extreme wind loads. For rural areas have low density of infrastructures,

buildings, roads and bridges are too exposed to the open environment.

Therefore, the consideration of the equivalent design solutions previously

stated is to be exploited but with deliberation mainly on mountainous

structures, nearby coasts and other possible localities in rural areas.

(insert evacuation areas here)

 For infrastructures to be made typhoon-proof, the highlight of its

construction is important to the identification of risks to be reduced in

advance as possible. Civil engineers must execute appropriate and effective

designs involving acceptable, long-lasting and necessary features to a

typhoon-safe structure.

Sources:
Construction Technology for Tall Buildings by Michael Chew Yit Lim,
2009
Structural Analysis by Aslam Kassimali, 2011
Pacific Studies Series, Climate Proofing: A risk-based approach to
adaptation, 2005
Valuation of Outdoor Advertising Structures, 2007
(Gunel and Ilgin, 2014, page 18).