t:T- n.

-
ur- V.ar/ *1
31'

A'*/Ja. c".,t""I
-rl , I t
| tu rd' Cr!1t

TIME DOMAIN PERFORMANCE

OF CONTROLSYSTEMS

6.I INPUT SICNALS

lhetu,behaviour with tine
Conhol systems are basically dynamic systems So' studying is important
;";;-i;t. Indeed, the study of variaiion of output of a control system
;r;;;y;tp*tiues it cluding its stabiLity ToYuy*l ttle actual inPut to the.syste:l
in the
;-;;t"u"';r.";*" and, therefoie, some siandard test inPrrt signals are used
srgnals in Chapter 2 (Section 2 7) and their LaPlace traff-
;d;: #" ait.t*"a
"".i't
fo.u'G. Here, we summarisethem in Table 6 t'
testsignals
Table6.1 Standard
/(t) R(s)
Signdl

lr^l foro <t<e v{6(f)}= 1

Unit imPulse t(f)=l-o
f0 fort>e

[0 forfS0 1
a(t)= YIU{t)l
Unit step 5
{t for r >o
1
/(f) = 1 {lt(t)l
Unit ramP

tz 1
r,lp(I)l
Unit patabolic P\t)=i s3

signal is the
It may be noted from the Laplace transforms that each successive
inte$al of the preceding one.

136
 TimeDomainPerlormance
ol ContrclSvstems 137

6.2 RESPONSES
Once an input is given to a system, it will produce an output or response.The response
can be (i) transient or (ii) steady-staie.
The hansient response is that palt of the responsewhich approachesto zero as
time tends to infinity. The part of the responsethat remains after the transients die out
is called the steady-state resporue. The parameter, which is important in the steady
state, is the steady-stateellor, ers.It is defined as
ess= lim e(f)

= lim [r(0 - c(t) (6.1)

where e(t), being the difference between referenceinput r(l) and output c(f), is the error.

6.3 TIME RESPONSE

ANALYSIS:FIRSTORDERSYSTEM
If the dlnamic relation between the referenceinput /(r) and output.(t) of a system is
of the form of
=bor(t)
a1ff+ a6c(t) (6.2)
then it car be wdtten as
rp-+4t1=xr1t1 (63)
at

where r = alao = firf.e constant ard K = bo/qo= gain of the system.Taking the Laplace
trarsform of Eq. (6.3) and assuming all initial conditions = Q we have
(s?+ 1)C(s)= KR(s) (6.4)
Equation (5.4) yields the transfer firnction as
^. C(s) (
(J(S)=:=-
" (6.s)
R(s) sr+1
The order of the transfer function is 1. So, such systems are called fust order systems.
The block diagram and the signal flow graph of a first order system are given in
Figure6.1.

1
sf

(4.) (b)
Figure6.1 Firs't (a)blockdiagram
oidersystem: flowgraph.
and(b)signal

Now, we check the resporue of the system for diflerent standard inputs.
138 to Linearand DigitalContrclsystems
lntroduction

6.3.1 Unit lmpulse Input

Since for the unit impulse inPut R(s) = 1, we have
1
C(s)= ---:--;
st+l

=-.------
'
"*;

On tai..ingthe inverse LaPlacetransform,we 8et

cG\=: e-;
So,
1
c(t) -+ :

c(t) r 0
The tine-response curve is 6.2.

0t
lorunitimpulse
curv
6.2 Timsresponse
Figure input.

6.3.2 Unit Step Input

In the case of the unit step inPut, R(s) = 175. Therefore,
^.. 1 1 (6.8)
L(s)=-.-
S SC+I

11
=;---T
't*;

which on the inverse Laplace transform yields

t
c(t) =7 - e t (6.e)
 TimeDomainPertomanceof Controlsystems 139

It may be obsewed from Eq. (6.9)that

lnifial sloPeof the cu*e =dc(tll

1 I-1
=-e t I

1 (6.10)
r
We see from Eq. (6.10) that if the value of r is high, ihe initial slope is low and vice
versa. Thus, the lower is t the faster is the response' Also, the lower is r, the Ngher
is the stability. This is aPparent from a plot of its poles (seeFigure 6 3 where a Plot is
shown for hvo values o]-t with q > tr' Here the transfer function may be obtained
from Eq. (6.8) as
-. . C(s)=; 1
=
G(s)
L(,) +1
by solvingthecharactedstic
Polesareobtained sr+ 1 = 0, yieldings = -l/r'
equation

6,3 Plotol poles

Flgure lirstorder
ofa closedloop system

The steady-stateerror is given as

es,= lim k(t) - c(f)l= 1 - 1= 0 (5.11)

This result js obiained from the time-resporue of the s)"stem.without finding out the
time.response,i.e., without doing inverse Laplace transform, we can find out the steady-
(see
state error by applying the finai value theorem. we will discuss the method later
Section6.5).
An interesting result may be obtained from Table 6'2 where the values of the
output are givm igainst t/l. lt may be seen that the step response of the first order
sysiem attaiiu 99.3i" of the final value for t = 5't ' The time-responsecurve is shown
in Figure 6.4.
140 lntoductionto Linearand DigitalControlSystems
withtimefor unitstepinput
Table6.2 Response

t/r
c(t) in % 63.2 86.0 95.0 982 99.3

c(t)

0t
cuffefor unitstepinput.
Figule6.4 Time'response

6.3.3 unit Ramp Input

1
For the unit ramp input, R(s)=; Therefore,

'I 1
s- sr+r
AB C
=;+-+------;.(saf)
s' s 5t+I

I nen"
t1l -_L
a =is'?ctsll^ = l - t
lsr+11 ^

=l+t,,.,,,]]"_,
LAS
_"
=_d7l"=,=
=[,i(rh)],=, (6.12',)

=[G"+ - t l L t s l l I =
il
1

Thus,
'lrrz
C(s)=+-'+ :
s' s st+r

lSee Appendix B for the method.

 Tine DomainPerlormanceof Contol Systems 141
1tt
=-t--+----T (6.13)
s- s s+j
t
which on the inverse Laplace transforrn yields

-:
c(t)=t-a172 t

r
=t-tlL-e
-1)
"I (6.14)
\,/
The timeresponsecurve is given in Figure 6.5.The steady-stateeEor is given
e*
--
= tim [r(r)- c(f)]
tt_

= t - (t - z) From Eq. (6.14)1 (6.1s)

Flgure6,5 Time"rsponse
curvefor the unitrampinput.

We find ftom Table 6.3 that the interrelation between different inputs also holds good
for the corresponding responses.
Table6.3 Mrnualrelationship
between
inpulandresponse
Input, r(t) Response,
c(t)
Reldtionship Relationship
Ramp
r(t) = t

dr(t\
u(t) = 1 7- e't/ t
dt *orl,,*
Impulse

d(4
*,^,,1,=" 1-!
t *n l"-,
 ControlSystems
ila Eitoduction to Linear and Digital

ANALYSIS:SECONDORDERSYSTEM
6,4 TIME-RESPONSE
of a system is rePresentedby a differential
Ii tl d]'namic input-outPut relationshiP
equation of the form oI
d"\') = !or(1) (6.16)
ao6(1)
' d { a t * 0.4!ll 1
o^

iiiscalledasecondordersystembecausewewillpresentlyseethatthetrarrsferfunc
tion of the systemhas an order of 2'
Eouation (6.16)can be written as
1 dzclt)*2 dclt)+c(f)=Kr(f) (6.77)
c'* dt2 a" dt
where
'1_ az 2q
- , =a, , ^d K =b
ao as 0n 40
oi

,7,"^#u^JJ1*'#i
"*iil$|,iJl'ii'f*x\i#il#?"{#l#il";,'W'ff
-ittltl"t
ii."., utt = 0)' we get
conditions
iii-J-tt+"-
(6.18)
l++:!:+1lc(s)=KRG)
an
\ ar; )
Eq. (61E), we get the transfer function for the secsrd order system as
On rearranging

car=ffi=;l-fi
-'
4' ,,
,,,-z
=7.rlz.s;A

This can also be written in the form

cG)- K
R(s) s(s?+1) + K

.{
= -.-.-L..-;
(6.1e)
rSr\
s _+ - + -

where
_K "=ai
7
 TimeDomainPeiomance ot Control Systems 143

tx
YT
1
and 24@-=: (6.20)
t

=
2at
The results given in Eq. (6.20) are inportant becausethey indicate how the undamped
natural frequency and damping ratio behave with the gain, With the increase in gain,
the natural frequency increaseswhich, in turn, reduces the damping ratio.
The block diagram and signal flow graph representationsof a secondorder system
are given in Figure 6.6.

(a) (b)
Figure6.6 Second (a)blockdiagram
ordersyslem: flowgraplr.
and{b)signal

From Eq. (6.20) we see that the characteristic equation for the system is

+ afi =o
sz+2fatns (6.21)
Therefore, its roots are given by

sr,s, = -(o, ! a" ,t'z1 (6.22)

Depending on the value of (, three distinct casespresent themselvesfrom Eq. (6.22)

as shown in Table 6.4.

Table6.4 Threedistinctcasesof secondordersvsiems

Danping ntio Rootsof charactetistic S!stefll
xalue eq.Ltion specifcatian
1 E> 1 rt r 12 dLu Overdamped
2 q = s2 and both are real. Critically damped
3 E<I s1 and s2 are complex, one being Underdamped
the coniugateof the other.

We will consider only the r.nit step input for the second order system.
14 lntrodlrdionto LineAr.
aN DigitatContrctS}fl{ems

6.4.1 Underdamped (O < 6 < t)

Here we have

c(')=T;#;a R(,)
'i
t1 * zr,t * ,4,

s(s+(a, - jro,,t1.
- (2 11s
+ (a, + ia^.fi - 621
-4, B c
s 1s+(a,-jr,,lt-Crl k+(a4+ (6.%)
1a,,tl-y'1
Thery

' -=
e=sc(s)1.=. =,1
(s+ a, - ja,1l1_ ()(s + fa, +
|
iat,,tt_ 6r)1,=o

="t
'd * r,*Q- ')
(6.24)

et-ill-'z)F+ - F 2v r ;

(6.:2s)
 TimeDomainPetformanceof Contrcl Systems 145

(6.26)
^z:J ! h\ _ e E 2 )

Substituting dre values of 4, B ard C in Eq. (6.23)we get

't ( , '')
1
!151=:-l---!+:l
2)
" l2i,l1-e s+(a,- jo4^llj
( E
-l;@-21 1l 1
(6.27)
s+(a, +ia, rll-1,
The inverse Laplace trarsfom of Eq. (6.27) yields
( - .\ ( -\
"
(r)=I-|_9 + ! l r - t q - i ' l t - E ' t*' .I'- L - 1 | " < 1 u i J t - ' t ' " r
lzj^lt-' 2) lzj,lt-, 2)
-i,F:F,^'- r<e-i[4-w,,f
='-El
. l r-,e l r-,t-i,!14w,
,i
*r-c.i,FZw,,l
j-L ' l
=t_ia2r=l,ti[4,.t_,-,i'FT,,' *_"-u,FT,^'1
2j )_,-r*,1,,i[7,^'
j 2
^lt-E,L L )
E--1a"1
=t-ffi" r,tSI -r+^,'
"orr"t,[-y'
eie - p-ie eF +e-F
I =t'oaro- -=cosal l
L 4

=| - e-c@rl
L,^ r,,- "l
jlt-e "or,,,l
=r,,{11
wherc,os4 . m"sf

(6.28)
"(t)=t-ffi"a(aat+O)
wherecosf={.
 to LinearandDigitalControlS'rsterns
(6.28)shows a
ffi&. -sine wave decaying.,inan exponentialenvelope(see
if-, h arylogy udth the fi$t order systerL 1/6a+_which has - the
-* -dimensionof
i often called tJnethrle-mnstsntof the'seconiorier"system-
2
"<t)
I

Exponcntial
covElopc

a
Figue6.? ptotof Eq.(0.2a).

6.4.2 Critically Damped(6 = r )

Here,
ai
L(sl = ----ij-
s(s+ aL)'
'L
a"
s (s+ ro)2 s+an
(6.2e)
Therefore,
c(t)=7 - o#e-aa,t- e-qt
=7-(7+a,t)e-,t
(5.30)
6,4.3 Overdamped (6 > I )
In th.is case, the response work out to
be

=,- Lfr
,1,1 -Eu,,,,,
* L-JVi- ",-,
,t--'!Fiw,r
-1
2,,1, zJP= " (6.30
 lime DomainPeiormanceot ControlSystems 147

systems are given m

The responsecurves for cdtically damPed and over-damPed
Fgure 6.8.
c(t)

1''
,/ - CdticanydrnPed(E= 1.0)
,,' ----- l.t
overdrnpdc=

o 2 4 6 ,__________
J"
curvesfor critically
Figule6,8 Response damped sysiems.
andoverdamped

It is apparent from the curves that the more is the value of t the more is the rise time
and, tirerefore, ihe settling time. Also, it can be seen from the cuwe that a criiica1y-
darnped second order system attains the step inPut value at the time constant value of
nearly 8 while this value was nearly 5 for the first order system'

6.4.4 PerformanceParametersfor Transient Response

The relevant Parametels are defined in Table 6.5.
Table65 Perlomance
Parameters
Pararnetet Defnition

Delay time, t4 The time required fo! the steP responseof the system to reach
50% of the final value.
Rise time, J' The time required for the steP resPonseto reach the final outPut
for the ftst time in underdamPedsystemsor Srow from 10% to
90% of the value in overdamped systems
Peak time, tp The time required by the steP resPonseof the system to reachthe
first peak which is the maximum value of the output.
Maximum overshoot, Mp The maximum amount by which the outPut deviates from the
input. It is generally expressedas Per cent of the inPut.
Settling time, t' The time the s,'stem takes to settle within a givn Per cent of the
final value.

These parameters are graphically Presented in FiSure 6'9 for the steP resPonseof a
secondorder sYstem.
 148 lntod^ction to Lineat and Digital ContrclSystems
t
c(t) t e
t'"
I i-1,
t.2 \Y,
0.8
----------------- t ,- - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ _ _ _ - _ ;

0.4

0.0

Figure6,9 Graphical
prsentation
of performance
param;o|
Nov/, let us discuss these parameters one by one.
Delay time

According to the definitiory ,(t)1,=,,=;. So, from Eqs. (6.28),(6.30)and (6.31)we get

(t+x)e-'=| (6.32)

5 r-{!-:! *1-,1(
-1
- =1
"
2'l( -t "r-e',"t}-r Ior (>'1
z,lg,-t "r-:-,ng-rr 2
wnere : = arola.Solutions to Eo. (6.32) carr
be obtained for diJferent values of f arrd
pol,lni.'[,,ffii graphof u' { A ti.,"",
". "pp.;,";;;"-i; iJ, g,"plltssivenuythe
x=7+0.7E (6.33)
Equation (6.33)yields ihe approximateexpression
for d as
. 1+o.ze
orn (6.34)
Rise time
We considerthe underdampedsystemfor simplicity.
If t, = 1i,o" requued to attain the
steady_-state
value,we noti thatihe sine facto^r
.f iiq. 1O.Zey'rf,orid
to makec(r) = 1. Thus,from Eq. (6.28),we get harr"a ,ero ualoe

str.(adt+ lt_t,=0=sinNz (6.3s)

 of hntrol Systems 149
TimeDomainPertotmance

first time, i.e., for N = 1, we have from Eq. (6.34)

|'..._-
t. ,D' n t ht l t - 5r ' - + c o s ' E = E

. n - cos-l E (6.36)
^t;,2

Peak time
for it from
-tfte to reach the first pea! we can find an expression
ff t" = time required
rq.is.za1 using condition that c(f) will be maximum here' Thus,
-to"t" ,n, o-1r,t"
dc\t) =-lJt" cos(r,t"t,+ 61n2!! sin(rd,rt,+d)=0
|
dt 1,, Jt-g' ,!r-f
ad cos(0d, + il - E@^sin (odtp+ 0) = 0
|---
- cos - oz\tp+ 01- s:u;.l(a,
11ar".it 11'-,,')te+Ql=0
Jt f'z
i--------=
sin/ cos[(a,,,lt- ro'1to+/]-cosCsin(ar,17-a')tp+0)=0

snl@,,[-FYr+/-/]=o=sinNz 6s7)
For the first peak, N = 1' Therefore,

L=-.L (5.38)
' ,,Jt-i'

Maximumovershoot
Sinceit is the overshootvalue at the Peaktirne,
Mr=c(t)1,_ro_.1

--1o"i l
-(ltr+P1 (5.3e)
fusrnfta,./t
Substituting lo value from Eq. (6'38) h Eq (6'39), we get after a little algebraic
rnanipulation
-i-
Mo = s r'-' (6.40)

of
Maximun per cent overchoot can be obtained by rnultiplyin-g the righFhand side
gq. fO.+OlUy 100. Ii may be observed that Mo is a function of { only' Its behaviour with
f is shown in Figue 6.10'
 150 to LinearandDigitalContrclSystems
tntroduction
'/oMe IOO

t
l,o
I

60

Flgure
6.10 6 vs Mpptot.

Settling time
If ts = time for settling within 2% of the final value, then

(6.4-L)
5@"
This approximate relation can be arrived at from the following considerations.Suppose
we want that the output settles u/ithin a toleranceband of tA. That means, the arnpli-
tude of the oscillating sine factor shoutd equal A Therefore,

t-=A (6.42)
Vl- 9-
Taking the logarithm of both sides of Eq. (6.42) and on rearranging, we ger

-atS"=rr6.,trj1

=]nA-:-
2
. t InA
t- =+--
' (6.43)
2an o"
Since f < 1, the second term on the right-hand side of Eq. (6.43) doninates and so we
may write it as

t =-++
Eo"
$.44)
SubstitutingA = 0.02in Eq. (6.M),we get the approximatereiationof Eat.
6.aU.
 ol conttolsystems 151
Tme DomainPerlormance

error
SteadY'state
of error
From the definition
--|'i"l (6.4s)
e( = r\r\- c0 = kV s\^(ali+ Q)

(6'46)
eo=e(r)L--=0
out a few Prob-
having recourse
With this
lems and then
to calculation
j'1#",':$tr1';{.'##j{liill':'#iffil'
having
6.t For a unity feedback system
EXAi/IPLE
L
cG)=a;l6i
(c) ara(d) ro and (e) Mo'
find (a) o+'(b) 'yu"'n' its overall transferfunction is grven
a unity f""aUutt
Solution: Sinceit is
by
rG)=#%
25
s(s+10)+25
25
s 2+ 1 0 s + 2 5
a]"
-
=--------
sz + Z(tons+ a4
with that of the stan-
of the given transfer function
ComParingthe denomirators
we ger
da-rdsecondorder system'
(a) ai =zc
an = 5 tad/s
(b) z(a, = L0
,=5 '-l (criticallY damPed)

l- c z _- w
i
(Dd=./JnlL-9
(c)
 Control Systems
152 lntroductionto Linearand Digital

(d) b=--#'+*(noveak)

(e) Mp = 0, since it has no Peak.

6.2 The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is glven by

EXAIiIPLE

cG)=:-
+:
s(r+sl,

where T and K are Positive constants.By what factor should the gain K be reducedsudr
that
(a) the peak overshoot of the system to unit steP input is reduced from 75oloto
25o/", auld
(b) the damping ratio increasesfrom 0.1 to 0 5?
Solution: The overall hansfer function of the system is given by

rr"r G(s)
-'-' =
1+G(s)
K
s(1+sT)+K

=" K /sT n
-'T'T

- (r)
s2+ 2(ans+ c']
1
By comparison we get *rd=ft.
o;"=.tK/T
(a) From Eq. (6.40) we
--+
-^^ .tr-
' ti" = / J (ii)
\Mp)1= Lwe
'-- ,t
/rr \ -inn-
- Lw.
,!t-ii -oE, (iir)
\tvlp 12

On taking the logarithms of both sides, vre get

-ffi=nffi=rn3-rn4
-G ln4-ln3 = ^ ^^., (i")
OI = - U'u,lo
 TimeDomainPeiormanceot ContrclSystems 1S|

(-^ ln4-ln1
-ffi = ::j_:___:- = 0.4413 (v,

E =#
Substituting ^^ r=#, we get from Eqs.(iv) and (v)

:=U,VYIo
r ^ ^^..
J4KJ -1,
or K1T = 30.045 (vi)
"t ^ ,,..
-=u.'+4tlJ
,l4K2T-1,
or K2T = 7.534 ("ii)

Thus from Eqs. (vi) and (vii), we get

K. 30.045 -^ _^-
-=-=Iy.5do (viii)
K2 "1.5U
Equation (viii) suggests that K should be nearly 20 timbs reduced to lower the Peak
overshoot ftom 75'/" to 25"/".
(b) Here,
,=w_
z \ KtT
(, e] (o.ef^-
.j =: = ---------- = Jo (ix)
K2 i (0.7)'
The import of Eq. (ix) is that K has to decreaseto 1/36 ot its Presentvalue to increase
the damping ratio lrom 0.1 to 0.6
EXAMPLE 6.3 Find ihe time response of the following system for inPut r(t) = sin t'

=---1-
''
"(s) ( s + l ) ( s ' + 1 )
Solution: /(t) = sin t

RG)=-5f
s-+1

Equathg the numeratols of both sides, we get from comPadng the coe{ficients
s6,*, sa,s3,s2,s and the constant
 lntoduction to Linear and Digital Antol Systems
154

1111']
A=l,B=-:'c=:. D= : andr=;
42244
Thus,
I 1 -t.1 s-l 1 '-l
L(J)-a.
s+ I (rr_i)t- 4 ?;
1 1 1 s I 1 1 s .1 1
-I's+t-Z T-.-:---------i-_-:.-;----'-
[t+f12'2 G 2+ 1 ) 2 4 s 2 + 1 4 s?+1

On performing inverse LaPlace transfoLm,

1 1C 1 1 1
.. '
c(t)=:ct- sinf-icmf -Nsint
rVUsnn*;t
=1r-t -1r* r -ltcost +1 tsint -lcos t +]sint
4' 2- 2 4 2 4
.t 1 (. 1 (. tr\
n\
=ae-t--#sinl r +T l++rsinl t -; I
4 4 .
2,12 J 42 \ \ 4/

EXAITPLE6.4 A step inPut is applied to a unity feedback sl"stem having the following
openloop transfer function:

u(s)=s(s+3)

Find (a) the closed-loop Fansfer functiort (b) at, (c) { and (d) (d,i.
Solution:
transfertunction=i%==+*
(a) Closed-loop = ^z tS
1+C(s) s(s+3)+15 <'+35-15
(b) Comparing the denominator of the closed-loop transfer ftnction with that of a
standard second order transfer funtiory we get
1ti =1'5
or a, -- JE =3 873rad/s
(c) From the same compadson,we also get
z(tt' = 3
3
' 2a,, =-L=o.sez
t=
2.1"15

(d) ,n=r,,[-{ = 3.57rrad

s/
 f
II ol Contolsystems
TimeDomainPerformance 155

confrol system,having 6 = 04 and au = 5 rad/s, is

a{At PLE 6.5 A second order (a) ilosedJoop transferfunction, (b) t., (c) tp, (d) L
;biected to a steP inPut Determine
and (e) Mr'
Solulion:
i5
(a) The siandard closed-loop transfer function for a secondorder control system
given bY
c(s) al
RC\=j.'zA"*4
Substituting the values of g and a)", we gei
C(s) 25
R(s) s' + 4s+ 25

. = : t=t -- -c. 'o* s3-3' ts n - c o s - l 0 . 4 ^ ,

(b) ' 5Ji-016
,,$-4

(c, '', =---L=---L-=166,

t,Jt-* sJ1-0'16

(d) t"= 4 4 (u4)(r=

'"
fu,=

(e) =1se
%M, (- ",.'
"' ft)=', [-ffi] =*,
EXAMPLE 6,6 A unity feedback control system has the following oPen-looP transfer
function:
^. 4s+l
UtS)=-
4s'

Find expressionsfor its time responsewhen it is subiectedto (a) unit imPulse inPui and
(b) unit steP rnPut.
Solulion: The closed-loop transfer function of the system is given by
- C(s) 4s+1 4s+7
-'-'
R ( s ) 4 s r+ 4 5+ I (2s'i)'

(a) For a unit impulse inPut, R(s) = 1.

1
4c+t s+; A B
: '=-
t ' ; = -(-2- _s- - i . ; =
r' > ,.-
+7\' f 1\' f 1\ '-tI
l'-;J t'*tJ
 1'56 tntoduclion to Linearand Digital Contol Systems

Thert

--
\-
+-
2
1
=(,.i),=
)'.u,t=+ ,
tl'
)

ds
=*(,. 1 \ l
.r)'.,0]"__, /L| 1
2 z
Thus,

co=-/+l'++
ul'*;) '*,
The inverse Laplace trarsform of the above equation yields

_!pi=1,_i]r:
,6="4
(b) For a unit stepinput, R(s)=]. f:herefore
7
cG\= j;g*{ t,"yr
( +=+*,
'l'n '*,
tJ ['.;J
,*1 I =l
.,{=sc(s)1,_o=a+l
['*rJl"=,
1l
/ ir\l 2
-..1
| s+:l
^ I al 1,
D =ls+;lc(s)l = ---al
\ zJ I I s I 2
- ls=-:
2

.=f,{(,'};'.r,,}L_,=
=i:+ ---, t Jl.=_r
L
Thus,

1
2
 TimeDomainPeiormanceol control systems 157

yields
lE inverse LaPlace transform
. | | | rr I
c. t 1 =j + ! k 1 - e - z = t - l t - : l s z
2 \ z/
of the control system given in flguJe Ort]
E(AtilPLE6.7 Determine the trarsfer function a magnitude of 2
ffi"i"-ri* ur.""pression for its output if the input is a step having
units,

(Example
system
of thecontrol
Figure6'11 Blockdiagram 6.7).

Figure 6.11(a).
Solution: The block diagram can be reduced as shown in

r(s 'f 4) + 4

Flgure6.11(a)

function of the ryrstemas

The reduced block diagram yields the closed-loopftansfer
C(s) 4
' '/"< '\ = : l : 1 =
T :
RG) s(s+4)+4+4(s+2)
4
=7;8s+12

4
(s+2)(s+6)
 158 ln oductionto LinearandDigitatControlSystems

J
Given, R(s)=: . Therefore,
s

cG)=so;is+6)

=A* B=*-!_1r"y1
5 S+l 5+6
Then,

' ' 's=u=81=?

A=sC(s)l
(s+ 2Xs+ 6)l._o 3

=Girl"==_,
B=(s+2)c(s)1"__,
,
' ' ' s = - o=81=:
C=(s+6)C(s)l
s(s+2)l 3
Thus,

cG)=:.1_++1.+
J s s+z J s+6
Its inverse Laplace traasform yields

c1t\=2, - e-^a !2al

CJ

EXAMPLE
6.8 Measurement conducted on a servomechanismshows the error response
to be
e(t) = 1.66e-8t
sin (6f + 32")
where the input is a sudden unit displacement,Determine the natural frequency, damp_
ing ratio and damped angular frequerLcyof the system.
Solution: Given, r(f) = 1. 11"r"1ot"
e(f)=r(s)-c(t)=1-c0)
Since the error is sinusoidal, it is a secondorder underdamped system where for a step
iltput

"-go"t
c(t)=1--:......".-s (adt + cos-1)

Therefore,

ao=#"*t'rr+cos-1 4)
 ol ContrdSystems 159
TimeDonainPertormance

= L.56eit sin (51+ 37.) (given)

By comparisorL
cos-l 6 = 37"
= cos 37" = 0.7986
aa = 6 rad/s

A_ = ---:= = Y.YOYraa/s
"ha

EXAfITPLE6.9 In the block diagram shown in Figrue 6.12,G(s) = A/g and H(s) = 25 a 2'
For A = 1O determine the values ol m and n for a step inPut with a time{onstant 01 s
which gives a peak overshoot of 30%

(Example
Figure6.12 Blockdiagram 6.9).

Solution:The overall transfer furction of the system is given by

G(s)
rG)=:9=
''
R(s) 1+G(s)H(s)
A
=
s'+A-t+A"
ntZ
-= _________::t!-
sz+\las,s+tfi
Comparing the denominators, we get
2ean=An=10m (i)

afi = 4n =19,
From Eq. (i) we find
. 10m 10m (ii)
'
20n 2.t10n
Now,
T i m e c o n s t a n t -. ==:-=:=0.1s (given)
60,, )Um 5fi
 t60 lntoduction to Linearand Digital Contol Systems

m=2 \

Substitutingtllis value in Eq. (ii), we get

, 1 0x 2
l0
5=iFo"=ffi (iii)
Ag"lru
'\
( -,
reakovershoot,=r00exp
"/olv\ =ro<sivenl
l_ ffiJ
-$=*e.31=-1-2sa
vt-9

1tz2= (7.204)2
(1 _ 2)

e=IE=ouu,n
Thus, substituting the value of f in Eq. (iii), we get

/rn
,l- = 0.3579
ln

,=ffi=ze.oz
EXAITPLE6.10 A sysremand irs curve ;ue given in Figue 6'13(a)and (b)'
Determinetre values ot ,r,r,a u.J?o*e

(ar
G)
Flgure
6.13 Example
6,10:(a)th6system
and(b)theresponso.
I
I

I Solution: The differmtial equation for

af ControlSystems 161
Tine DomainPetformance

the system can be wdtten as

M d z x l t , r) B d x ( t +
) Kr(f)=y(r)
df dt
initial conditions = 0' is
Its l-aplace transform, for all
(szM+ sB + r0 XG) = Y(s)
system is
Therefore, the transfer function of the

r(,)=#=7r*+K
=j;T;E,
1/M (i)

This yields the characteristic equahon

.r*9r*I=o=r2
.M-M + tfi
+z(at,s

By comParisonwe gef

zio"=fr
BB (ii)
'F = --,-:-- =:
2a"M z.JY'M

Now, peak overshoot

o$! 1r'o-'""ponse
cuwe)
*, =.*l-
#,)=

ft=-.o'oeu=zzzos
(in)

From Figure 613(a) and Eq (i)

8.9
xG)=
s(Msz+Bs+K)
8.9 8'9
So, r(-) =0.03=1imsx(s)= Igt Mst;s + K =?-
 ConlrolSystems

x=ffi=2e6.67p7*

--ft
1 =o, = z{fromresPonse)
5'
"11-

= 1.958radls (v)
Combining the results of Eqs. (iv) and (v), we get

',=ffi=''*'
v 1041,,
rvt =---. =.-- = / /,365 Ke (vi)
,)z /1 Oq9\z

And Eq. (ii) togetherwith Eq. (vi) yields

B
=
2.IKM
B =2JKNl
= 2(0.se7
\JQe6.67
\n s$)
= 180.91N-s/m

EXAIIPLE6.|1 In the closed-loop system shown in Figurc 6.14, determine the value of
K and a such that the per cent peak overshoot due to the unit step input does not
exceed10%.Settling time should be equal to 1s.

Figure6,14 Closed.loop (Example

system 6.11).

Solution:The overall trarufer function of the svsrem rs

_. . C(s)
. l t' 5 t = - = -
K
R(s) s(s+a)+K
 TimeDonainPeiormanceof ControlSystems 16il
/
K
s2+ns+K
( = 0, with that of a standard second
Comparing the chamcteristic equation, s2 + 4s +
order system, we get
a)"= Vrr
.aa (i)
'
2ah zJK

Now, f s= - = l s ( 8 r v e n )

ro,= +
g.
= - lusrng!,q. (r,l

a=8 (ii)

Ttre peak overshoot condition gives us

( -,\
exP!-;! 1 =g ' 1
-6' j
| .'/1
-7-nE =2.303 (in)

Substituting the value of { from Eq. (i) in Eq. (iii), we get

^1,
-+=2.303
l" n'
\l'- 4K

t--------"'= -'---
t!4K - a'

Putting the value of a from Eq. (ii) h tl:ris equatiorL we get

n(8\
-=Z.JUJ
,l4K - 64
64tt2
OI
2.303'

.. 116Li ...l
K = - | -"""""= + b+ | = +) / / 1
ol
4 L2.303- I
 164 lntroductionto LinearandDigitatControlSyslms

EXAiIPLE6.12 Detemdne the value of controller gains Iq and K, for the system shown
in Figure 6.15 so that its damping ratio and natural fre'quency of oscillation become 1
and,4 t1z resDectivelv.

Figure
6.'15Control (Example
system 6.12).
Solutlon:Here,
^. . 2(K, + K,s)
b(5)=+
s(s+ 4)
G(s)
" 1+G(s)
2K1+ 2Kps
s(s+ 4) +2K1+2Kps
zKt + 2Kps
s" + (zKp+ 4)s+zKl
Comparing the characte stic equation, s2 + QK, + ls + 2Kt = 0, with that of a standard
second order system, we get

o; = zK1
We are given vn = 4. 5o,
a n = 2 1 w n= 8 1 8

nr2
'2

= 64r'
2
= 315.83
and
2(at, =2Y, a 4

or 2{at, - 4

= t+-Z
=8tt-2
= 23.13
 TimeDomainPeiormanceot ControlSystems 165

ERROR
6.5 ANALYSISOF STEADY-STATE
the same for fiIst
We have already delhed steady-stateerror in Eq' (6 1) and calculated
the inverse Laplace
and secondordel systemsin time-domain by a method tlut involves
;;;t- of respooses. But this error can be calculated directly from the Laplace
t values of the response. We will discuss the Procedure in the following
"n"fo"rnea
Daragrapfu.
' -fro*
Eq. (6.1) we know that
e" = lirn 4t) (6.4n

Applyrng tlre final value theorem2to Eq' 6'47, we get

e,s(f) = lim sEG) (6.48)

Consider a caronical feedback s)'stem given in Figure 6'15'

Figure
6.16 Canonical controlsystem.
feedback

The overall transfer function Ior this system is given bY

-. c(t = G(s)
' (t). = (6.49)
RG) J* c(dH(r)
From Figure 6.76, we get
EG)=RG)-BG)
= R(s)- c(s)H(s)
= RG)- E(s)G(s)H(s) (6.50)

This yields
R(s) (6.51)
"('r=i;d;E6
e.. = lirn sE(s)

.. sR(s) (6.52)
=:S1+cG)HG)

2SeeAppendix A
166 lntroduction
to Linearand DigitalControlSystems

From Eq. (6.52)we find that while the numerator is related io the input, the denomi-
nator, which is the characteristicpol1.nomial, relates to the ry?e of the system. Thus the
steady-stateerror of a system depends on the following:
. Input to the system
o Type of the system
Next we define what are called static errcr coeffcientsot mnstsnt,

6.5,1 Static Error Constants

Often called y'garesof me t oI a control system, static error constarts are tfuee in nurn-
ber, namely:
1. Static position error constant, Kp
2. Static velocity error constant, Ka
3. Static acceleration error constant, (0
They are defined in such a way that the higher is the value of the constant, the
lAcc ic rho ',.1,,- ^(
"
One may note here that each enor constant variable is the dedvative of its
precedhg one, i-e., velocity is the derivative of position and accelerationis the
derivative of velocity. These originate from their definitions.

6.5.2 Input Types and Error Constants

Step input
Here,
R(')=1
5

.. .t s
c-=Slr_qu*o1l
1
.. 1
"-,01+ G(s)H(s)

L+li4G(rHG)

1
(6.53)
1+K"
where
Kp=lt4GG)HG) (6.54)

is called the staticpositionerror constanl.

l/ Tme DomainPeiotmanceol Conttotsystems
167

/'
RamP inPut
tlete,
1
RG)=-

I s 1l
7l
""=SL*cG)At
1
-
- li'n
ijd st1+ GG)H(s)l
1
-limsG(s)H(s)
s+0

1
=K" (6.5s)

where (6'56)
(- = lim sG(s)H(s)
indicates
static oelocityeffor constdnt'We note that ii co:tair-rsan s which
called the
is til fact thai velocity is the fusi derivahve
differentiation for once rn t"*""ari;';tflt
of the position variable'
ParaboticinPut
Here,
1
R(s)=-
s-
| -
" 1l
- _
- li'- I .-l
" y-i [11c1gHG)c .l
1
-
-lis
;lt rtlr + c(s)riG)l
1
-
lim s'?G(s)HG)

1 (6.s4
Ko

where (brd)
K- = lim s2cG)HG)
' '
conslaflt' Ptediclably' it contans s- 'arhichindicatesa sec-
is called the statb acceleration
vadable'
J.J-d"rlttuti.t" of the Position
 I
168 Introductionto Linear and Digital Contol Systems
I
6.5.3 system Types and Steady-stateErrors
try." system_earlier(Section2.11).Ir is determined
by thenumber
or poresaf the oflgrn 9l
Y"_1,:9:.0.,1n" " at s = 0)
(i.e. in the openJoop transferfunc'tiorLG(s)H(s),
^exis.trng '
of a system. The general form of G(s)H(si is
- sTrXl+ sTz)...(1+ sI",)
' ' _ {(1 -
c(s)H(s) (6.se)
s ( ( l s 4 ) ( t+ s T r ) . . . (+t s 7 l )
In Eq. (6.59),k is the number of poles at the odgin. Therefore,it
$ a type k svstem,
EXAMPLE 6.13 Identify the t]?e of the systemfor which

K ( ]+ 3 s ) j-5s
(^r,l ,D r1 - allo ElSl=-
s' s'+6s+7
Solution: Here,

={++ls)gjjj.l
c(s)H(s)
s ' ( s "+ 6 s + 7 )
Since the number of poles at the origin is 2 (indicated by s2 in
the denominator),
=
twe 2.
EXAMPLE
6.14 ldentify the t'?e of the system for which

C(.)=-,-- j _ and H(s.1

= 5.3
s-+bs+/
Solution: Here,
- 3)
c(s)H(s)= -4(s
s'+6s+7
It has no poles at the origin. Therefore, irye = 0.
this background, we see how the static erlor constants,and for
. .With that matter,
steady-stateerrors are related to t)?es of systems.
Type O
Here,
K ( 1+ . 7 rX t . s I 2 ) . . . ( t + s i ; , r
C { s ) H ( s_)
- s4)
(r+ s4xt+s4)...(1 (6.@)

7. Stepinput

= K'1-1 J=7i
Ko=lu1c(s)H(s)

11
%"= 661)
r + K p =1 + K
 / fnne DomainPeiormanceot conjtrotsystems 169

/ z. r-*p irrput
K-, = l i m s c ( s ) H ( s ) = 0
s-ro

1
6.4\

3. Paflbolic inqut
=0
K- = Iim s2c(s)H(s)

(6.63)

Type ,
Here,
5T2) (1+sT")
.r.\,{n\ _ K(l+sT1X1+ (6.64)
s(1+s4)(1+sTr)" (1+ si;)
7. SW input
Kp=lil4GG)HG)=-

1^ (6.65)
e5s=""--=U

2. Rntttpinput
=K
K"' = lim sG(s)H(s)
6-i0

11 (6.65)
ess=17=A

3. Pffinbolicinput
=0
K- = lim s2c(s)H(s)

1 $.6n

Type 2
l{erc,
^...,,. K ( l + s T l x l+ s T r ") ( 1 + s T n ) (6.58)
u(srrI (5,= -.;----=i;:---=1----;-:-;-
s ' ( l + s l 4 x I +s r b ) ( r + s r t r ,
1. Stepinp t
&' = l i m G ( s ) H ( s ) = -
s'0
 179 lnfuuction to Lineat and Digital Control Systems

.'. e"=-1.=o 6.6e)

r+q="
2. Rmnpinput
K,_ = lim ;c(s)H(s)= -
s'0

1^
e""=;- =U (6.70)
3. Pqrq.boliinput

& =lrms'?cG)ruG)=r
. %=K=" 6.71)
The results, so far obtained, are summarised in Table
6.6. The following points are
apparent from the table:
1. Ramp and parabolic inputs should not be applied to t)?e
0 system.
2. Parabolic input should not be applied to
[pe 1 systern.
3. For t)?e 2 3, eu = 0 for all inputs
Two more points which are not apparent from Table 6.6
are as follows:
1. e* for a linear combination of inputs can be superimposed.
2. The rnethod fails for sinusoidal inputs, becausethe final
value lheorem camot
be applied in that case.

Table6.6 Steady_slale
efforfor ditferent
hpesanddiffersnt
inDuts
Wltt
Step Rnnp Parabolic
IWe e" =:---:- 1
l+^, - =_l
e__
K"

1+K

0 1
K
0 1
0
K
0 0 0

6.6 DYNAMICERRORCOEFFICIENTS
br Section 6.5 we discussed how to evaluate-.the steady-state
error utilising the final
value theorem The method suffers from the limitation 'th"i
ii determination of
erlor coefficientsfor only tfuee kinds of input. Also, for those "-d*r
permitted kinds of input,
 l-tmeDonain Peiomanceof controtsystems 171

overcome
it does not show how the error varies with tirne' These disadvantagescan be
are often telmed
uy fo owing the method of finding generalisederror coefficients that
dvnamic
' error coefficients.
The eror function, we iound in Eq. (6.51),is given by
E(s)= 1 (6.72)
R(') 1+GG)HG)
The denominator on the right hand side of the equation is a function of s and it can
be written as powe! series in s as follows
E(s) 1. 1-,7^2,
-'
R(r)=&-i<t"'8"
++sn(o+l lKsr+..
EG)=:RG) (6.73)
l(2
K1 ^3

The inverse Laplace transform of Eq. (6.73) ytelds

<n={,<t.{*,<tt+{ft ,o*"' (6.74)

Ttrerefore,if the input function is known, dynamic error coefficientscan be figured out
throueh a compatison between Eq. (6.7a) and the polynomial obtained from invelse
Laplaie transfoim3. The following Lxamples will make the procedure clear'
6.15 For a systemhaving
EXAiIPLE
= KG+4)
GG)HG)
s(s3+5s2+6s)

find (a) type of the system,(b) static error constantsand (c) error due to input fr2 '

Solution:
(('+L\
(") GG)HG)=d;i;6o - -{G+4) . T h e r e f o rw
ee, =2.
s,(s,+5s+6)
(b) Sinceit is a type 2 system,19 = K, = *.

=tl^:!:'9-=2:
K,' ' = lims2c(s)H(s)
s+0 seus-+5s+b J

(c) The input is parabolic.Its LaPlacetransformi" RG)=4'

A3A
Therefore, 2K
lSome authors define e or coefficimts as Ci = I/Ki.
 'qil
172 to Linearand Agihl ControlSystams
tntroduction n

EXAIIPIE6.tG The open-loop transfer function of a servo system with unity feedbackis
given by
500
=;I+0_;i
L,(s.f

(a) Evaluate the error series of the systen.

(b) Deterrrine the steady-stateerror of the systen for the inpui t(t) = L a 21 * ,2.
Solutlon: Since it is a unity feedback syster; we have

E(s) 1 s+0.1s2
R(t=1.cO=sofi;nI'
The long division of the right-hand side of the equation yields
0.002s+ 0.000196s2- 0.000000792tr
500+s+0.1s2 ) s + 0.1s2
ts-r 0.002s2'a0.0002.s3
0.098s2- 0.0002d
i 0.0000196/
t0.098d i 0.000195s3
- 0.0000195#
-{.000396,s3
+ ...
+0.000396dr 0.000000792d
E(s)= - 0.000000792s3
o.oozs+ 0.000196s2 +...
R(s)
E(s) = 9.002t41r1+ 0.000196s2R(s) +
- 0.000000792fR(s)

=a ^G)n] r^Gy
. , +=1- +..'
" +]K 4 sanlsy
s'zn1s1
Kt., Kz K3
Its invelse Laplace transform Felds
tt,tt\ ,l2r(r\ i3t,'\
e(t)= $W2;! :i+
+ 0.000196 - 0.00r00ffi792
:-:* + ..

We are given, r(r) = 1 + 2, + t2. Therefdre,

dr(t)=z*2t
dt

d3r(tl= ^
--:-i- u
dt'
 TirE Dolain Pettomane d contd systr'ms 173

These give
e{t) = o.oa2? + 24 + 0'000196(2)- 0'000000792(0)+ "'
= 0.004392+ 0.004,
= 0'00'1392+ 0'004t and the dynamic error
{a) The eror series of the qrstem is e(l)
coefficients are

Kr=1=-
0
x'' =;l==596
0.002

Kr' =:*- = 5102'04

0.0001%

K^' = - ==: *= = - 12626:26 26

0.000000792
O) The steady-stateeror in time-domainis
lim e(t)= lim (000439 + 0'004t)= -
tr- lJ-

6,17 The opea-looptrarsfer function of a unity feedbacksystemis glven by

EXAIIPLE

G(s)=
.4=
sls+ ru,
inPut is r(t) = 1 + 2t
Find out dynamic error coefficients and the error series when the
+*.
Solutlon: It being a unity feedbacksystem,we have
E(s) 10s+ s2
RG)=50-10;7-
s' we
Note that sincewe want to find out a polynomiatin ascendingpowers of
the
have to arrangethe numeratorand denom:natoiin that order, before Performing
long division' By long divisiorr we get
+ (o)CRG)+ 0'004#R(s)+ -
E(s) = 925p1t1- 0'02s2R(s)
Its inverseLaplacetransformyields
trtt\ ,12,1t\ A3 l\ dar,l.l
+02!y
e?r=@\r(t\ - ":i)'/
o.o2 +(0)" j:i' + 0'004:-:j:' + '
dt dt' dt' dt'

=*n
.t#.*#.;#.+#.
 174 lntroduction
b LinearandDigttatContlOf
Systerns
Drrarrric error coelficimts are, therefore,

& =1=-
0
r, =;1.=5

",=-#=-*
rn =]=-
0
*G='fo=_
The input is r(t) = 1 + 2t + *. 9o,
it\
:::):! =2+ 2t

d2r(t) ^
dt'
Thus the error series is given by

4t)=o.2(2+2r-0.02(21
= 0.36+ 0.4t
EXAITPIE
6.18 The open-loophansfer function of a unity feedbacksystemis given by

jP
c1t1=-"---.
'
s'(s+4xt' + 5s+ 25)
o*ar*tat" errorofthesvstem
whenit issubjecte
l-l"ni:t"::';Fnirldrf;
Solutlon: Static error coefficints are

& =limGG)HG)=
tg a,."a, *g-,.*, =-
K"=limsc{4'(s)
=ga,.4# =-
u"- *)
&=tims'zc(s)H(s)=u-, loo = 10 =t
s+o sro (s+ 4Xs,+ 5r + 25) (4X25)
Taling the Laplace transform of the input, we get
)LA. -
R(s)=:1-:a
5s_s"
r TimeDomainPerformance
of ContralSystems 175

We obsewe that this is a combination of step, ramp and parabolic inputs. Hence
the steady-stateerror is given by
2
,-= *4 *4
" 1+ Kp K, ("

Substituting the values obtained for the error coefficients,we get

,"=j-*a *!=+
EXAMPLE 6.19 A servomechanism,the block diagram of which is given in Figure 6.17,
is designed to keep a radar antenna pointed at a llying aeroplane. If the aeroplane is
flying with a velocity of 600 km/h, at a range of 2 km, and the maxirnum tracking ellor
is to be within 0.1o,determine the required velocity error coefficient.

Figure6,17 Blockdiagram (Example

of servomechanism 6.19).

Sofution:Giver; the velocity = 600 km/h ='166.67m/s. The radial dGtance= 2km
= 2000 m. Therefore, the angular velocity is
u 166.fi
o = - = --::+ = 0.083rad/ s = 4.756desJs
r 20ffi
The input to the hacking system is the angle swept in time t sec. So,
r(t)=at=4.756t

+ RG)=!iq
The open-loop trarufer function of the system is

= K'
G(stHrs)
''
s ( 1 +s T )
<r1r <?\ r L
1 + G(s)HG) = :-:-l-:j-1-:jr
s(1+si)

Thus, the steady-stateerror is given by

=lim &
s,o 1+ G(s)H(s)
176 to LinearandDigitalControlSystems
tntrcduction

. . 4.756 s(1+ sT)

s+0 s' S(r+sl)fI\z

4.7ffi
K.
To maintain steady-statetracking erlor at 0.1o,
4.756 ^
"
K1

or K' = 47'56/s
EXAIIPLE5,20 Find tyPe, error coefficients and eo for the system, shown in Figure 6'18,
for the inputs (a) r(t) = 12, (b) 7(t) = 6r and (c) r(t) = 12 + ot + l*'
2
2-
= ---
-''-'(s+sxs+10)
"-t.l
H(s) = 55

(Example
lorthecofirolsystem
Figure6.18 Blockdiagram 6.m)

Solution: The block diagram can be reducedto give Figure 5'19'

(Exanple
blockdiagram
Flgure6,19 Beduced 6.20).
r
Therefore, the open-loop tmrsfer function of the system
is
of coni{.olsystems 177
TimeDomainPerformance

250
10c. 250 =;
= -eHl =
cc)H(s) - t40r- 50
| (r- t/G' r0)-rrsr
For a t)?e 0 system' only
It has no poles at the odgin. Therefore, it ls a t,?e g sygtem
the static position error coefficient, Kp, exists, its value being
,q0
=
Kp= lim c(s)H(s) =s
l* 7;
_.. 12
(a) Here, l<(s)= - Therefore,

-. sR(s) 72
-" = l r m
P
*d 1 + G(s)H(s) 1+ Kp

O) Here,R(s1={ Therefore,
5 =-
, =l;rn
-s
-tj
s s[1+G(tH(s)]

-.. L2 6 L
(c) Here, K(s)=-+-+-
s s- zs-
have aheady seen that
Since erors for individual inputs can be superimposed and we
say that for
l"t tf-," secondPart is -, wlthout calculathg it for the third Par:twe can
""
this input also e," = -
Figure 6'20
EXAITPLE 6.21 Determine the range of values of K of the system shown in
so that es < 0.004when r(t) = 0'2t-

(Example
system
Figure6.20 Control 621)

Solution:The open-loop transfer function for the system is

K
G(s)H($= ^
rt! f r./

s(s+1)+K
l-CG)H(s)=-
t\r T r./

Here, t(t) = 0'2t

- 02
K(s)= --5-
 178 lntoductionto Linearand DigitalContot Systems

Therefore,

e*=jinr--*]:-
sro 1+ c(s)H(s)

=umlo;2:'G+1)I
s-01 a. ..tcLvl

,.
- |Ur
0.2(5
_-i-
+ t)
sros-+s+K

o.2
(
From the given condition

0.2
--= < 0.004
K

.. 0.2
0.004
K>50

6.7 EFFECTS
OF ADDITIONOF POLESAND ZEROSON RESPONSE
SYSTEMS OF

.t"=Tg to. study the effects of addition of poles

]: : and zeros on response of
-"".onJ
systems. While doing thal we will restrict
ourselrres'io ora", underdamped
r*p.tesgonsgon! t"q,,"ys,"* .url U-","p."r"rrt"a by their open_loop
:I^tj:ff_Td. or
We will coruider bo& separately-The other'urro*p.tio"
ciosed-ioophansfer functions.
is that poles and zeroswil be locared," th"
dft_ili';;J}
"^_ro""".
6.7.1 Addition of poles
As told earlier,this studv can be made-onopen_loop
and closed_looptralsfer functions.
*" srudy meaningtut,*e conliae. uiiq, i""-Ju".i'iy,"*"
:t""T*" "on for openJoop
Closedloop transfer function
Let the closed-looptransferfunction be

TG)=-"----:- (6.75)
s'+0.6s+1
Obviously it is a secondorder.systemwith q =
1 and f = 0.3. We add a pole to make

I (sJ = -a-.
1r -
s'+ 0-6s+1 rr's+1 (6.76)
ii' TimeDamainPeioman@ ot controlsystems 179

(6.75) lor ro = 6, 1,
Figorc 6'21 shows step responsesfor the system representedby Eq.
2ar.d4

4t\ r.4
1
l"
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8l0 12 14 16 l8 20
_---__-_________>,
(s)
forEq.(6.75).
Figure6.21 Stepresponses

Here, we obsewe that as ?pincreases,rise time increases,but peak overshoot decreases.

We add, though observed in a Particular case,the conclusion is general.
open-loop trdnsfer function
Let the oDen-loop transfer furction be

G(s)=--1- (6.n)
D\' T Z,/

We add a 'pole
tp at s = - a to make it

s(s+ 2)(1+ ros)

The coresponding unity feedbackclosedloop transferfunction is

i(sl=-
c(s)
" 1+G(s)
1 (6.78)
. / . r ? \ r 1+ r < \ + 1
!\, , _t\_ -pt, i \
 180 Introduction
to LinearandDigitatControlSystems

responsesof Eq' (6 78) correspondingto

,,*rJ1lr.tt"o 6 = 0, 1,2 a d 4 are plonec

4t) 1.5
t
I
I

tu tz 14 16 lt 20
--"-------' t(s)
Figure6,22 stepresponses
for Eq.(6.78).
It te^observed from this plot that
-may
mcrease.An increaseof a means that the 1s g ircreases,both peak overshoot and dse time
fob comei
The conclusion, though <irawn for a particular io tf,u o"g_ in the s_plane.
i,"for"i
i" J;l ;;tte generat.
"""",
6.7.2 Addition of Zeros
As in the case of poles, here also..we will
consider open-loop ard closed_loopcases
separatety and a unity feedback will U"
.o.siae..a-]oi.ie ;;:#"p.
Closedloop transfer function
Let the closedloop transfer function be

1
r (s,= ;r_:_::; (6.7e)
We add a zero to it at s = _1/r. so that

7+t_s
I (S) = --:-----j--
(6.80)
s'+ s+1
 fime DomainPeiormanceot Controtsystems 181

Equation (6'80) can be written as

11
T(s)= ---:---= * - - , - (6.81)
s ' + s + 1 ""s s ' + s + 1
(6'81)will be
So,if c(t) is the step responseof Eq-(6.i9),that of Eq'

c^(tl=c(t\+r,
' - d t.Lc(t)
(6.82)

Figure 6.23 shows the Ploi of c(f), t.!c$)

-dt and cg(r) It is clear lrom the figure

that the zero term decreasesthe rise time but increasesthe Peak overshoot'
I 12
I
I
9r
e

6
0.6

0.4

0.2

4.2
0123
-_______)I (s)

transiertunction'
of zeroto closedloop
Figure6.23 Efiectot addilion

OpenJooptransfer function
Let the open-loop trarsfer frmctioa be
1 (6.83)
G(s,= -_-
s(s+ r,

and the zero a15 = -1/t. Then the unity feedbackclosedloop iransfer funetion becomes
7+ c-s (6.84)
' = ---------:-
- ' '<\
T(
(1+t s)+s(s+1)
182 lntroductionto Linearand DigitalContrclSystems

We obsewe here that while the term (1 + z-s) in the numerator increasesthe
ma\imum overshoot,r:) term in the denominator aJds to the damping term, which, in
tum, reduces the maximum overshoot. The combination of two counteractingeffects
produces a complicatedresult that for lower values of t: addition of zero reduces
maximum overshoot and irnproves dse time, but aftet an optimum value of ?, the
situation reverses.
Let us considerthe openJoop transfer function with a zero added to it as

5(1+r"s)
G(s)= (6.8s)
s(s+1Xs+2)
Its urLityfeedbackclosedJoopform is given by

(6.86)
s ( 5r l l ( s - 2 ) 5 ( 1- r . s )
sr+3s2+(2+5rrs)s
"5
The step responseof Eq. (6.86)is shown in Figt,re 6.24 lor t = g,0.2,0.4,2,4 a d
8. It may be obsewed-from the figure that the peak overshootas well as rise time goes
down as ?, ircreases fiom 0 to 2. After that, though the rise hme continues to decr&se,
the peak overshootgoes on increasing.

c0

I
0.8

0.6

0.4

o.2

__>, (s)
Figure6,24 Effect
0f addition
0f zeroto openlooplransfer
iunciion.
 of ContrclSystems 183
fime DomainPetormance
6 7'
of addition of poles and zeios are summarised in Table
The results
of effectsof addilionof polesandzeros
Table6,7 Sumrnary
As the zero nears tJle origin
As the PoIefiearc Lheorigtn
Typeof tnrsfer Peak o7)ershoot Rise time Peak ooelshoot
Rige tu e
furrction M. tl MP
tl

lncreases Decteases Decreases up to a

Open-looP lncteases
ce*ain value of t but
increases thereafter
Decreases Decreases Increases
Closed-looP Increases

PHASESYSTEMS
6.8 MINIMUMAND NON-MINIMUM
about minimum and non-minimumPhasesystems'HeIe'
In section2.14,we had talked
;";;;;',; seethedirterence.:j in rheirrransrer
We recall, minimum Phase:T"?:*'*i:':::; il:"'il:",tiil,
phaseareais larger' Let
phase,the sweep.in
fur.;"r. i;t# ,yr,"- i" oi.o.--iri*l.- minirnum and non-minirnum phase systems' the
of
us compare the unit steP lesporues
of which are given by
"--rr?.'run.no*
c(4=6-"1';=-n----"-- (6.87)
s "+ s + 1
-(+l
and ;!'a =c",**,ts)=;-- (6.88)
x(s)

We present the unit steP response

of the sYstemsin Figure 6.25 and Figrrre 6.26
respectivelY.
1.4

1.2

E 0.8

E 0.6

0.4

0.2

0 6 l0 12
Time(s)
pnase
of a mlnlmum sy$em'
Figure6.25 Uniistepresponse
 1A4 lntroductionto Linearand DigitatContot
Systems
1.4

1.2
I

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

4.2

r'od
l0 t2
'"lffii,',,i,,'i;'.'[3,:','J.'fff
';;frT",fr:um::;fiil;,il
l,:li''l*'
l,*"1,flffi':,,,1hlj*:l;trfiilf
The difference in behaviour
g',1-4df;]1#ll1llilJlifl
. i
j,T:
lEYlEwQurslor.rs
1, Choose the correct artswer:

ora svstem
is s2+ 2s+2 = 0.rhesysrem
"' T".Hff:'ff;Tation is
riiii""",i",i.pi1"'* .1_-'j
:3:.oTo"o
ttt' none of these
@1 ror a controif1"m to be ,JPeratedin overdamped conditiory
oampng ratio should be the value of the
(i) 0
(ii) > 1
(iii) 1
(iv) < 1
(c) The steady-stateerror
for a tPe 3 sy-s.temfor a
(i) zero unit step input is
(iii)one
.$l ffH,t
(d) The open loop
transferfunction of a system
-'- is l0 . *o
rrre sready-state
1+t ", error
due to a unit step input is
 l1meDomainPefiomanceof ControlSystems 185

(i) 10 (ii) 0
,...' 1 (iv) -
'11 -
{r1ll

(e) Thesecondordersystemdefinedby the transferf,-.t." =- . 3 *

ffi "
given a unit step inPut. The time taken for the output to settle within i2% of
the final value is
(i) 1.2 s (ii) 1.6 s
(iii) 2 s (iv) 0.4 s
(0 Addition of a Pole to the closed-loop transfer function
(i) increasesdse time (ii) decreasesrise time
(iii) increasesovelshoot (iv) has no effect

2. Corsider the block diagram given in Figure 6 27'

(Question
Flgure6.27 Blockdiagram 2).

(4, Find the closed looP tlansfer tunction T(s) = YG)/RG)'

(b) Find the CL unit steP resPonse.
(c) Find the final value of Y(t).
nse
3' (a) A first order systemwhen subiectedto a steP inPut has a lemPerature
of 25'C after an hour and 37.5'C after 2 hours, sta*ing from coid condition'
Calculate the final steady temPerature rise ard the thermal time constant'
(b) Sketch the timedomain responseof a tyPical underdamped second order sys-
tem to a step input. On this sketch, indicate the {ollowing:
(i) Maximum peak overshoot, Mo
(ii) Rise time, t,
(iii) Delay time, l;
(iv) Settling time. ts
(v) Steady-state eror, e.s
4. (a) A second order differential equation is given by
d2x -dx - = -
-"=* 5":-'l /x /V
dtdt'
 186 lntroductionb LinearandDigitatControlSystems

Find ihe following:

(i) Undamped natural frequency
(ii) Darnping rabo
(nf Darnped natural frequQncy
(iv) Damping coefficient
(v) Time constant
(b) Explain the unit impulse response of a first
order systen.
the, expression for per cent peal overshoot of a second
fin9 order underdamped
system due to unit st? input_

Coruider the unity feedback system with GC)=- I(

^ . ff K. = tZ, find the per
cent overshoot and peak time.
(a) Find the error coefficient for the following
system as shown in Fizure 6.2g.

Figure6.28 Sysiern
(euestion
4.
(b) I fhat do you mean by transient response
and steady state response?
What is steady-siateerror? Supposeunit ramp inpnt
is given to type O type f *a
type 2 systems. Compare thJ iteady-state error lor
ttre-sethree iises.
9. (a) Find out the tirne responseanaiysis
of a unity feedback urderdamped control

systemhaving an open loop for urdt step input.

C*
" T#r,,
(b) Define and calculate the value of peak
time and settling time for the above
time response equatiot.
Derive an expression for the step response
of al underdamped second order
system. Sketch the resporue indic;fing ;U tirne_doqrain
;;".id;;*.
Find the steady.5lateerror ol the unity feedback
system having C1s;=,
'- :10 . in
0.1+s1
following the input r(t) = l + tu(t).
72. (a) Find out the responseof a tlpical underdamped
second order closed_loop
system with unity feedback having unit st+ input. D.aw the response
curve.
 llme DomainPerfomanceof ControlSystems 187
-1 ! j2 a d zerc at
(b) A unity feedback second order servo s)'stem has Poles at
-1 ! 10. Its steady-state outPut for a unit step hPut is : ' Determine the

transfer function.
indicating Peak over-
19. (a) Sketch the unit steP response of a second order system
shoot, dse tilare and settling time.
as a fust order s)slem with,a
' A temPerature sensing device can be modelled
(b)
time constant of 6 s. Ii is suddeniy subiectedto a steP inPut of 30'C to 150'C'
What temPerature will be indicated in 10 s after the process has started?
14. (a) Define the fouowing:
(i) Rise time (ii) Delay time
(ni) Settling time (iv) Overshoot
(b) The open-loop transfer function of a uaity feedbackcontrol system is given by
A
G(t)=r(1*rr)

(i) By what factor should the amplifier gain A be multiplied so that the
dimping ratio is inceased from a value of 0'2 to 0'6'r
(ii) By what factor should amplifier gain be muJti,plied-so-that the overshoot
=
oi ttt" ,rLlt step resPonseis reduced ftom 80V' to 209? [% overshoot
r"-----'=
100exPen|/^11- 62I, d = damping ratiol
15. (a) Find out the resPonseof a typical underda:nped second order closed-loop
system with unity feedback having steP inPut'
(b) For a unity feedback closed-loop control system, the open-loop transfer
function is given bY
'E
..(s,r=;G;5
Calculate the value of rise time (t') and maxiqrum overshoot (Mo) when the
system is subiected to a unity step inPut'
16. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Time constant
(b) Settling tirne
(c) Peak overshoot
(d) Standard test signals used in time'domain analysis of control systems'
 BASICSOF CONTROLLERS

7.1 INTRODUCTION
h9* that an automaticcont(

"ffiff":jff#Fi"#"{'T#i
l".",Hi',",HT;##t;iH;.]i{:rfi
3"

Disturt ac6
CoEpaaatoa
DcsirEd
yrlue MaiF&red
Cotrtolld

&)
Figurc7,1 Automatic
conrotsystem:
(a)openloop

't"ff
and(b)closeoroop.

fl*;,*ftd,#$$i1**ld**$
.:*tjt 188
 of Contrclters 189
Basics

1. ProPortional
2. Inte$ar

i"ffi i!'x*T":'.i:1""
rharacteristicsSo'
,f;iJ-h?1":':1d".",:J
:ii:"T"ff
controllerscan oe urvruEu
contror:
on their mode ot
controUer
t. Two-posifionor ON-OFF
2. ProPortional(P) cortrouer
3 InteFal (I) controller--
.4 Dedvative (D) controller
(PT)conholler
i. proo-tio"uf Plus inte$al
i. i""i"tn*"f plus derivative (PD) controller--.
plus derivative (PID) controuer
i. or"'p-,t"rr"l ptus integral and evaluate their
the fouowing sections we will consider these controllers
h
perfolmance'

(oN-oFF) CONTROLLER
7.2 Two-POSlTloN
contr?Tl,:.:':,i:.^::',Lv^
rwo-position "i":xx"?:::il:1;i,'$ll";;:'*"'o-operated
theu a
valvel, etc. Schematicary'
ON-OFF

--4,

Az-
I
Contollr
controller'
ol a lwo-posftion
representaiion
Figure?'2 Schematic

= signal, tJnenmathematically the actron carr be described as

d(t) actuating
= ale(t)> 0
I A, (Maxor ON Position) (7.1)
a(r)= or oFF Position)= nze(r)< 0
la, 1r',,tin
must Passbefore switching takes
place
The range through which he error signal
, iii u""ai6rrrrrit gaPbee Figue7'3)'
ON.OFF

CoDfroller
gap'
Figure7.3 Differential
 190 lntroductionto Lineatand Digital Control Systems

The advartages and disadvantages of this t'?e of control are

ljsted in Table

Table7.1 Advantages
anddisadvantages
of on-oficontroller
Adoahtage Disadaantage
Simple, economical. Used in domestic 1 . Transient conditions and steady-stateaccu-
applances as well as in industry where rough racy a.renot much improved.
control t5 necessary_
2. Controller condition oscillates around the
set point.

7.3 PROPORTIONAL
(P) CONTROLLER
In a proportional controller, the actuating signal is proportional
to the e[or signal.
Mathematicalln if ri(f) = 6gtu6tin, signal, the;

a{t) e e(t)
= Kf(t) (7.2)
The Laplacetransformof Eq. (7.2) is

,aG)= I(pEG) (7.3)

*l b called the controllergain. Though generally its value is greater
I^n:l: than 1, it can
oe ress rnan I ln some applications. Since in most of
the casesii ampJifies the error
signal, it facilitates deteiti-on of small deviations and its
eventuat remedy by the
actuator.

7.3.1 Accuracy
Consider, for example, the second ord.er system given in Figure
7.4.

Figure7.4 Second
ordersystem.
Here, with the addition of a proportional controller

"KP-'
r,f
GG\HG!=
''
s ( s+ 2 a 4 \
Therefore,

sR(s)
" ,-o1+c(s)H(s)
 Basicsot Conttolle6 191

sR(s)
/ =lim
'1 -L
K"o;
-
s(s+2ot)
t'(t*26'") ^.R(r) (7.4)
- r,*
iii s(s+ 24a,) + Kvroi

SteP input
Here,
- -,,'- t'(t * 26'") =.R(r)
+260t"1+Xrto;
"" i36 s15

szG+2{to,1 1
-
-lin ;.-
iI6 s9+za,l+ Kpai s
s(s+ 21a"\
-
- 116 ------'------.7
+ 2(a,) + Kra4
iI6 s1s (7.s)
-o

RamPinPut
In this case,
.. sR(s)
'" -
li 1+GG)HG)
s 2( s+ 2 a , ) - . 1 -
-- r . ^
?)d 52a2s6x1,+ Kp(Di s'
(7.6)
Kpa,

Parabolic inPut
ln the case of ParaboUcinPut'
sR(s)
-;6
_ ,._
1+c(tHG)
s 2 (+s2 o t , ) (7.7)
-_ r . ^
il6 sz+ 2sa^+ Kptt" . Ls"=*

7.3.2 Advantages
of proportional controllers:
The following are the advantages in Eq (5'20)
of controller *t'"*"' *t io*artl Path gain ^We have seen
1. This tyPe natural
increase t tn" 'otiiutJ p"tft g"nt increases the undamped
that an
 192 tntrcductionto Lineat and DigitatContol Systems

fl".1T::r,":L-**1..1,y1, ,*d*:s the dampingrario{. so, the res

l,if;n::
J:ffi * ::::s:Tni.;'::tT"'J:-i:!:r:';j:::'i
"l::, pe"io,,e.shoot
jncr:asd ,h;;sh;;ffis.;.';
ffi '';.:1
H:Tlil
, lwjlT::.1-.1":" ,l1i1*:ofcontro'er,
;"",f;""1';:l; iT.:.tT { .1 ;-;; ",l, ,*'
,,?*'ff.""^
B: *g:l j; ,.':,*"
K,irnfl
pr :';[
ies "p {#;i;
i";;,'{;;; :s
;;il,li
;:"*:":]; J;ystem
;:;?tr;',# ;,T,::J
if$,;.i.T';.T:""i
K, is too high. u$table
3. It is a stable control as long
as (, is not high.

7.3.3 Disadvantages
The following are the disad.vantages
ol proportional controllers:
t causes
offset,i.e.,it maycause
fi"%Tl.*"yil::rroller a sustamed
deviarion
from
2. It increases the maximum overshoot
of the system becauseit lowers
t
7.3.4 Realisation
A simple op-arnp realisation
of thr is indicated
input-output*tu"*l,+^1", in Figure7.5.rhe
:':i*if;:iloller
"*i
r, I n,
E, I Rt (7.8)
or P controlleris tharthereexists
ft" iil:ltff#:i an offsetberween
rhedesiredand

Figure7.5 proportional
mntrollerchcujt.

7.4 INTEGML O) CONTROLLR

[:r an integral controller, the
achratrng action can be mathematically
put as
a@=Ie\dt
 Basi6 ot controtleg 193

=x,le@dt (7.e)

where Ki = constant'
The Laplace transform of Eq. (7.9) is

AG)=!-E(s) (7.10)
5

7.4.1 Realisation
i5 nothing but an integrator
A simple oP-amP realisation is shown in Figure 7 6' This
clrcuit'for which the outPut-input relation is given by

,"=]7l1,,,lat (7.r1)

TheLaplacetralsformofEq.(7.11)yieldsthetralsfelfrmctionofthecontlol]eras
E"(t)=1. (7.12)
61r.1=
-''' -1=
E;(s) s R1C1

which has the form of Eq. (7.10).

ot an integral
Figure7.6 Op{mprealisation contlollet

7.5 DERIVATIVE(D) CONTROLLER

A dedvative controller produces an actuating signal from the enor signal as
... de(t\
alt ) * ---1;-
at

=K,t9
'dt
(7.73)

Its Laplace transform is

AG) = KasEG) (7.74)
 194 lntroductionto Linearand Digital Control Systems

7.5.1 Realisation
The simple op-amp realisation (Figure7.7)of a derivativecontrolieris nothing
else thajl
a differentiator for which the output is rclated to the input as

dr.
e"=RC+ (7.1s)
at
From the Laplace transform of Eq. (7.1,5),we get the transfer
funcnon

&(d = ,ta
c1s1= (7.16t
t,(s)

7,5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages

Also called tl\e rate controlltr, a dedvative controller improves
the transient responseof
the system. The djsadvantages,however, are many:
1. It amplifies the noise signal.
2. It may cause saturation effect in the actuator.
3. It does not impiove e""becauseof generation ol a zero in the hansfer
function.
_ The disadvartages of a derivative controller far outweish the only one advantage
that it offers. That is why it is neaerusedalone.

Figure7.7 Derivative
controller.

7.6 PROPORTIONAL
PLUSINTEGML (PI) CONTROLLER
br the case of a PI controller,

a(t)= Kre(t)
+K, dt (7.17)
Je()
at'l=[r-'f)er"r {7.18)
i, ta -1
 Basicsot Conttollets 195

7.6,1 Control Action be worked out

action of a PI controller for erlor inPut of a unit steP can
The achJating
from Eg. (7'18) as
ft -
= ^ir (7.1e)
a(t)= Kou(t)+ K; Jor(t) dt ^p +

will produce a ramp actuating signal as shown in Figure 7 8'

Thus a step error signal
d(t)

t
signalof Pl conroer forsteperrorinput'
Figure7.8 Actuating

7.6.2 StabilitY
order closed-loop
controller' let us consider a second
To check the stabiUty of a PI
rt ij attached
*r,i.n (seeFigure79)'
;;;l;

to secondorder
attached pianl'
7.9 Pl c'onlroller
Figure
 195 lntodltction to Linearand DigitalControl Sysbms

The overall transfer function of the system is given by

-, . c(s)
fr*/q1
\
"tl |
-------:-:-----
s , / s\s+ L'anl )
'
R(s)
'.('-:.)l ,r*
s(s+ 21ot)

(s+ K;)of,
(7.20)
s3+2{otnsz
+(s+K)r'fi
The characteristiceouation

+(s+ &\(tL =0
s3+2(atns2 (7.27)
possessestfuee roots. II K; > 2(ao, thm two roots have positive real parts that will make
the system unstable. However il Ki < 2ea,, then all the three roots have negative real
parts indicating a stable systemt. Next we discuss the steady-stateerror, or in other
words, accuracy that a PI controller offets.

7.6.3 Accuracy
The steady-stateerror for the system with a PI controller is

sR(s)
sss= rrm sE(s,= llrn:--:=#
s+u I + (,(srt,(s)

.. s3(s+ 2{ar-)R(s)
T-o s3a l(6,s2 + aj,s+ Kiafi Q.n\
Step input
In the caseof siep input,

s3(s+ 2lan1 1^
"s =lim '
116s3+ zlat s2+ fi,s + Kaafi,5 v.n)
Ramp input
kr the case of ramp input

=lim 1 ^'
' (7.24)
T-i653s 2.E6ne2
+ afis+ x,r,] s2

rFor a discussionon location of poles vis-i-vis stability oI a system,

see Chapter 8 (Seciiong.2).
The condition can be worked out usine Routh's rule.
 Basic$at Controlters 197
/
Parabotic input
Herg,
=t:a--r--!-!J4)- '- =' (7.25)
"., sao s" + 2E@^e+ aj,s + K;afi, s3 Kian
"
Table 7.2 reveals that the acoracy of a PI conttoller is suPetior to a P controller's.
Table7.2 Comparison P andPl confiollers
bdrYeen
enor
Steady-state
htput
PI

0 0

Ramp 0
,"

Parabolic K;@o

7.6.4 Advantages
The following are the advantagesof a PI controller:
1. e$ is reduced, which means accuracy imProves.
2. The order and t)?e of the system increaseby 1. That imProves damping and
reduces overshoot'
3. Noise is filtered.
4. Offset is eliminated-

7.6.5 Realisation
For the circuit given in Figure 7-10,

Figurc7.10 Pl mnirollerrealisaton.
 198 lntrcductionto Linearand Digital Control Systems

i r,

',=[ I lrlo,,an,
=uf J;,,1ar* ",
The Laplace transforn of Eq. (7.26) yields
fr (7.26)

E"G) & 1
Ei(s) Rr RrCz,
Ki
=Kr*7 Q.2n

7,7 PROPORTIONAL
PLUSDERIVATIVE
(PD) CONTROLLER
In a PD conholler,
,1"t t\
a(t) = KDe(t)+ K,t ::Y! (7.281
at
Its Laplace transform produces

A(s) " ..
t(s) (7.2e)
rtKr=1.

7.7.1 Control Action

U the error signal is a unit step, thm

a(t)=K"u(t\
+ Kd = X, * X odln (7.30)
ff
whirh indicaies that the actuating signal is an impulse. However,
if the error signal is-
a rarnp, it is easy to see that the actuating signal is also a ramp
lsee figure Z.ifj.

of pD contrcller
Flgure7.11 Ac ratingsignat forramperrorsignal.
 Basicsol Conttolleg 199

7.7.2 Transient Response

of a PD-controlled secondorder process'
Fiatrre7 -12gives a block diagram Presentation

sG+ 2ea)

secondorderprocess.
PD-controlled

Its harsfer function is

ar<\ lI+ K,s)a; (7.31)
- '-'
R(s) s' + (2ltt;, + Kda;)s+ tt+,

= 0 can be rewritten as
The charactedstic equation s2+ (29a,+ Kdz*)s + d

,,*z(e*ff),"F+0*=o
s2+ z( ans+ a|, =0 v.32)
where
, - o -Ko'n

Equation (7.33) shows that the effective darnping of the system increasesby indu:qtg
-overshoot
.o.titoU"r. As a result, the maxirnum is reduced (seeFigure 5'10 for
"=pO
( vs M, gapF.).

7.7.3 Accuracy
Here,
.,,=$*#h
 200 lntrcductionto LineatandDigitalContot Systems

,. sz +zta-l
' (s
= lun ; i' = (7.u)
s+o s' + (2lon + Kd(4)s + ot

Step input
In the case of step inpui,

'I1 _=u (7.35)

Ramp input
In the caseof ramp input,

szG +2a') 1 tF
e* =lim . - (7.36)
" :-o s2+ (z(a, + Koal)s+ ofi s- @"

Pdrabolic input
In the caseof pambolic input

s-\s+ zgan) I
-"' s-o
!.._:lll..i----_llll-lllll!illlllll!i-.-=E

s' + (za, + Kd(4)s+ at sr vsn

Complnlg Eq. (7.34)-with Eq._(7.4) we find that the steady-state error is nearly the
samefor both P and PD conhollers. But, a pD controller scoreshiglrer over the tansient
responsebecauseit increasesthe damping ratio and thus reduci peal overshoot.

7.7.4 Realisation
From the chcuit shown in Figure 7.13, we gei

i=-iz
(7.38)
e" = -e;
Applyng KVL to Laplace transformed cfucuit, we get

&.1
Ei(s,= ----i 11(s)
R', + -
sCr
, . . s R , C+, 1 - . .
11(s)=--t'(s) (7.39\

r"'G)= E,G)= R:rzG)

= Rzrr(s)
- IsR'G
=n' +rl-..
[from73e)l
l=-lEts)
F
Basi6 of Contrclters 201

EG) (7.40)

Thus,

(7.41\

+
h

circuit.
Flgure7,13 PDmntroller

(PID)
PLUSINTECML PLUSDERIVATIVE
7.8 PROPORTIONAL
CONTROLLER
As the name suggests,in a PID conholler the actuating signal has the following form:

+K,Iett)dt+x1ff
a(t)=Kre(t\ (7.4)

The block diagram of the PID controller acfion is shown in Figure 7.14.

Figule7.14 PIDctntrolaclion'

Without detailed analysis, we may say based on superposition of enors, tlnt since
the PD conhol improves the transient Part and the PI control improves the steady-state
pajt, a combination of PI and PD imProves the overall control
202 Introductionto Linear and DigitalControl Systems

The op-amp realisation of PID controller is shown in Figure 7.15.

Figurc7.15 PIDcontroller
circuit.

Table 7.3 presents a sunrnary of salient features of three basic modes of control to help
select a controller for a particular process.
Table7.3 Selecdon
ot controlac{ion

Proportionalaction is chosenif Integral iction is choxn if Deriaatioe actiofl is chosenif

o Load changes are small. a Offset is not permitted- o Transient lesponseparam-

o Offset can be toleiated.
o Error signal, which is
small, needs amplification.
D High degree of accuracy etels such as rise time,
maximum overshoot, etc.
are to be improved upon.
o Plant load changes have
to be tracked by the con-
tloller.

7.9 RATE FEEDEACKCONTROLLER

Also called derioatiaefeedbackcontroller ar.d. output derioatioecontroller, tf\is controller
incorporates derivative action in the feedback path as shown in Figure 7.16.

Figule7.16 Ratefeedback
controlaclion.

Here,
dc(t) (7.43)
a(t)=e(t)-KD
dt
7 Basicsol con]/liollers 203
(7 M\
AG)=EG)-Kosc(s)
- --,r'o forward Path gain is
lnLD "_-
,t*
s(s+ 260")
cG)=!11=
E(s) ..
- "Kod
s(s+ 2a^)

== 't (7.45)
s'+(2(ro,+Keai)s
function is
The overall transfer
cG)- G(s)
R(5) 1+ GG)

=- d . (7.46)
s ' + ( 2 a , + K D a ; ) s + a"t '
is
The characteristic equation
s2+ (2(ro,+ Keohs+ tfi =g (7.47\

+ Koa*,
,' -2a,
2a^

- o- K r ' n (7.48)
2
is increased'As a result (a) the mari-
It is clear from Eq. (7.48)that the damPint rafio
ts mcreaseo'
mum overshootis decreased,and (b) the nse-rime
--'l
No-, let us chck the effect on the steady-stateellor'
sR(J)
,-'s=ri,''.
;nlrc(tH(t
+ (264r"
- l, sts-'z + Kpg;)slR(:)
s'o st + 121a,+ Krai\s ' t'si'

_rn t^G+2o,+Kp(!:)R(s\_ \7.4sl

;-a 3z - 12(a^ L KDD;)S + a;

Step input
In the caseof stePinPut,
?ls- (2a,- K=pot)l .! =o {7.s0)
"=' i'jd s']- (2d"- KD(4\s+a;^ s
= i^
204 lntroductionto Linear and DigitalContol Systems

Ramp input

-
=
s2ls+(21a)r+KDo?)l 7
Here, e--
" lim r: + (2(a, - grrz 1t- S "2
"-ri
2[a, + Krafi
=---E-
2t ,. (7.s1)
an

Parabolic input
In the caseof parabolicinput

K_p(4)l
o _ 1i- .s21s-+-(2ot:_.+ _ '. L _ _
-* (7.s2)
;; r, + 12{t.r,- Knal,l s + d}, s3
A comparison between the PD controller and rate feedback controller, both of which
employ derivative action, will be of interest here.

7.9.I Comparisonbetween PD and Rate FeedbackControllers

1. The damping ratio increasesin both the cases.As a consequence,peak overshoot
and settling time decreasewhile rise time increasesin both the cases.
2. The PD controller introduces an additional zero at s = -I/Ka trt the closed-loop
trarsfer ftrnction while the rate feedback controller does not. We have seen in
Section6.7.2that the addition oI a zero reducesrise time but increasesthe peak
overshoot. So, even if Ka = Ko, the responseswill not be the same becauseof this
zero factor.
3. The type of the system does not change in both the caseswhich implies that the
pattem of the steady-stateerror will remain the same for both the cases.However,
by comparing Eq. (7.36)with Eq. (7.51)we find that the lamp input elror is higher
for the rate feedback controller.
Next, we define two importart parameters, namely integral squareerror (ISE) arrd
integralibsoluteerror (IAE).

7.IO INTEGRALSQUAREERROR(ISE)
Unlike the steady-stateerror, the inte$al squareenor is a measureof the systemerror
tfuough the entire time, i.e. from f = 0 to f = -. It is defined as

$E=l* e2(t)dt (7.s3)

where e(f) = error siSnal.
 Basicsof Controllers 205

inPut to a second order system

For examPle,for the unit step
t
.o =-ft
"-ia
f' t--
t' | (,",11 - ( - cos-'
4l (7.s4t
)r
\ir-9

Therefore,
,)l t 1 ,-

rse=J- sur'1 - ( + 0]dt wheteo = co{'

f4- l\a^.lr )t

= r f r,,rl (7.5s)
2'J_filE-")
on tworactors'
iheIsEis dependent damping
namelv
g"t3,"ii'fii,?Jft
:ffjtffi
(IAE)
7,11 INTEGRALABSOLUTEERROR
erlor over a certaintime Period,T,
The integral absolute error is a measure of average
and is defined
.r
teE= \7 -56)
Jnle(t)ldt
has a-forward path transfer
EXAI/IPLE 7.1 (a) A unity feedback position control system
tunction G(s) = K/s. Fot o^t "d ;i;;t compute the value of K that minimises lSE'
The transfer ftnction of a system is 1/(1 + sT) The input to the system is 'u(t)'
@) erroi'
f}r" ,]"ip"i-*o"fa track the system Find the value of the ste.ady'state
=
Solulion: (a) Given, G(s)= K/s' H(s) \'
',r"
' ' - ' =99)
R(s)
G(s)
=
1 + G(s)
K
s+K

C(s)=----::- L.
Kf
=1l
R(,)
t^, 5(s L sl

L1
s s+K

The inve$e LaPlacetransformYields

c(t)=1-
e(t) = e-Kt
 1.
zOG lntroduclonto LinearandDigitalControtSystens

Therefore,

lSE=| e'"'dt
Jo

o-2Kt l'
2i( [
1
=2K

This result indicates that ISE -t 0 as K r *.

O) Given,
1
' =
G(s)
1+sT
and sincethe output would track the system,H(s) = 1.41"o,
r ( t ) = t u ( t )= t fort>0

+ RG)=+
Therefore,
sR(s)
-'s ,.
;:d 1+c(s)H(s)
,. -. l
s(r+sl). ,
=llltl-
sio 2+ sT

Altemativelt we can find the same result from the following study in the t-space.Here,
the closed-loop transfer function is given by
C(s)_ G(s)
R(s) 1 + GG)

= 1
2+tT
Therefore,
1/T
L(s.)= ---7-----;T
s-ts+* |
\T/
/1 DL
- --t--7------;- \5dy,
 Basicsof Controllers 207

ihen,
r )l
=i
a=,,c(,)1,=o=+l+ll IJ-; JI
\ r . ,l ! = o

1 1l
,l =-i7-lTl
,=ft1*rt',1,="=l!, =-'
r-l 4
"-71"=o l'*iJ l.=.
.=[,.i).orl,__,
1l r
=71,,=-z=i

1TT
C(s)='--=--+--7--; -
Z, :J ,l^ , |

\ r./
,--21
c l ' 2=4- 4
--+-e'

e."= rim h(r) - c(f)l

f. -l zr\l
=L^ll+' l1-"-i ll
r-*12 a( ll

EXAI|PLE7.2 In the system shown in Figore 7.17, the damping latio is to be made 0'8
using derivative control. Determine the value of K4'

(Exampl
7.17 Syslem
Figure 7.2).

Here,
Solution:
18
_, , c(s) s2+ 2.6s
'
R(s) ' - ? 1 8
* L6t
208 lntroductionto LinearandDigitalContrclSystems

18
s z+ 2 . 6 s+ 1 8
Therefore, the characte stic equation is

s 2+ 2 . 5 s + 1 8 = 0 = s+22 ( r o n+so f i
By comparisory
4=B
or a, = 4'243 rad/ s
2t'+= z'0
- -2 .-O =0.3
or 4' =
(2)(4243)
Now, with derivative control, 6'has to be 0.8. So,
Kaa-
=E+_z_
- -

= Ko=V-gL
@n

2
= (0.8
' - 0.3)
' =0.24
4.243
EXAi|PLE7,3 hr the system shown in Figre 7.18, determine the derivative feedback
constant I(o which will increase the damping factor of the system to 0.6. What is the
steady state eflor to unit ramp input with this setting of the derivative feedback
constant?

(Example
7.18 System
Figure 7.3).

1
Solutlon: Given, GrG) = -:- and H1(s)= sKo

tne transfer function of the irurer feedback loop is

Gr(s)
G(s)=
1+qG)H1G)
1
s(s+2)+sK,
 Basicsof Controllers 209

.nd the overall transfer function is

-.. Or(s) K,GG)
Ils)=-=-
" On(s) 1+K^G(s)
K^
s(s+2)+sKo+Ka
10
s 2+ ( 2 + 4 ) s + 1 0
The characteristic equation is,
s2+(2+IQs+10=0
= s2+2(atos+ afi
By comParisorL
o;=]u
or a" = 3.762nd/s
2ea,=2+19
or &=21a^-z
- z
= 2(0.61(3.762)
= 1.8
Therefore,
.. sO"(s)
-""
;ii 1+ KAc(s)
1
-' -2
: lim -------------!-
10
; - d ,'-?.rr*lst
.

s+3.8
=lim
s-ros' + 3.8s+ 10
= 0.38
EXAI'PtE
7.4 Figure 7.19 shows the block diagram of a position contlol system.

AEplifie!

Flgure7.19 Position (Example

ctnlrol system 7.4).
21O Intrcductionto LinearandDigitalControlSystems

(a) In the absenceof the derivative feedback,i e', Kl = 0, determine the damPing ratio
of the system for amplifier gain KA = 5'
K1 so that the damping ratio of-the
*' Find the suitable values of parameters Ka and
(b)
in
;yrt"^ is increased to 0.7 without affecting the steady-stateerror as obtained
part (a).
Solulion: (a) Here,
5

rG)=ffi=
s(0.5s+ 1)
r- -u---i-
s(0.5s+ 1)

s2+ 2s+10

Therefore, the characteristic equation is

* +2s+10=0
= sz+ 2(ans+ afi,
By comparison,
,4=ro
(4 = 3.'162lad/s
zEa"= Z
q=-f-=s.s15
3.1,62
(b) Steady-stateerror (for a ramp input) for palt (a)

'"_ =telS*-
.-o 1+
do;*1)
0.5s+ 1
=lim
,+0 s(U.5s+ I) + )
- nt

Now, the trarufer function for the inner loop rs

1
+ 1)
s(0.5s
qG)=
+ 1)
s(0.5s
1
s(0.5s+1)+sKi
 Basi6 ot contoltels 211

ro, the overall transfer function is

rto=91')=,
-'
Kt9'l'1,
R(s) 1+ KaQ(s)

KA
s(0.5s+1)+sK1
=;----E^
- -
s(0.5s+ 1)+ s(1
KA
0 5 s 2+ ( K 1+ 1 ) s + K A

--
Ka /0.5
-'-------7;L'-"

2 Kr+r.l(A

The characteristicequation is
. K+1 K, ^
5_T-:=-j---==\,
u.5 u.J
= s2+2(ais + aiz

By comPariso&
,f =#
or a;' =h5
tx;

ztu;=T
L
or '- = K t + l ' 'zt;
P
0.5
-_...,
tv L, 1 \ I : =
1'{r(e
= 0.7 (grven)
0.7 (0
J0.5
Now.
1,
sx--t
e" = lin] r\A
s-eo r
lf---.------::.---:-
s(0.5s+ 1)+ s&
212 lnboductionto Linearand DigitatControlSystems

=lim 0.5s+1+Kr
sro s(0.5s+ 1+Kl) + K,{
1+K
KA
Kr+1
=02 ldeterminedfor part (a)] (ii)
K^
Dividing Eq. (i) by Eq. (ii), we get
n7
JK'=d(ot
Kt = 24.5
- 1
l(r = U.ZK,q [From Eq. (ii)]
- lo

1. Choose the correct answer:

(a) Excellent transient and steady state resporue is provided by
(i) a proportional action system
(ii) a proportional + differential action system
(iii) a proportional + integral + differential action system
(iv) none of the above
(b) Derivative controllers are nevel used alone becauseof
(i) their large input impedance
(ii) they amplify noise signal and cause saturation of the actuator
(iii) they worsen the frarLsientresponseof the system
(iv) none of the above
(c) The measure of average error over a specified time period is called
(i) integal absolute error
(ii) inte$al square enor
(iii) steady-stateerror
(iv) none of these
(d) Igtcl of the following control actions is to be employed for eliminating the
offset?
(i) Proportional control
(ii) Proportional plus derivative conhol
(iii) Propodional plus integral control
(iv) None of these