Modeling and Simulation of Quantum Dot Devices and Their Applications in Optical Communications

Al-AZHAR University
Faculty of Engineering
Dept. of Electrical Engineering
Modeling and Simulation of Quantum Dot Devices

and Their Applications in Optical Communications
Thesis
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in Electrical Engineering (Electronics and
Communications)
By
Eng. Mohamed Nady Abdul Aleem

Dept. of Microwave Engineering
Electronics Research Institute (ERI)
Under the Supervision of
Prof. Dr. Abd-El-HadiAbd-El-Azim Ammar

Dept. of Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Al-AZHAR University
Assoc. Prof. Khalid Fawzy Ahmed Hussein

Dept. of Microwave Engineering
Electronics Research Institute (ERI)
2014
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All gratitude is to Allah for every thing. Without his
blessing this research wouldn't have been possible.
I wishe to express my deep thanks to Prof. Dr. Abd-El-
HadiAbd-El-Azim Ammar and Asst. Prof. Khalid Fawzy
Ahmed Hussein for their invaluable assistance and continuous
encouragement during the research.
I, also, wishe to express my thanks to the staff of the
microwave engineering department of the Electronics
Research Institute (ERI).
My special thanks should be extended to my parents,
brothers, for their encouragement support during the
research.
Finally I would like to show my thanks to my wife, for
her taking care of our sons, while I was writing. And thanks to
our lovely sons Abdul Rahman, Eyman, Doaa and my
brothers's sons Omar and Rahma.
2014
Abstract
The importance of semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOAs) as key
components in optical communications and integrated optics, covering a wide
range of applications for the 1550- and 1300-nm optical windows, has grown in
recent years. All-optical signal processing, including wavelength conversion,
optical logic gates and signal regeneration, etc, is one of the most important
enabling technologies to realize optical switching, including optical circuit
switching, optical burst switching and optical packet switching. SOAs are very
promising in all-optical signal processing since they are compact, easy to
manufacture and power efficient. The need for all-optical elements for
increasing the capacity of current and future communication networks and
optimizing the operation of optical switching networks has been one of the
main motivations for considering SOAs as essential elements in all-optical
switching scenarios in recent years.
This present work is concerned with the analysis of the QD-SOA-based Mach-
Zehnder Interferometer (MZI) and its fundamentals and applications. This
analysis is carried out using the rate equations model.
The dissertation starts with the dissection of foundation of the quantum dot
laser and amplifier. This includes a brief introduction to the development of
quantum dots and quantum dot lasers. Advantages and disadvantages of the
latter are discussed as well as the progress in manufacturing. In the discussion
of the QD amplifier we concerned on the gain and gain saturation. Some
important parameters are also considered in this background such as the
Linewidth Enhancement Factor, the Amplified Spontaneous Emission, and the
simulation methods of Quantum-Dot Semiconductor Optical Devices.
Then, this dissertation proceeds to study the QD laser using the Multi
Population Rate Equations MPRE model. In which, we have solved the rate
equations for the quantum-dot laser considering homogeneous and
inhomogeneous broadening of optical gain numerically using fourth-order
Runge-Kutta method. The dynamic (relation with the time) and static (relation
with the current) characteristics of proposed QDL are presented in chapter
three. This chapter studies also the effect of the FWHM of homogeneous
broadening and the injected current on the rise and fall time, hence on the bit
rate. These later results aims to study the possibility of using the QDL as a
pulse source for high bit rate data transmission.
Then the dissertation proposes a theoretical model of a QD SOA-MZI based

ultrafast all-optical signal processor. The QD SOA-MZI operation has been
analyzed theoretically by solving the rate equations of the QD-SOA dynamics,
optical wave propagation equations in an active medium, and the MZI
equations. A brief review for the QD SOA-MZI and its transfer function that
will be used to analyze this device are introduced. The rate equations model of
the QD SOA is also introduced then the QD-SOA characterizations are
theoretically investigated and demonstrated. Two direct applications of QD
SOA-MZI; all-optical W.C. and 3R are also introduced.
Then the all-optical QD-SOA-based MZI switch is used to design three all-
optical logic gates; XOR, AND, and OR. For each all-optical logic gate the
principle of operation, the proposed design, and the simulation results are
presented.
Finally and for the first time, a new scheme for all-optical full adder using fife
QD-SOA based MachZehnder interferometers is theoretically investigated
and demonstrated. The proposed scheme consists of two XOR, two AND, and
one OR gate. The impact of the peak data power as well as of the QD-SOAs
current density, maximum modal gain, and QD-SOAs length on the Extinction
Ratio ER and Q-factor of the switching outcome are explored and assessed.
The operation of this system is demonstrated with 160 Gbit/s.
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT II
Table of Contents IV
List of Symbols IX
List of Abbreviations XII
List of Figures XIV
Chapter (1):
Introduction
1.1 Context 1
1.2 Motivation 2
1.3 Thesis objectives and outline 5
Chapter (2):
Quantum Dot Devices
2.1 Quantum Dot 8
2.1.1 Semiconductor lasers 8
2.1.2 Density of States 10
2.1.3 Progress in fabricating QD 11
2.1.3.1 Self-assembled growth 12
2.4 Inhomogeneous broadening 13

2.2 Quantum Dot Laser 14
2.2.1 Advantages of quantum dot lasers 15
2.3 Quantum Dot Amplifier 15
2.3.1 Operation Principles of SOA 16
2.3.2 SOA Gain 18
2.3.3 Gain Saturation 21
2.4 Linewidth Enhancement Factor 23
1.6 Simulation Methods of QD Semiconductor Lasers and Amplifiers 25
Chapter (3):
Semiconductor Quantum Dot Laser
3.1 Semiconductor Quantum Dot Laser 27
3.2 Multi Populations Rate Equations Model 28
3.3 Numerical Results 34
3.3.1 Dynamic Characteristics of InAs/InP (113) B Self-Assembled 35

Quantum Dot Lasers
3.3.2 Static Characteristics of InAs/InP (113) B Self-Assembled Quantum 41

Dot Lasers
3.3.3 Semiconductor Quantum Dot Lasers as pulse Sources for High Bit rate 47
Data Transmission
Chapter (4):
QD-SOA-Based MachZehnder Interferometer
4.1. SOA-MZI (Brief review) 55
4.1.1. SOA-MZI Gate 57
4.1.2. SOA-MZI Transfer Function 59
4.2. Rate Equations 61
4.3. QD-SOA CHARACTERIZATION 65
4.4. Wavelength Conversion (WC) 70
4.5. 3R Regeneration (Re-amplification, Re-shaping and Re-timing) 78
Chapter (5):
All-Optical Logic Gates
5.1 All-Optical Logic Gates 84
5.2 All-Optical AND Gates 86
5.2.1 Principle of Operation of Proposed AND Gate 87
5.2.2 Numerical Results of Proposed AND Gate 89
5.3 All-Optical XOR Gates 96
5.3.1 Principle of Operation of Proposed XOR Gate 97
5.3.2 Numerical Results of Proposed XOR Gate 99
5.4 All-Optical OR Gates 106
5.4. 1 Principle of Operation of Proposed OR Gate 106

5.4.2 Numerical Results of Proposed OR Gate 107
Chapter (6):
Ultrafast All-Optical Full Adder Using Quantum-Dot Semiconductor Optical

Amplifier-Based Mach-Zehnder Interferometer
6.1 All optical Full adders 116
6.2 Principle and Design of Proposed All-Optical Full Adder 119
6.3 Simulation Results of the All-Optical Full Adder 120
Chapter (7):
Conclusions and Suggestion of Future Work
7.1 Conclusions 130
7.2 Suggestions for Future Work 133
Appendix (A):
4th Order Runge-Kutta Integrator
4th Order Runge-Kutta Integrator 134
Appendix (B):
Design Metrics
B.1 Extinction Ration ER 137
B.2 Amplitude Modulation AM 137
B.3 Q-Factor 138
B.4 Pseudo-Eye-Diagram PED 139

References 140
Published Papers 152
Arabic Abstract
List of Symbols
jth threshold current density

k Wave vector
Jo transparency current density
gmat The material gain
gCDP carrier density pulsation
N carrier density
CH CH recovery time
G gain of an amplifier
g Modal gain (differential gain))
the optical angular frequency
atomic transition angular frequency
PS Saturation power of the gain medium.
gain spectrum
confinement factor
V volume of the active region
N0 transparency carrier density
a Differential gain coefficient (a = dg/dN).
I injection current
carrier lifetime
effective cross section of the waveguide node
input signal frequency
linewidth enhancement factor
cavity length
capture time to ES
Relaxation time from ES to GS
thermally reemitted time
spontaneous emission time
carrier number in the WL reservoir, and are the filling
probabilities of the ES and GS,
WL volume
( ) coefficients for phonon assisted relaxation related to the WL and
the ES
( ) coefficients for Auger assisted relaxation related to the WL and the
ES
filling probabilities of the ES
filling probabilities of the GS
ES carrier number in the nth subgroup
GS carrier number in the nth subgroup
effective density of states in the WL
Boltzmann constant
electron effective mass in the WL
refractive index
number of photons emitted from exited state at the mode number m
number of photons emitted from ground state at the mode number
m
photon lifetime
overlap integral between the envelope functions of an electron and
a hole
band gap energy
spin-orbit interaction energy of the QD material
homogenous broadening factor
FWHM of the inhomogeneous broadening
linewidth enhancement factor
electron transitions from WL to ES
electron transitions between ES and GS
relaxation time from GS to ES
electron escape transitions from ES back to WL
spontaneous radiative time in QDs
group velocity
effective cross section
speed of the light in vacuum
wavelength of the incident light
maximum modal gain
effective thickness of the active layer
material absorption coefficient
peak power
FWHM of the input pulse
BD bit duration
List of Abbreviations
3R 3r regeneration (re-amplification, re-shaping and re-timing)
AM Amplitude modulation am
ASE Amplified spontaneous emission
CH Carrier heating
CW Continuous wave
DWDM Dense wavelength division multiplexing
EDFA Erbium doped optical amplifier
EES Excited-state energy
EGS Ground-state energy
ER Extinction ration
ES Exited state
FWHM Full-width at half-maximum
FWM Four-wave mixing
GAAS Gallium-arsenide
GS Ground state
IB Inhomogeneous broadening
INAS Indium-arsenide
LEF Linewidth enhancement factor
MPRE Multi population rate equations model
MQW Multi-quantum well
MQW Multi-quantum well
MZI-SOA Mach-zehnder interferometer with a soa in each arm
NRZ Non-return-to-zero
O Eye opening
OADM Optical add/drop multiplexers
OEO Optical-electrical- optical
OXC Optical cross connect
PED Pseudo-eye-diagram
PED Pseudo-eye-diagram
PLC Planar lightwave circuit
PRBS Pseudorandom binary sequences
QD Quantum dot
QDL Quantum dot laser
Q-FACTOR Quality factor
QW Quantum well
RZ Return-to-zero
SHB Spectral hole burning
SLALOM Semiconductor laser amplifier loop optical mirror
SOA Semiconductor optical amplifier
TCDD Total carrier density depletion
TDM Time domain multiplexing
TOADS Terahertz optical asymmetric demultiplexers
UNI Ultrafast nonlinear interferometer
UNI Ultrafast nonlinear interferometer
W.C. Wavelength conversion
WDM Wavelength division multiplexing
WL Wetting layer
WSC Wavelength selective coupler
XGM Cross gain modulation
XPM Cross phase modulation
XPOLM Cross polarization modulation
List of Figures
Fig. (2.1) Schematic view of a separate confinement double heterostructure

laser.
Fig. (2.2) Illustrative light-current curve of a semiconductor laser.
Fig. (2.3) Density of states in materials of different dimensionality: (a) 3D
(bulk), (b) 2D (QW), and (c) 0D (QD).
Fig. (2.4) (a) A schematic of an ideal QD system and, (b), a real QD
system, where inhomogeneous broadening is illustrated. (EGS:
ground-state energy; EES: excited-state energy; EC: the bottom of
the conduction band).
Fig. (2.4) Simplified band structure of a direct band-gap semiconductor in
quasi-equilibrium [77]
Fig. (2.5) GaAs-based waveguide structure of a QD-SOA including n and p
cladding layers and multi-layer QD active region. Energy band
diagram of a sample QD is also sketched
Fig. (2.6) Temporal evolution of conduction band free carrier density
distribution after exciting by a picoseconds optical pulse
Fig. (2.7) SOA gain characteristic versus output signal power
Fig. (2.8) LEF at the ground state transition of InGaAs QD amplifier as a
function of pump-probe relative delay for different bias currents
[85]
Fig. (2.9) 3 dB saturation output power as a function of device length for
bulk, QW and QD-SOA [88]
Fig. (3.1) The interaction between the cavity-mode photons and the carriers
in the quantum dots via homogeneous broadening of gain.
Fig. (3.2) Energy diagram of the laser-active region and diffusion,
recombination, and relaxation processes
Fig. (3.3) photon-characteristics for N=M=0 and Current Density CD= (a)
160A/cm2, (b) 240A/cm2, and (c) 380A/cm2
Fig. (2.4) photon-characteristics at =50meV, and
Current Density CD= 16, 25, 50, and 100 A/cm2
Fig. (2.5) photon-characteristics for =50meV and and
Current Density CD= 16, 25, 50, and 100 mA/cm2
Fig. (3.6) photon-characteristics at =50meV and Current Density CD=
100 A/cm2 at (a) and (b)
Fig. (3.7) photon-characteristics at =20meV and Current Density CD=
100 A/cm2 at
Fig. (3.8) photon-characteristics at =20meV and and
Current Density CD= 100 A/cm2 at different coefficient for
phonon relaxation(Aw)
Fig. (3.9) Light-Current characteristics of SAQD-LD at N=M=0
Fig. (3.10) Optical gain-Current characteristics of SAQD-LD at N=M=0
Fig. (3.11) Light-Current characteristics of SAQD-LD for =20meV at
different
Fig. (3.12) Light- characteristics of SAQD-LD for =20meV at
different injected current
equals (a) 0.1meV and (b) 10meV
Fig. (3.14) Optical gain-Current characteristics of SAQD-LD for =20meV
and =10meV at different Aw
Fig. (3.15) Light-Current characteristics of SAQD-LD for =20meV and
=10meV at different Aw
Fig. (3.16) Normalized photon-characteristics at and Current
Density; J= 180 A/cm2
Fig. (3.17) Normalized Injected Current Pulse, (b) photon-characteristics at
=20 meV, and J= 100, 250, 500, and 1000
A/cm2
Fig. (3.18) Depends of the Rise time (a), fall time (b) of the number of
photons, and Bit rate (c) on the injected current at =20 meV,
Fig. (3.19) photon-characteristics at =20 meV, and
Current Density J= 100, 250, 500, and 1000 A/cm2
Fig. (3.20) Rise time versus the Homogenous broadening factor; at
Fig. (3.21) Fall time versus the Homogenous broadening factor; at
Fig. (3.22) Bit rate versus the Homogenous broadening factor; at
Current Density CD= 1000 A/cm2 at different coefficient for
phonon relaxation(Aw)
Fig. (3.24) Rise(a), fall(b) time and Bit rate(c) versus the coefficient of
phonon relaxation(Aw) at =20meV,
Fig. (4.1) SMZ configuration and nonlinear phase response cancel out
mechanism
Fig. (4.2) Structure of SOA and hybrid-integrated SMZ gate
Fig. (4.3) Schematic of SOA incorporated MZI structure
Fig. (4.4) (a) Schematic diagram of a QD-SOA, (b) energy band diagram of
a QD system and the WL.
Fig. (4.5) (The considered spatio-temporal grid on which the 4th order
Runge-Kutta method is applied. L: the QD-SOAs length. N=10
the number of uniform segments that the QD-SOA is divided into.
z: the length of each spatial segment. t: the temporal interval
between two consecutive samples of an input pulse.
Fig. (4.6) Variation of minimum instantaneous QD-SOA gain versus peak
input data power. The difference P = 4 dBm denotes the
deviation of the QD-SOA bias point chosen as fixed for the
simulation analysis from the 3 dB input saturation power.
Fig. (4.7) Instantaneous QD-SOA gain variation for different (a) Peak input
power (b) maximum modal gain (c) current density
Fig. (4.8) Instantaneous QD-SOA gain variation for (a) J = 1 kA/cm2, (b) J
= 3 kA/cm2
Fig. (4.9) (a) Wavelength conversion scheme based on cross-gain
modulation in an SOA and (b) mechanism of XGM-based on gain
saturation
Fig. (4.10) Schematic of SOA-MZI configuration for wavelength conversion
based on cross phase modulation effect
Fig. (4.11) Realization of WC by XPM between the data signal A with
and CW-light with . for the bit rate
160Gb/s.
Fig. (4.12) Variation of extinction ratio (ER) with (a) peak data power, (b)
the maximum modal gain, (c) the current densities, and (d)QD-
SOA length.
Fig. (4.13) waveforms of wavelength conversion-based QD-SOA MZI,
where (a) input data stream A, (b) output with ER=20.7dB, (c)
output with ER=4.8dB
Fig. (4.14) Simulated waveforms with pseudo-eye-diagram (PED) where (a)
input data stream A, (b) output with O=99%, (c) output with
O=67%
Fig. (4.15) Schematic configuration used for 3R regeneration in an QD-SOS
MZI
Fig. (4.16) Waveforms of 3R-based QD-SOA MZI, where (a) Noisy input
data stream A, (b) Regenerated output, (c) Clock
Fig. (4.17) Variation of 3R extinction ratio (ER) with (a) peak data power,
(b) the maximum modal gain, (c) the current densities, and
(d)QD-SOA length.
data, (b) Output with ER=17dB, (c) Output with ER=3.92dB
Fig.(4.19) Simulated waveforms with pseudo-eye-diagram (PED) where (a)
Noisy input data stream A, (b) output with O=98%, (c) output
with O=59.5%
Fig. (5.1) Simulated setup of QD-SOA-based MZI configured for Boolean
AND operation between data A and B.
Fig. (5.2) Variation of Q-Factor with peak data power for different current
densities, keeping other parameters fixed.
Fig. (5.3) Variation of Q-Factor with the maximum modal gain for three
different QD-SOAs length, keeping other parameters fixed
Fig. (5.4) Variation of Q-Factor with current densities for two different QD-
SOAs length, keeping other parameters fixed
Fig. (5.5) Variation of extinction ratio (Q-Factor) with QD-SOA length for
two different peak data power, keeping other parameters fixed.
Fig. (5.6) Variation of Q-Factor with electron relaxation time from the ES to
the GS for two different QD-SOAs length, keeping other
parameters fixed
Fig. (5.7) waveforms of AND gate -based QD-SOA MZI, where (a) input
data stream A, (b) input data stream B, (c) Output with Q=15.15,
(d) Output with Q=2.5
Fig. (5.8) Simulated waveforms with pseudo-eye-diagram (PED) where (a)
input data stream A, (b) output with O=92%, (c) output with
O=22%
Fig. (5.9) Gain response of QD-SOA1 to data stream A of Fig. (5.7). for (a)
Q=15.15, (b) Q=2.5
Fig. (5.10) (a) Simulated setup of QD-SOA-based MZI configured for
Boolean XOR operation between data A and B and (b) its truth
table.
Fig. (5.11) waveforms of XOR gate -based QD-SOA MZI, where (a) input
data stream A, (b) input data stream B, (c) A XOR B
Fig. (5.12) Simulated waveforms with pseudo-eye-diagram (PED) for A
XOR B
Fig. (5.13) (a) Gain response of QD-SOA1 to data stream A, (b) Gain
response of QD-SOA2 to data stream B
Fig.(5.14 ) Delay between the two input pulses
Fig. (5.15) Variation of (a) ER, (b) AM, and (C) Q-factor with the delay
Fig. (5.16) waveforms of XOR gate -based QD-SOA MZI, where (a) delay
equals zero, (b) delay equals 1 ps.
Fig. (5.17) Simulated waveforms with pseudo-eye-diagram (PED) for A
XOR B at delay equals 1 ps
Fig. (5.18) Variation of (a) ER, (b) AM, and (C) Q-factor with the difference
in the peak input power.
Fig. (5.19) waveforms of XOR gate -based QD-SOA MZI, where the
difference in the peak power equals (a) zero, (b) 0.5dBm.
in length
difference in length equals (a) zero, (b) 0.5mm.
in maximum modal gain
Fig. (5.23) waveforms of XOR gate -based QD-SOA MZI, where difference
in maximum modal gain equals (a) zero, (b) 0.2 cm-1.
in relaxation time from ES to GS
Fig. (5.25) (a) Simulated setup of QD-SOA-based MZI configured for
Boolean OR operation between data A and B and (b) its truth
table.
Fig. (5.26) Variation of AM with the peak input power for two different
current density, keeping other parameters fixed.
Fig. (5.27) Variation of AM with the current density for two different
lengths, keeping other parameters fixed.
Fig.(5.28) Variation of AM with the maximum modal gain
Fig. (5.29) Variation of AM with the length
Fig.(5.30) waveforms of OR gate -based QD-SOA MZI, where (a) input data
stream A, (b) input data stream B, (c) A OR B
Fig. (5.31) Simulated waveforms with pseudo-eye-diagram (PED) for A OR
B
Fig. (6.1) (a) Full adder logic diagram and (b) its Truth table
Fig (6.2) Configuration of the proposed all-optical full adder using fife
symmetrical QD-SOAs based MZI interferometers
Fig (6.3) Variation of extinction ratio (ER) with peak data power for
different current densities, keeping other parameters fixed.
Fig (6.4) Variation of extinction ratio (ER) with QD-SOA length for
different peak data power, keeping other parameters fixed.
Fig (6.5) Variation of ER with current densities for three different QD-
Fig (6.6) Variation of ER with the maximum modal gain for three different
QD-SOAs length, keeping other parameters fixed
Fig (6.7) Variation of ER with electron relaxation time from the ES to the
GS.
Fig (6.8) Variation of Q- Factor with current densities for three different
maximum modal gains, when the other parameters are kept
constant
QD-SOA lengths, when the other parameters are kept fixed.
Fig (6.10) waveforms of all-optical full adder, where (a) input data stream A,
(b) input data stream B, (c) input data stream C ( ), (d) output
sum-bit S and (e) output carry-bit ( ).
Fig (6.11) Simulated output waveforms with pseudo-eye-diagram (PED)
Chapter (1)
Introduction
1.1 Context
The advent of digital telecommunications has been preponderant in the

recent history of Humanity. The International Telecommunications Union has
estimated that in 2008 there were 61 mobile phone subscriptions per 100
inhabitants in the world, while 23% of the worlds population used the Internet
and 11% had a broadband connection [1]. We have now grown to be used to
being connected anywhere, anytime and with large enough bandwidth to access
our email, to browse the web, to chat over an instant messaging service, to
make a phone call, to listen or watch an audio or video stream, among several
other services the Internet provides us with. The user content generated
websites, such as blogs, video hosting sites, online marketplaces and also social
networking sites, have changed the way we use the Internet, since everyone can
very easily publish personal content online and make it available to a very large
number of people. One other major use of the internet is file sharing, namely
through peer-to-peer applications. All this variety of services has rendered the
Internet as almost indispensable for the regular daily life.
As a consequence of the Internet, traffic in telecommunications
networks has changed from being mainly local and low bandwidth intensive to
world wide and large bandwidth consuming. Telecommunication service
providers have to deliver an increasingly larger amount of bandwidth, either
wired or wirelessly, at a low price to the end user. As a result,
telecommunication system vendors have nowadays the challenge of providing
networks that have high transmission capacity, are simple to set up and operate,
support a multitude of network services, are flexible, reliable and fault tolerant,
and all this at a low cost per transmitted bit. Moreover, energy consumption is
becoming a key factor when operators pick the supplying vendor, for both cost
and environmental impact reasons.
It is foreseen that the current technology, based on electrical processing,
of network nodes is not scalable at the present rate of growth of bandwidth
demand [2]. In fact, router capacity has been growing 2-fold every 18 months,
just barely enough to keep up with the4-fold traffic demand increase over three
years of AT&T; one of the largest network operators in the world [3]. Optical
technology seems to alleviate the electronic processing limitations, enabling
more scalable network nodes. However, optical technology performance is not
yet comparable to its electronic counterpart for system vendors to employ it in
a commercial system.
In this context, this Thesis intends to contribute towards implementing
the new generation of optical networks, by studying the semiconductor
quantum dot laser and amplifier down to all-optical devices and techniques,
which hold the promise of being the right technology to build larger capacity,
more energy efficient, cheaper and more transparent optical networks.
1.2 Motivation
The optical fibre is the principal enabler of the large data transmission
capacity we have today, with reported capacity times distance product of
1121015kmbit/s [4], achieved with 155 m wavelength channels at 100 Gb/s
over 7200 km. This record represents an increase of over seven orders of
magnitude over 35 years, since the beginning of optical telecommunications
[5]. Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) and time domain
multiplexing (TDM) are key technologies for achieving such high transmission
bit rates, of the order of tens of terabits per second. Typically, at the network
node, the incoming data are converted to the electrical domain, the data headers
are processed and the data are then forwarded to the correct output port. With a
data rate of tens of terabits per second per fibre arriving at a network node, it is
a hard task for the electronics to handle such amount of data due to the limited
electronic bandwidth of the order of tens of gigabit per second per channel.
Therefore, there is a bottleneck effect, where the fibre provides very large
bandwidth capacity, but at the network nodes there are not enough processing
capabilities to take advantage of the fibre capacity.
Despite the very large increase of fibre data transmission capacity and
different technologies involved, the optical network nodes have always been
based in optical-electrical- optical (OEO) conversion, until the adoption of
optical add/drop multiplexers (OADM). This was the first optical solution to be
adopted, where the traffic is routed in the optical domain, on a wavelength
basis. The next solutions, which are currently being adopted, are the
reconfigurable OADM (ROADM) and the optical cross connect (OXC), where
the OADM functionality is retained, with the added capability of remotely
rerouting the traffic without local user intervention. Although, the OADM,
ROADM and OXC provide wavelength routing, neither regeneration nor
routing at a finer granularity are possible.
Therefore, all-optical processing schemes are being proposed to avoid

OEO conversion and take advantage of the optical processing capabilities.
Regeneration, wavelength conversion, packet routing, optical TDM, bit-wise
logic, and various other functions have been demonstrated all-optically, as will
be described in detail in the next chapters. By and large, all-optical processing
is seen to be key in future optical networks [6].
All-optical processing functions have been mainly achieved by exploiting

nonlinear effects on both fibres and semiconductors. The semiconductor optical
amplifier (SOA) stands out from other all-optical processing devices since it is
integrable, provides gain and requires small optical input powers for non-linear
operation. Due to the SOA integrability, interferometric structures have been
proposed, which have stable operation when compared to their fibre-based
counterparts. The integrated SOA structures allow more optical processing
functions than the SOA alone, and at a faster bit rate, as will be shown in the
next chapter. In particular, the Mach-Zehnder interferometer with a SOA in
each arm (MZI-SOA), and moreover, MZI-SOA integrated arrays have been
used to demonstrate several all-optical functions at 40 Gb/s. Therefore, both the
SOA and the MZI-SOA are considered key elements for all-optical processing
sub-systems and consequently for future generation optical networks. For this
reason, the MZI-SOA was chosen to be the third centerpiece of the optical
processing study presented in this dissertation.
One drawback of SOA based devices relates to long carrier lifetimes

(typically tens to hundreds of picoseconds) which result in significant pattern
effect limiting the maximum pattern-effect-free bit rate. The advent of QD-
SOAs has promised higher pattern free operation capabilities of SOA-based
devices. Therefore, QD-SOA is the second centerpiece of this dissertation.
As mentioned before, Semiconductor devices are among the most promising

candidates for all-optical processing devices due to their high-speed capability
up to 160Gb/s, low switching energy, compactness, and optical integration
compatibility [6]. Their performance may be substantially improved by using
quantum dots in the active region characterized by a low threshold current
density, high saturation power, broad gain bandwidth, and a weak temperature
dependence as compared to bulk and multi-quantum well (MQW) devices
[7].For this reason, the quantum dot laser was chosen to be the first centerpiece
of the optical processing study presentedhere.
In future high-speed optical communication systems, logic gates will play

important roles, such as signal regeneration, addressing, header recognition,
data encoding and encryption [8]. In recent years, people have demonstrated
optical logic using different schemes, including using dual semiconductor
optical amplifier (SOA) Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) [9, 10],
semiconductor laser amplifier (SLA) loop mirror [11], ultrafast nonlinear
interferometer (UNI) [12], four-wave mixing (FWM) in SOA [13] and cross
gain (XGM)/cross phase (XPM) modulation in nonlinear devices [14]. Among
above schemes, the SOA based MZI has the advantage of being relatively
stable, simple and compact. The final centerpiece presented here is the all
optical logic gates based on QD-SOA MZI.
1.3 Thesis objectives and outline
The goal of this Thesis is to contribute to the advancement of optical

technology enabling the future generations of optical networks. Optical
processing is believed to be the path to this goal and therefore all-optical
circuits were studied for this purpose. The QD-SOA MZI shows very attractive
optical processing capabilities and therefore one objective is to investigate
these optical processing capabilities with a focus on its direct use to achieve
important functions such as wavelength conversion and 3R regeneration. The
characteristics of the quantum dot laser and amplifier which can significantly
degrade the performance of the QD-SOA MZI have been investigated to be
another objective of this thesis. In the third objective, all-optical QD-SOA-
based MZI switches are used to design three all-optical logic gates; XOR,
AND, and OR. The final objective and for the first time, a new scheme for all-
optical full adder using fife QD-SOA based MachZehnder interferometers is
theoretically investigated and demonstrated. The proposed scheme is driven by
three input data streams; two operands and a bit carried in from the next less
significant stage. The proposed scheme consists of two XOR, two AND, and
one OR gate.
The following structure in seven chapters was adopted to describe the studies:
This first introductory chapter exposes the social and technological
context of the Thesis, as well as the motivation and objectives behind the work
here presented. It is expected to motivate the reader for the next chapters where
the deeper and more arduous content lies.
The second chapter introduces the background of the quantum dot laser and
amplifier. This includes a brief introduction to the development of quantum
dots and quantum dot lasers. Advantages and disadvantages of the latter are
discussed As well as the progress in manufacturing. In the discussion of the QD
amplifier we concerned on the gain and gain saturation. Some important
parameters are also considered in this background such as the Linewidth
Enhancement Factor and the Amplified Spontaneous Emission. Finally,
Simulation Methods of Quantum-Dot Semiconductor Optical Devices are
outlined.
In the third chapter Multi population rate equations model is used to
analyze the dynamic characteristics of the InAs/InP (113) B quantum dot laser.
In which, We have solved the rate equations for InAs/InP (113) B self-
assembled quantum-dot laser considering homogeneous and inhomogeneous
broadening of optical gain numerically using fourth-order Runge-Kutta
method. In the result section, the dynamic (relation with the time) and static
(relation with the current) characteristics of proposed QDL are presented.
Finally, this chapter studies the effect of the FWHM of homogeneous
rate. These final results aims to study the possibility of using the QDL as a
pulse source for high bit rate data transmission.
The fourth chapter proposes a theoretical model of a QD SOA-MZI
based ultrafast all-optical signal processor which under certain conditions can
simultaneously carry out WC, and 3R regeneration of the distorted optical
signals. The QD SOA-MZI operation has been analyzed theoretically by
solving the rate equations of the QD-SOA dynamics, optical wave propagation
equations in an active medium, and the MZI equations. This chapter begins to
introduce a brief review for the QD SOA-MZI and its transfer function that will
be used to analyze this device. The rate equations model of the QD SOA is also
introduced then the QD-SOA characterizations are theoretically investigated
and demonstrated. The final two sections of this chapter are devoted to the all-
optical W.C. and 3R where the principle, design, and the numerical simulation
results will be introduced.
In the fifth chapter the all-optical QD-SOA-based MZI switch
introduced in chapter four are used to design three all-optical logic gates; XOR,
AND, and OR. For each all-optical logic gate this chapter introduces the
principle of operation, the proposed design, and the simulation results.
In the sixth chapter and for the first time, a new scheme for all-optical
full adder using fife QD-SOA based MachZehnder interferometers is
theoretically investigated and demonstrated. The proposed scheme is driven by
three input data streams; two operands and a bit carried in from the next less
significant stage. The proposed scheme consists of two XOR, two AND, and
one OR gate. The impact of the peak data power as well as of the QD-SOAs
current density, maximum modal gain, and QD-SOAs length on the Extinction
Ratio ER and Q-factor of the switching outcome are explored and assessed.
The operation of this system is demonstrated with 160 Gbit/s.
The seventh chapter summarized the main conclusions of this work.
Future work following from the work presented in this thesis is also suggested
here.
Chapter (2)
Quantum Dot Devices
Introduction
In this chapter, the background of the quantum dot laser and amplifier is
introduced. This includes a brief introduction to the development of the
semiconductor laser down to the quantum dot lasers. Section 2.1 discusses the
concept of the QD starting from semiconductor lasers down to QD laser and its
progress in manufacturing taking into account the Inhomogeneous broadening
property of the QD. A review of advantages and disadvantages of the quantum
dot laser QDL is presented in section 2.2. The quantum dot amplifier and its
gain as well as the gain saturation concept are discussed in section 2.3. Sections
2.4 and 2.5 are devoted to the Linewidth Enhancement Factor and the
Amplified Spontaneous Emission, respectively. Finally, Section 2.6 introduces
the numerical methods used to model the QD laser and amplifier.
2.1 Quantum Dot
Semiconductor devices are among the most promising candidates for all-
optical processing devices due to their high-speed capability up to 160Gb/s,
low switching energy, compactness, and optical integration compatibility.
Their performance may be substantially improved by using quantum dots in the
active region characterized by a low threshold current density, high saturation
power, broad gain bandwidth, and a weak temperature dependence as
compared to bulk and multi-quantum well (MQW) devices. This section
discusses the concept of the QD starting from semiconductor lasers down to
QD laser
2.1.1 Semiconductor lasers
Semiconductor lasers are one of the most important inventions of the

20th century. Since their invention in the early 1960s, semiconductor lasers
have been among the most extensively used lasers. Nowadays, semiconductor
lasers appear in various areas of our daily life. They present a critical
component in optical communication systems [8] and in many commercial
products, such as compact disk players [15], laser printers [15], and pointers.
Unlike other types of lasers, a semiconductor laser is pumped by electric
current and its basic structure is a p-n junction. For this reason, semiconductor
laser is also called injection laser or diode laser. Fig.(2.1)shows an example of
a separate confinement double heterostructure semiconductor laser. Different
layers in such a laser are made of semiconductor materials with different band
gaps. Electrons and holes are injected from the n- and p-cladding layers,
respectively. In the active region, electrons and holes recombine via
spontaneous and stimulated recombination thus generating photons. The
generated emission is confined within the waveguide layer (optical
confinement layer). Photons leaving the cavity from its facet(s) form the output
of a laser.
Fig. (2.1)Schematic view of a separate confinement double heterostructure

laser.
A key characteristic of a semiconductor laser is the light current curve. It
presents the output optical power versus the pump current (Fig. (2.2)). The
more linear is this curve, or the larger is its slope, or the closer is the starting
point of the curve to the origin, the better is the laser diode. The current density
at which lasing starts is defined as the threshold current density jth. The lower
jth, the higher is the output optical power at a given injection current density.
The temperature dependence of jth can be empirically described by an
exponential function (Fig. (2.2)), where T0 is a figure of merit called the
characteristic temperature. The higher T0, the higher is the temperature stability
of jth. Lowering jth and improving its temperature stability have been important
objectives in the development of semiconductor lasers [16].
Fig. (2.2)Illustrative light-current curve of a semiconductor laser.
2.1.2 Density of States
Nowadays, QW lasers almost completely took the place of bulk

heterostructure lasers and dominate over the semiconductor laser market.
Hence, the quantum confinement effect has already led to high performance
QW lasers. To achieve even better performance, a natural approach was to
further restrict the motion of carriers in the remaining two directions. This led
to the concept of quantum dot (QD) lasers [15]. In a QD laser, the active region
consists of a layer (or layers) with a large number of QDs (with a typical QD
size on the order of 10 nanometers). Due to the complete confinement of
carriers in all three directions, the transitions between the electron and hole
levels in QDs are analogous to those between the discrete levels in individual
atoms. Fig.(2.3)shows the density of states in semiconductor materials of
different dimensionality. The density of states describes the number of states
per unit volume per unit energy. With reducing dimensionality of the active
region, the density of states profile becomes narrower and hence a smaller
number of states should be filled by carriers to achieve the population inversion
required for lasing. As a result, the threshold current is reduced [17]. As seen
from Fig. (2.3), with the transition from a bulk (3D) to a quantum well (2D)
medium, the density of states remains continuous. A qualitative change to a
discrete, delta-function density of states [Fig. (2.3)(c)] occurs only when a QD
(0D) medium is used. Radically reduced jth would thus be expected in QD
lasers. Another important advantage of QD lasers is high temperature stability
of operation. In an ideal QD laser, the injection current should go entirely into
the recombination in QDs and the charge neutrality in QDs should hold [8, 15].
In such a case, the threshold current would not depend on temperature and
hence the characteristic temperature would be infinitely high [17].
Fig. (2.3)Density of states in materials of different dimensionality: (a) 3D

(bulk), (b) 2D (QW), and (c) 0D (QD).
2.1.3 Progress in fabricating QD
Although low threshold current and high temperature stability [17] have
been predicted for QD lasers in the 1980s, the realization of lasing was lagged
due to the lack of an appropriate technology at that time. Lasing properties of
three-dimensionally quantized carriers were first investigated indirectly by
placing QW lasers in strong magnetic fields [17], which demonstrated an
increase in the characteristic temperature. There have been several approaches
to the realization of QD structures. A traditional way was to selectively etch
QW structures. In 1987, Miyamoto et al [18].demonstrated electrically pumped
light emission from a QD structure, which was realized from an MOCVD-
grown GaInAsP/InP QW by applying the holographic process, etching, and
overgrowing [18]. The authors reported a Fabry-Perot-mode-like spectrum,
which suggested a possible stimulated emission. Later efforts yielded a laser
operation, but the devices exhibited high jth (7.6 kA/cm2 at 77 K under pulsed
operation), most probably due to a high density of surface states created during
etching.
2.1.3.1 Self-assembled growth
As mentioned above, the idea of producing semiconductor structures to

provide three dimensional confinements was initially thought to require
lithography and etching of a planar structure. This was until the self-assembly
of small crystal islands was found: InAs has a 7% strain mismatch with GaAs
which means that InxGa1xAs alloys grown on a GaAs substrate accumulate
strain as they are deposited. Under the correct growth conditions, InAs initially
deposited on the growth surface will form a compressively strained pseudo
morphic wetting layer (WL). Further deposition of InAs then increases the
strain mismatch until coherent three dimensional islands spontaneously form
when the cost in energy for deforming the surface becomes lower than
continuing to form the next planar layer. This is called the Stranski-Krastanow
[15] growth mode. Importantly, once the islands have been grown they must
then be buried into the host crystal; partly so that the islands can be integrated
into bulk-crystal heterostructure devices and also to isolate them from the
deleterious effects of surface states. Both the formation and burying (or
capping) processes must be controlled so as to keep the islands coherent with
the host crystal and to control the size, composition and strain state of the QD.
When the island material grown in the Stranski-Krastanow, mode has a

lower energy gap than its host matrix, a potential well in all three spatial
dimensions can be created in the band structure. These islands are then called
quantum dots (QDs) and can confine electrons leading to localized states with
well defined energies within the energy gap of the host matrix. The energies of
these states are controlled by the size, shape, composition and strain-state of the
QD. To decrease the energy of the lowest state (the ground-state or GS) the QD
must either be larger in size, have a higher in composition or be under less
compressive-strain from the host crystal. The resultant QDs are roughly lens or
pyramidal-shaped and have sizes on the order of a 20-30 nm per side square
base and 5-10 nm height [19]. The shape and composition of self-assembled
quantum dots are properties quite demanding to determine and often only
available by indirect means. Precise knowledge of these parameters, [19] on
which optical and electrical properties depend, is of major interest.
2.4 Inhomogeneous broadening
The self-assembly process discussed before is driven by random

fluctuations during growth and therefore unavoidably causes the positions of
the QDs to be random and gives a statistical spread in the size-distribution. The
random positioning of the QDs is not important for laser devices, as the
dimensions of the device enclose enough QDs as to always be dealing with a
representative ensemble. However the latter effect causes inhomogeneous
broadening (IB) of the ensembles optical properties. Because of the way QDs
are grown, there is a Gaussian distribution of sizes with a corresponding
Gaussian distribution of emission frequencies, Fig. (2.4).These effects lead to
inhomogeneous broadening. At cryogenic temperatures, IB is several orders of
magnitude wider than the transition linewidth [20]. Assuming that each QD is
isolated from the rest, only QDs whose peak emission energy is separated
Fig. (2.4)(a) A schematic of an ideal QD system and, (b), a real QD system,
where inhomogeneous broadening is illustrated. (EGS: ground-state energy;
EES: excited-state energy; EC: the bottom of the conduction band).
from a laser mode by less than their homogeneous linewidth (in the region of 5-
10 meV at room-temperature and increases for higher carrier densities [20]) are
able to contribute to its oscillation having an inhomogeneous line-width that is
greater than the homogeneous broadening will limit the lasers efficiency.
Therefore growth recipes that result in lower inhomogeneous broadening are
desirable. For quantum dots, typical value of homogeneous broadening of few
eVs are normally reported in the literature for low temperature [21]. At room
temperature the rate between homogeneous and inhomogeneous broadening is
around 4, typical value of homogeneous broadening is on the order of 10-20
meV [20] and inhomogeneous broadening around 40-60 meV.
2.2Quantum Dot Laser
A quantum dot laser (QDL) is a semiconductor laser that uses quantum

dots as the active laser medium. Quantum dot lasers acquired more importance
after significant progress in nanostructure growth in the 1990 such as the self-
assembling growth technique for InAs QDs. The first demonstration of a
quantum dot laser with low threshold density was reported in 1994 [22]. Room
temperature QD edge-emitting lasers, were demonstrated later on [23] and now
match or surpassquantum-well performance. In the following paragraphs a
review of advantages of QDL laser is presented.
2.2.1 Advantages of quantum dot lasers
The advantages in using quantum dot lasers compared to quantum well

lasers are several. A quantum dot laser emits at wavelengths determined by the
energy levels of the dots, rather than the band gap energy. Thus, they offer the
possibility of improved device performance and increased flexibility to adjust
the wavelength. They have the maximum material and differential gain, at least
2-3 orders higher than QW lasers [24]. QDL are expected to show a broader
modulation bandwidth, higher temperature stability and lower power
consumption than quantum well counterparts, primarily due to the discrete
energy states of electrons and holes under three-dimensional quantum
confinement by quantum dots [24]. They show superior temperature stability of
the threshold current [23]. QD lasers suppress the diffusion of non-equilibrium
carriers, resulting in reduced leakage from the active region. Quantum-dot
lasers operable at high pulse-repetition rates are capable of reaching pulse
energies that will allow modifying living cells, e.g., making accurately
controlled incisions in cell structures, while minimizing the attendant effects on
cellular environments. Also forming high-density indium-arsenide (InAs)
quantum dots on the surface of a gallium-arsenide (GaAs) substrate, improves
the lasers operation speed and enabling a significant improvement over
previous technologies. This new technology is expected to be employed next-
generation high-speed data communications above 100 Gbps [15].
2.3 Quantum Dot Amplifier
The development of semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOAs) happened

soon after the invention of the semiconductor laser. A SOA is very similar to a
semiconductor laser without (or with negligible) optical facet feedback. An
incoming signal injected into the SOA propagates along its optical waveguide
and is amplified by stimulated emission. The optical gain is achieved by
inverting the carrier population in the active region via electrical pumping.
The SOA offers a cost competitive alternative to the Erbium doped
Optical Amplifier EDFA when used as an inline amplifier in metro networks,
as a power booster and as a preamplifier. Also, in nonlinear operation they can
perform all-optical signal processing due to their strong nonlinearities and their
fast dynamics[25]. Advent of new SOA generation in the last decade (i.e.
quantum well-SOAs and quantum dot-SOAs) has promised enormous
improvements over traditional bulk- SOAs. SOAs with quantum wells or dots
in their active region have presented higher output power, lower threshold
current, good temperature stability, lower noise characteristics and interesting
nonlinear properties compared with bulk SOAs. Quantum-dot SOAs (QD-
SOAs) specially have attracted great interest recently due to interesting
specifications of quantum dots and have developed along with quantum dot
lasers in recent years. Low-threshold current, high output saturation power, fast
gain dynamics and low noise level of QD-SOAs have been proved and it has
emphasized that these elements can be utilized as building blocks of all-optical
systems. Multi-channel operation capability of QD-SOAs such as multi-
channel amplification and wavelength conversion provides a great chance for
development of WDM network as well as demonstration of all-optical
networks [25].
2.3.1 Operation Principles of SOA
The operation principle of the SOA lies in the creation of an inversion in

the carrier population used to amplify the input optical signal via stimulated
emission. The population inversion is achieved by electric current injection into
the SOA. Fig.(2.4)shows the simplified band structure of a direct-gap
semiconductor. The conduction band and the valence band are separated by the
band-gap energy Eg. The current injection leads to free electronhole pair
generation in the conduction band and valence band, respectively. In quasi-
equilibrium the relaxation times for transitions within either of the bands are
much shorter than the relaxation time between the two bands. So, the carrier
distribution within each band can be described by two quasi-Fermi levels
denoted by Efc and Efv. The position of the quasi-Fermi levels is determined by
the current injection. If the current injection is sufficiently large the separation
between the quasi-Fermi levels exceeds the band gap energy (Efc - Efv>Eg) and
the semiconductor acts as an amplifier for optical frequencies () with
Eg<h<Efc - Efv. The absorption process dominates over stimulated emission
for photon energies larger than Ef = Efc - Efv (h>Ef) and the material acts as
an attenuator [25].
Fig. (2.4)Simplified band structure of a direct band-gap semiconductor in

quasi-equilibrium [25]
In a QD-SOA, an optical signal pulse with a wavelength resonant to the GS can

be amplified due to stimulated recombination of the GS excitons which lead to
GS carrier depletion and consequently the empty states are refilled by fast
carrier relaxation from the ES. This fast relaxation from ES to GS is a result of
two features: the large energy splitting between the dot levels which ensure
slow thermal excitation of carriers, and a high WL carrier density resulting in
fast Auger-assisted relaxation. Thus, the ultrafast gain recovery is achieved by
the ES level, which acts as a nearby carrier reservoir for the GS level. This
recovery time can occur in very short time scale (e.g. 140 fs) [26]. The next
optical pulse can only be amplified if the gain has recovered after the first
optical excitation. The ultrafast gain recovery following a single pulse
excitation is promising for QD-SOA-based ultrafast all-optical signal
processing in the Tb/s range. However, since the carrier capture process from
the WL into the dot is slower than intradot relaxation, the ES level recovers on
a longer time-scale (picoseconds). The refilling rate of the WL is much longer
and is essentially determined by the injection current and the spontaneous
recombination rate of the WL and occurs in nanosecond time scale. A
schematic of QD-SOA structure including the waveguide structure based on
GaAs substrate, p-doped and n-doped cladding layers and QD stacks as active
region is illustrated in Fig. (2.5) Also, the energy band diagram of a sample QD
in Fig. (2.5) illustrates the amplification mechanism in a QD amplifier.
Fig. (2.5)GaAs-based waveguide structure of a QD-SOA including n and p

cladding layers and multi-layer QD active region. Energy band diagram of a
sample QD is also sketched
2.3.2 SOA Gain
The gain of the SOA results from transitions between the conduction
and valence bands which depend on the carrier density and distribution in both
bands. There dynamical processes that determine the gain variation after
propagating an optical pulse through the SOA can be categorized into interband
and intraband classes and the gain coefficient may be described as a
combination of these processes [8, 50]
( ) ( ) ( ) (2.1)
Where gCDP (carrier density pulsation) is due to interband processes (e.g.

spontaneous emission, stimulated emissions and absorption) depended on the
carrier density whereas gCH and gSHB are because of the intraband processes
(e.g. carrier heating and spectral hole burning). The interband dynamic refers to
the exchange of carriers between the conduction band and the valence band
which affects the carrier density and the interband energy gap determines the
recovery of the carrier density (N) which is a slow process with a time constant
in the range of several tenths of picoseconds. This time constant depends on the
SOA geometry and the operating conditions. Interband mechanism dominates
the SOA dynamics when long optical pulses are used. On the other hand, when
the SOA is operated using pulses shorter than few picoseconds, intraband
effects become important. They change the electron distribution within the
conduction band and the hole within the valence band. When a short optical
pulse arrives to the SOA, it interacts with only a certain part of the carrier
distribution, depended on the photon energy and the spectral width of the pulse.
The pulse causes a reduction (hole) in the carrier distribution at the particular
photon energy (a deviation from the Fermi distribution). This effect is called
the spectral hole burning (SHB). The time SHB, which is the time needed to
restore the Fermi distribution by scattering processes (mainly carrier-carrier
scattering), is typically several tens of femtoseconds. Carrier heating process
(CH) tends to increase the temperature of the carrier distribution above the
lattice temperature. The distribution cools down to the lattice temperature
through phonon emission. The CH recovery time CH is several hundreds of
femtoseconds to a few picoseconds. The evolution processes of conduction
band free carrier distribution after exciting by a picosecond pulse are
schematically illustrated in Fig. (2.6).
Fig. (2.6) Temporal evolution of conduction band free carrier density

distribution after exciting by a picoseconds optical pulse
As it was justified, the average temperature of carriers increase when the

optical pulse leaves the SOA, meanwhile the carrier cooling process with a
time constant of CH redistribute the Fermi distribution to the initial condition
and the electrical current injection refills the empty states of the lost carrier.
The gain of an amplifier (bulk, QW, or QD-SOA) can be generally defined as
(2.2)
where the input and output optical powers of the amplifier are denoted by Pin =
P (z = 0) and Pout = P (z = L). The amplifier length in the growth direction (z)
is given by L. The propagation of light power along the z-axis in an amplifying
medium can be described by
P (2.3)
The solution of the above equation for a constant gain g is in the form of P(z) =
Pinexp (gz) which results in the amplifier Gain by extracting output power at z
= L as
exp( ) (2.4)
Since the optical gain depends on the input signal intensity and frequency, it is
common to model the frequency-dependant gain coefficient with a
homogeneously broadened two-level system
( ) (2.5)
( )
where g0 is the maximum value of the gain, is the optical angular frequency
of the incident signal, is the atomic transition angular frequency, T is the
dipole relaxation time, P the optical power of the incident signal and PS is the
saturation power of the gain medium. Thus, the frequency-dependant relation
between the amplifier gain G and the optical gain g can be written as G ( ) =
exp (g ( ) L). For input signal powers much smaller than the saturation power
(P << PS), the gain coefficient reduces to
( ) (2.6)
( )
which describes a Lorentzian-shape gain spectrum with maximum at = .
The optical gain bandwidth is defined as the full-width-at-half-maximum
(FWHM) of the gain spectrum given by . Hence, the
amplifier bandwidth (FWHM of G( )) can be obtained through Eq. (2.4)
(2.7)
( )
It is clear from the above equation that the amplifier bandwidth is smaller than
the optical gain bandwidth due to the exponential dependence of the amplifier
gain to the optical gain. Also, this simplistic model of a homogeneously
broadened two level system cannot be applied to QD-SOAs with
inhomogeneously broadened gain spectrum [48].
2.3.3 Gain Saturation
Increasing the input signal power to the amplifier will result in depletion
of the carriers in the active region and consequently decreasing the amplifier
gain. This fact is referred as gain saturation which is common between
amplifiers and lasers and leads to signal distortion. A typical SOA gain versus
output signal power characteristic is displayed in Fig. (2.7) where the 3 dB
saturation power is defined as the amplifier output power at which the amplifier
gain is half the small-signal gain. Combining Eqs. (2.3 & 2.5)at the maximum
gain frequency, , yields
Fig. (2.7) SOA gain characteristic versus output signal power

(2.8)

The solution of the above equation when P is comparable to PS, (large signal)
will result in the amplifier gain given by
(2.9)
( )
whereG0 = exp (g0L) is unsaturated gain at small input powers. According to

the definition presented above for 3 dB saturation power, ( ) G,
one can obtain
(2.10)
)
In bulk and QW amplifiers the peak gain depends linearly on first order carrier
density given by
( )( ) (2.11)
where is the confinement factor, V is the volume of the active region, N0 is
the transparency carrier density and a is the differential gain coefficient (a =
dg/dN). The carrier density rate equation can then described by
( ) (2.12)
where I, P, , and are injection current, input signal power, carrier

lifetime, effective cross section of the waveguide node and input signal
frequency, respectively. For t >> (CW operation), Eq. (2.12) may find
stationary solution (dN/dt = 0). By substituting the obtained carrier density in
Eq. (2.11), the gain saturation and saturation power in bulk and QW amplifiers,
g and PS, can relate to each other through
=( )( )

(2.13)
Using a 2-level rate equation model for QDs in CW operation mode, the
saturation power in the limit of high-inversion condition under high current
density where the QD states and the WL band edge are completely filled, can
be expressed by [27]
(2.14)
( )
Where are the characteristic capture time and spontaneous

recombination lifetime of the GS which are typically ~2 ps and ~1 ns
respectively. Thus, SHB of the WL (capture time into dot states) determines the
saturation power. In the above approximation the WL band edge is assumed to
be completely filled while this condition is not fulfilled due to thermal
degradation or lasing. It can be concluded by comparing Eqs. (2.13 and2.14)
for bulk, QW, and QD amplifiers that a much larger saturation power is
expected for QD-SOAs since the carrier capture time is much smaller than the
carrier lifetime. It might be worthy to note that the dominant gain saturation
mechanism in QD-SOAs can be either SHB or total carrier density depletion
(TCDD) depending on the injection current density and input signal power
[28]. In small injection currents compared with the signal power the QD states
are mostly empty due to amplification process and the gain recovery is
achieved through injection current after several carrier capture and escape
processes via the common carrier reservoir of the QW-like capping layer since
the carrier relaxation processes are incoherent. This gain saturation process is
known as TCDD and occurs in bilk or QW-SOAs with a typical recovery time
of 0.11 ns [29]. In high injection currents compared with the signal power, the
QD states are relatively full and the removed carriers through stimulated
recombination are replaced from the ES or the WL states. Therefore, the gain
saturation in the signal wavelength is attributed to SHB which recovers in less
than a few picoseconds [30].
2.4 Linewidth Enhancement Factor
An important parameter for the performance of semiconductor optical

amplifiers and lasers is the linewidth enhancement factor (LEF), also called -
parameter ( H). It is defined as the ratio between the change of the refractive
index and gain (real and imaginary parts of the susceptibility), induced by the
carrier-density (N) change. This parameter not only affects the linewidth of a
semiconductor amplifier and laser but also directly connects to the chirp, i.e.
the change of emission wavelength during a change of the carrier density. The
physical origin of this shift is related to the coupling of the real and imaginary
parts of the complex susceptibility in the gain medium. A variation of gain due
to a change of carrier density N leads to a variation of the refractive index that
modifies the phase of the optical mode in the laser cavity. The coupling
strength is defined by the linewidth enhancement factor via the expression [31]
(2.15)

where and are the density-induced variations of the modal refractive

index and of the modal gain, is the light wavelength and g is the material gain
respectively. A high value of leads to self-focusing and therefore to
filamentation, which limits the performance of high-power semiconductor
lasers. In SOAs, the LEF has become a powerful tool for predicting the
nonlinear phase shift observed in connection with gain nonlinearities. In the
ideal case of a perfect Gaussian energy distribution the gain spectrum is
perfectly symmetric around the peak gain energy and = 0, i.e. chirp-free. Yet,
due to the influence of the carrier density and thermal effects due to heating,
the linewidth enhancement factors is neither constant nor zero. Values between
0 and 10, and even negative values have been reported depending on the
measurement method and the operating condition [28]. Quantum dot based
amplifiers in principle offer the potential to achieve zero LEF due to their
atom-like density of states which results in a symmetric gain spectrum. Recent
measurements of the LEF in InGaAs/GaAs QD lasers and amplifiers have
indicated values of below 1, however only at low injection currents
near/below transparency or at low temperatures [31]. A smaller LEF at photon
energies above the GS, eventually reaching even negative values above the ES,
was also observed [31].
1.6 Simulation Methods of QD Semiconductor Lasers and Amplifiers
In modeling a semiconductor optical amplifier, one would first consider

how the carrier dynamics are modeled. Secondly, one would be concerned
about how to model the optical field propagation. There exist many SOA
models of different accuracies. The most accurate way of modeling an SOA is
to solve the semiconductor bloch equation (SBE) but this is extremely time-
consuming. The computation time is not acceptable for the system applications
of SOA-based devices, where many optical pulses have to be transmitted
through the SOA to evaluate the system performance. A simplified approach is
to include certain physical processes phenomenologically, as it is done in rate-
equation models. These models enjoy the much faster calculation speeds.
Although the accuracy for sub-picosecond pulses is not as good as the SBE
calculations, the rate equation models are quite successful in explaining the
experimental results for both laser diodes and SOAs. In early 1990s, Mrk et al
[32]. introduced the concept of the local carrier density in the SOA modeling
and by doing so, intra-band carrier dynamics such as spectral hole burning,
carrier heating and free carrier absorption can be modeled with great success to
explain the pump-probe experimental results.
Numerical modeling is always necessary to understand the working
principle of the devices and to optimize their performance. It is also useful to
verify a novel idea before implementing it in the lab. It also allows the
applications engineer to predict how an SOA or cascade of SOAs behaves in a
particular application. It means, physical modeling of complex devices
including SOA, such as all-active MZIs, is necessary in order to understand
their potential and limitations. In addition, a reliable physical model may be
used to investigate new configurations leading to superior ways of operating
devices, or possibly to development of entirely new device structures.
The main purpose of modeling a QD a laser and QD SOA is to relate the
internal variables of the amplifier to measurable external variables such as the
output signal power, saturation output power and amplified spontaneous
emission (ASE) spectrum. This aids the design and optimization of SOA for a
given application. As the SOA model equations contain coupled derivatives of
time and space, thus they have rarely analytical solutions. However, analytical
solutions of SOA equations can give a deep understanding on how internal
variables of the device vary by external conditions such as injection current,
input pump, temperature, etc. Also, an analytical solution may exactly exhibit
the limitation of the operation since it contains the influence of physical
phenomena explicitly. Due to the mentioned difficulties of obtaining an
analytical solution, a numerical solution is required in most of applications.
Numerical techniques are usually more complex but make fewer assumptions
and are often applicable over a wide range of operating regimes. With the
advent of fast personal computers, numerical techniques are beginning to
supersede analytical techniques. In spite of intensive research on numerical
modeling of QD-SOAs, both theoretically and experimentally, there still
remains an unexplored area. This involves the development of equivalent
circuit models for QD-SOAs suitable for circuit simulation by using standard
packages like SPICE. Considering the fact that numerical techniques as the
solution of the rate equations require long and tedious computational time,
analysis of equivalent circuit models with circuit programs reduces the
computational time several orders [48].
In the next two chapters, we introduce two forms of the rate equations
model. Specifically, in chapter two the Multi Population Rate Equations model
(MPRE) is used to analyze the dynamic characteristics of the InAs/InP (113) B
quantum dot laser. In which, We have solved the rate equations for InAs/InP
(113) B self-assembled quantum-dot laser considering homogeneous and
inhomogeneous broadening of optical gain numerically using fourth-order
Runge-Kutta method, the details of this method is presented in appendix A. On
the other hand, in chapter three the simple rate equations model is used to
analyze the dynamic characteristics of the quantum dot amplifier. In this
chapter, we use the simple rate equations model because it enjoys the much
faster calculation speeds than the MPRE.
Chapter (3)
Semiconductor Quantum Dot Laser
Introduction
Semiconductor quantum dot laser is a recent class of laser sources which

is an alternative to the conventional bulk and quantum well lasers. In the
development of laser sources an important step concerns the modeling of the
devices to be realized, and this requires the use of good methods able to
incorporate various physical phenomena present in real devices. In this chapter,
the characteristics of the InAs/InP (113) B quantum dot laser are studied by
Multi population rate equations model. Section 3.1 introduces a brief dissection
about the semiconductor quantum dot laser. QD laser analyzing theory based
on the multi population rate equations model is described in section 3.2.
Section 3.3 is devoted to our numerical results in which there are three different
sets of analysis are introduced. The first two sets are the dynamic and static
characteristics. In the third one, the effect of the critical parameters on the rise
time, fall time, and the bit rate will be treated. Finally, section 3.4 summarizes
the concluded remarks that may be obtained from the displayed results.
3.1 Semiconductor Quantum Dot Laser
As mentioned in previous chapters, semiconductor devices are among the

most promising candidates for all-optical processing devices due to their high-
speed capability up to 160Gb/s, low switching energy, compactness, and
optical integration compatibility [6]. Their performance may be substantially
improved by using quantum dots in the active region characterized by a low
threshold current density, high saturation power, broad gain bandwidth, and a
weak temperature dependence as compared to bulk and multi-quantum well
(MQW) devices [7].Therefore the moment QD laser has been proposed, and
more and more researchers are attracted to this area [33, 34].As a result, thanks
to QDs lasers, several steps towards cost reduction can be reached such as
improving the laser resistance to temperature fluctuation in order to remove
temperature control elements, or designing a feedback resistant laser for
isolator-free transmissions and optics-free module.
Most investigations reported in the literature deal with In(Ga)As QDs
grown on GaAs substrates [35-37]. Also numerous theories about carrier
dynamics in these structures have been introduced [35]. It is however important
to stress that In(Ga)As/ GaAs QDs devices do not allow a laser emission above
1.35 m which is detrimental for optical transmission. In order to reach the
standards of long-haul transmissions, 1.55 m InAs QD lasers on InP substrate
have been developed. Recent experimental studies conducted on these devices
have shown that a second laser peak appears in the laser spectrum as the
injection power increased. The double laser emission is a common property
found independently by different research groups for In(Ga)As/GaAs as well as
for InAs/InP systems [37].
As mentioned above, Semiconductors lasers with quantum dots in their
active regions are expected to exhibit many superior properties. However, we
know that actual QDs do not always satisfy our expectations because of the
energy level broadening (homogeneous broadening) and size distributions
(inhomogeneous broadening) and phonon bottleneck. Thus, for an accurate
modeling of quantum dot laser diode performance, we must take into account
all these actual aspects of QDs [35].
3.2 Multi Populations Rate Equations Model
In the following, a numerical model is used to study carrier dynamics in

the two lowest energy levels of an InAs/InP (113) B QD system. Its active
region consists of a QD ensemble, where different dots are interconnected by a
wetting layer (WL). For simplicity the existence of higher excited states is
neglected and a common carrier reservoir is associated to both the WL and the
barrier. In order to include the inhomogeneous broadening of the gain due the
dot size fluctuation, and to describe the interaction between the QDs with
different resonant energies through photons, we divide the QD ensemble into n
= 1, 2,... 2N+1 groups, depending on their resonant energy for the interband
transition; of the ES, , and of the GS, . As a result, number of
longitudinal cavity photon modes are constructed in the cavity equals to 2M+1,
as shown in Fig. (3.1). M =N corresponds to the central group and the central
mode with and [38]. We take the energy width of each group equals to
the mode separation of the longitudinal cavity photon modes which equals to
(3.1)
where is the cavity length. The energy of the n-th QDs group is represented
by
( ) (3.2)
wheren =1,2,...,2N +1.
Fig. (3.1) The interaction between the cavity-mode photons and the carriers in
the quantum dots via homogeneous broadening of gain.
Fig. (3.2) Energy diagram of the laser-active region and diffusion,

recombination, and relaxation processes
The QDs are assumed to be always neutral and electrons and holes are
treated as eh-pairs and thermal effects and carrier losses in the barrier region
are not taken into account. Fig.(3.2) shows a schematic representation of the
carrier dynamics in the conduction band of the n-th QD sub-group in the active
region. First, an external carrier injection fills directly the WL reservoir with I
being the injected current. Some of the eh-pairs are then captured on the
fourfold degenerate ES of the QD ensemble with a capture time . Once on
the ES, carriers can relax on the twofold GS , be thermally reemitted in the
WL reservoir or recombine spontaneously with a spontaneous emission
time or by stimulated emission of photons with ES resonance energy. The
same dynamic behavior is followed for the carrier population on the GS level
with regard to the ES. This approach has been previously developed for the
In(Ga)As/GaAs system [39] but in the case of InAs/InP (113)B system it is
assumed that at low injection rates, the relaxation processes are phonon-
assisted while the Auger effect dominates when the injection gets larger [35,
39]. In order to include this effect, a modified model has been considered
introducing a direct relaxation channel to the standard cascade relaxation
model as shown in Fig. (3.2) (dashed line) [39].
It is attributed to a single Auger process involving a WL electron
captured directly into the GS by transferring its energy to a second WL electron
[35]. Carriers are either captured from the WL reservoir into the ES or directly
into the GS within the same time . This assumption has been made
after analysis of the kinetic curves in [35] where the ES and GS populations
gave raise simultaneously 10 ps after excitation. On the other hand carriers can
also relax from the ES to the GS. The other transition mechanisms remain the
same as in the cascade model. The capture and the relaxation times are then
calculated through a phenomenological relation depending on the carrier
density in the WL reservoir [40], the ES and GS occupation probabilities, and
the existence probability of the ES and GS transitions
(3.3)
( ( ) )( )
(3.4)
( ( ) )( )
(3.5)
( ( ) )( )
where is the carrier number in the WL reservoir, is the WL volume and
( ) ( ) are the coefficients for phonon and Auger-assisted relaxation,
respectively, related to the WL and the ES. and are the filling
probabilities of the ES and GS, respectively, in the nth subgroup of dots given
by
(3.6)
where being the ES and GS carrier number in the nth subgroup,

the degeneracy of the considered confined states, is the QD surface
density, are the width and length of the active region, and being
the number of QD layers. and are the probabilities of recombination
with EESn and EGSn energy, respectively. To calculate them, a Gaussian QD size
distribution has been considered with a consequent Gaussian distribution of the
QD recombination energies [35].
(3.7)
( )

where the FWHM of the inhomogeneous broadening is given by .
The eh-pairs escape times have been derived considering a Fermi distribution
for the ES and GS carriers for the system in quasi-thermal equilibrium without
external excitation [40]. To ensure this, the carrier escape time is related to the
carrier capture time as follows:
( ) (3.8)
( ) (3.9)
( ) (3.10)
where ( ) [41] is the effective density of states in the

WL and EWL is its emission energy, is the Boltzmann constant. The
numerical model is based on the Multi Populations Rate Equations MPRE
analysis already reported in [42]. According to all those assumptions the MPRE
system, describing the change in carrier number of the three electronic energy
levels; WL, ES, and GS, can be written as
(3.11)

( )
(3.12)
( )
(3.13)
with being the refractive index and is the optical confinement factor.
In order to calculate the entire emission spectrum, the model has been
extended considering also the presence of many cavity longitudinal modes, Fig.
(3.1), hence the photon number with resonant energy of the mode is
depicted by
(3.14)

( ( ) )

(3.15)
( ( ) )
Where and are the number of photons emitted from exited and
ground state at the mode number m, respectively, and is the total number of
photons at the mth mode which equals to . The rate of
photons emitted out of the cavity is , with

( )
( ( ) being the photon lifetime [42]. The contribution
of the spontaneous emission to the lasing mode is calculated as the ES and GS

spontaneous transitions multiplied by the spontaneous emission coupling
factor , assumed to be constant. In equations (3.12-3.15), the material gain is
described by the set of equations
| |
( ) ( )
(3.16)
| |
( ) ( )
(3.17)
where H is the average height of the QD and | |is the density matrix
momentum [43] given by
| | | | (3.18)
where represents the overlap integral between the envelope functions of an
electron and a hole; we take it equals one, and
( ) (3.19)
Where is the band gap, is the electron effective mass, is the spin-orbit
interaction energy of the QD material [43].
Furthermore, let us emphasize that the various QD population are coupled by
the homogeneous broadening of the stimulated emission process assumed to be
Lorentzian such as
( )
(3.20)
( ) ( )
with being the full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) of the homogeneous
broadening and( ( ) ) being the mode energy.
All parameters used in the calculations are summarized in Table I.
Parameter Value
EWL Emission 1.05 eV

energy of the
Spontaneous
WL 500ps
emission from
Spontaneous
ES 1200ps
emission from
Spontaneous
GS 500ps
emission from
Aw WL WL phonon 1.351010s-1
assisted
AE ES phonon
relaxation 1.51010s-1
assisted
WL Auger
relaxation
Cw 510-15m3 s-1
coefficient
ES Auger
CE 910-14m3 s-1
coefficient
EES0 ES central 0.840 eV
energy
GS central
transition
EGS0 0.792 eV
energy
R Average
transitionQD 1.5510-6 cm
radius
Average QD
H 210-7 cm
hight
ND QD Surface 1011 cm2/QD
density layer
Number of QD
NW 6
layers
Optical
0.036
Confinement
Mirror
factor
R1=R2 0.33
reflectively
Cavity internal 10 cm-1
i
loss
Table I : Parameters Used for Simulation of InAs/InP
(113) B quantum dot laser
3.3 Numerical Results
The Multi Populations Rate Equations MPRE model together with the
photons rate equations Eq.(3.11-3.15) have been solved using the fourth order
Runge-Kotta method with the help of the optical gain equations, Eq.(3.16,
3.17). In this section there are three sets of analysis are presented. These sets
can be described as follows,
In the first set, we achieve dynamic response and analyze photon time
evolution of mentioned QD laser at different injected currents and FWHM of
homogeneous broadening. Then, the effects of the initial relaxation oscillation
time are treated on the number of photons characteristics.
While in the second set,we achieve static response and analyze power-
current evolution of mentioned QD laser at different injected currents and
FWHM of homogeneous broadening. Then, the effects of the initial relaxation
oscillation time are treated on the power-current and gain-current
characteristics.
Finally, in the third setwe study the effect of the FWHM of homogeneous
rate. Finally, the effects of the initial relaxation oscillation time are treated.
3.3.1 Dynamic Characteristics of InAs/InP (113) B Self-Assembled

Quantum Dot Lasers
In this section the dynamic analysis will be studied. Fig.(3.3) shows the
simulation results of photon-characteristics when the inhomogeneous
broadening will be neglected, N=M=0. As can be seen from the transient
response of the GS and ES shown in Fig.(3.3), the turn on delay decreased as
current increases. The ground state lasing starts first and the lasing of the ES
delayed when the current is 160A/cm2 and the steady state of the GS is higher.
As the current increases the ES lasing becomes faster and the steady state of the
two levels increases and comparable to each other. as can be seen from the
figure at current density equals 380A/ cm2 the steady state of the ES is higher
than that of the GS which known in the published papers by the two states
lasing or double wavelength lasing. All the above can be explained by that as
the current increases the carriers supplied to the active region required to
starting the lasing is faster and the turn on delay decreased. The two lasing
phenomena is due to the direct relaxation process of the carriers from WL to
GS. The results shown in Fig.(3.3) is in a good agreement of the that published
in [44].
Fig. (3.3) photon-characteristics for N=M=0 and Current Density J= (a)

160A/cm2, (b) 240A/cm2, and (c) 380A/cm2
In the following results the number of groups and modes equals 15, i.e.
N=M=7 and we will group the number of photons of the ES and GS in one
parameter S, S=SGS+SES.
Fig.(3.4) shows the number of photons characteristics of the central mode at
=50 meV and for different current densities, J=16, 25, 50,
and 100A/cm2. Fig.(3.5) shows the same results of Fig.(3.4) except for the
homogenous broadening, in Fig(3.5),
As can be seen from these two figures, Fig.(3.4, 3.5), as the current
increases the turn on delay decreases and the steady state becomes higher. The
photons reach its steady state faster for the smaller homogenous broadening
factor . These results can be explained by considering the effect of the
homogeneous broadening of the optical gain of a single dot. When the
homogeneous broadening is negligible with respect to the inhomogeneous
broadening, dots with different energies have no correlation to each other since
they are spatially isolated from each other. Then, all dots that have an optical
gain above the lasing threshold start lasing independently, leading to broad-
band lasing emission and they reach the steady state independently with no
Fig. (3.4) photon-characteristics at =50meV, and Current

Density J= 16, 25, 50, and 100 A/cm2
influence of any group on the others. The quantum-dot laser at this situation
behaves in the same way as if it included independent lasing media in the same
cavity. When homogeneous broadening is comparable to inhomogeneous
broadening, lasing mode photons are emitted not only from energetically
resonant dots, central group, but also from other non resonant dots within the
scope of the homogeneous broadening of the central group. Since carriers of
non resonant dots are brought into the central lasing mode by stimulated
emission, lasing emission with a narrow line takes place and the steady state of
the lasing mode will be slower [50]. So, in quantum-dot lasers, homogeneous
broadening of optical gain connects spatially isolated and energetically
different quantum dots, leading to the collective lasing of dot ensemble.
Fig. (3.5) photon-characteristics for =50meV and and J=

16, 25, 50, and 100 mA/cm2
From a physics standpoint, it is interesting that homogeneous

broadening leads to an interaction of spatially and energetically isolated
quantum dots through photons, and that collective lasing is achieved. With
respect to technology, it is important that the interaction leads to a narrow
lasing line at room temperature via collective interaction of energetically non
resonant and spatially isolated dots.
To insure the above concept, the following two figures explain the effect
of the homogenous broadening. Fig.(3.6) shows photon-characteristics of all
modes at =50meV and J= 100 A/cm2 and (a) and (b)
.
Fig. (3.6) photon-characteristics at =50meV and Current Density J= 100

A/cm2 at (a) and (b)
As can be seen in this figure, for , all modes start lasing

independently and they reach the steady state independently with no influence
of any group on the others. On the other hand, for lasing
mode photons are emitted not only from energetically resonant dots, central
group, but also from other non resonant dots within the scope of the
homogeneous broadening. Since carriers of non resonant dots are brought into
the central lasing mode by stimulated emission, as a result, the steady state of
the lasing mode will be slower.
Figure (3.7) shows the photon-characteristics at =20meV and J= 100
A/cm2 for different homogenous broadening these
results are another insurance of the above concept. As can be seen in the figure,
as the decreases the steady state is reached faster.
Fig. (3.7) photon-characteristics at =20meV and Current Density J= 100

A/cm2 at

Current Density J= 100 A/cm2 at different coefficient for phonon
relaxation(Aw)
The final result in this section is the study of the initial carrier relaxation
which corresponds to phonon bottleneck. Fig.(3.8) shows the photon-
characteristics at =20meV and and Current Density J= 100
A/cm2 at different coefficient for phonon relaxation; Aw=0.35*1010, 2.35*1010,
5.35*1010, and 10.35*1010s-1.
As shown in Fig.(3.8), as the Aw coefficient increases which means the initial
carrier relaxation time decreases, referred to Eqs.(3.3, 3.5), the turn on delay
decreases and the steady state value becomes higher. This is because, the
injected carriers are consumed in the WL and thus do not contribute to lasing
oscillation.
3.3.2 Static Characteristics of InAs/InP (113) B Self-Assembled

Quantum Dot Lasers
In this section the static analysis will be studied. Fig.(3.9) shows the
simulation results of light-current characteristics when the inhomogeneous
broadening will be neglected; N=M=0. In this figure, the calculated ES and GS
output power are reported as functions of the injection current density. It shows
two thresholds corresponding to the two laser emissions. When the ES
stimulated emission appears, only a slight decrease of the GS slope efficiency
is predicted. At the same time, the global slope efficiency increases. Here, the
double laser emission seems to result from the efficient carrier relaxation into
the GS due to the increase of the Auger effect for larger injection rates [105].
Although the competition between GS and ES transitions of different QDs is
not taken into account in this figure, these numerical results give a good
qualitative understanding of the experimental results recently reported for an
optical pumped InAs/InP (113)B diode laser [45] and it is in a good agreement
of the that published in [44].
Fig.(3.10) shows optical gain-current characteristics for the same case of
the results shown in Fig.(3.9); N=M=0. The first point, it seems that optical
gain increases to the threshold gain and then becomes fixed with enhancing of
the injection current. Actually, what happens when the current is increased to a
value above threshold is that the carrier density and gain initially (by the order
of a nanosecond) elevate to values above their threshold levels, and the photon
density grows. But then, the stimulated emission rate also heightens that leads
to reducing of the carrier density and gain until a new steady-state balance is
created [35]. The second point, due to the threshold current of the GS is small
than the ES, the GS gain reaches its steady-state value faster than the ES.
Fig. (3.9) Light-Current characteristics of SAQD-LD at N=M=0
Fig. (3.10) Optical gain-Current characteristics of SAQD-LD at N=M=0

different
In the following results the number of groups and modes equals 15, i.e.
N=M=7 and we will group the number of photons of the ES and GS in one
parameter S, S=SGS+SES.
Fig.(3.11) shows light-current characteristics of SAQD-LD for FWHM of
inhomogeneous broadening = 20meV at different FWHM of homogeneous
broadening ; = 0.1, 3, 7, 10, 15, and 20 meV.
In this figure, there are three points have to be highlighted. The first one,
the relation between the output power and the injected current is no longer
linear as it is in the first case; Fig.(3.9). As can be seen in Fig.(3.12), the
nonlinearity appears at light-current characteristics. This point can be
explained by considering the effect of the homogeneous broadening of the
optical gain of a single dot. When the homogeneous broadening is negligible,
dots with different energies have no correlation to each other since they are
spatially isolated from each other. Then, all dots that have an optical gain
above the lasing threshold start lasing independently, leading to broad-band
lasing emission and the relation between the output power and the injected
current will be linear with no influence of any group on the others. The
quantum-dot laser at this situation behaves in the same way as if it included
independent lasing media in the same cavity. When homogeneous broadening
is larger, lasing mode photons are emitted not only from energetically resonant
dots, central group, but also from other non resonant dots within the scope of
the homogeneous broadening of the central group. Since carriers of non
resonant dots are brought into the central lasing mode by stimulated emission,
lasing emission with a narrow line takes place and the relation between the
output power and the injected current will be nonlinear [50]. So, in quantum-
dot lasers, homogeneous broadening of optical gain connects spatially isolated
and energetically different quantum dots, leading to the collective lasing of dot
ensemble.
The second point in Fig.(3.11), Slope efficiency (external quantum
differential efficiency) heightens as the FWHM of homogeneous broadening
increases from 0.1 to 10meV then it starts to decline for higher . It
can be concluded from this point that there is a better value of
corresponding to to extract the maximum output optical power from the
device. To insure this conclusion, Fig.(3.12) shows Light- characteristics
of SAQD-LD for =20meV at different injected current; I=0.3024 and
0.5184A. As can be seen in Fig.(3.12), there is a better value of for the
maximum output power which equals in this case 12meV. Also it is clear in
this figure, as the injected current increases the output power increases.
The third point we want to highlight in Fig.(3.11) is the threshold current. As
can be seen in Fig.(3.13) as the increases the threshold current decreases.
For more explanation of this point, Fig.(3.13) shows the Light-Current
characteristics of SAQD-LD for =20meV at equals (a) 0.1meV and (b)
10meV. In this figure, the threshold current equals 0.25A for =0.1meV,
while it equals 0.08A for =10meV. The explanation of this is that as the
increases, carriers of non resonant dots are brought into the central lasing
mode by stimulated emission. As a result, the lasing starts faster which means
lower threshold current.
In the final runwe study the effect of the initial carrier relaxation which
corresponds to phonon bottleneck. Fig.(3.14) and Fig.(3.15) show the Optical
gain-Current and Light-current, respectively, characteristics of SAQD-LD for
=20meV and =10meV at different Aw; Aw=0.035*1010, 0.35*1010,
1.35*1010, and 10.35*1010s-1.
Fig. (3.12) Light- characteristics of SAQD-LD for =20meV at different

injected current
Fig. (3.13) Light-Current characteristics of SAQD-LD for =20meV at equals

(a) 0.1meV and (b) 10meV
Fig. (3.14) Optical gain-Current characteristics of SAQD-LD for =20meV
and =10meV at different Aw
Fig. (3.15) Light-Current characteristics of SAQD-LD for =20meV and

=10meV at different Aw
As shown in Figs.(3.14& 3.15), as the Aw coefficient decreases which means
the initial carrier relaxation time increases, referred to Eqs.(3.3, 3.5),the optical
gain reaches its steady state (fixed value) slower and the slope efficiency of the
Light-current curve declines. This is because, the injected carriers are
consumed in the WL and thus do not contribute to lasing oscillation. In other
words, the effect of increasing Aw coefficient with respect to the QD region is
equivalent to the increase of the injected current, which means increasing the
supplied carriers to the QD region
3.3.3 Semiconductor Quantum Dot Lasers as pulse Sources for High

Bit rate Data Transmission
A critical part of the design of a communication system is the choice of

the transmitter or source laser. High bit rate optical time-division multiplexed
(OTDM) systems in particular demand reliable short pulse generation at high
repetition rates. Semiconductor lasers are becoming increasingly attractive and
viable for such applications. Semiconductor lasers can be compact sources of
picoseconds, high repetition rate pulses of light at the popular
telecommunication wavelength of 1.5 m [46]. Recent advances in
semiconductor processing and cavity design have led to the advent of ultra-
stable [46] and ultralow-noise performance. Single-channel, single polarization
transmission rates up to 160 Gb/s [47] have been successfully demonstrated
using mode-locked semiconductor lasers, and detailed characterization of their
noise properties [47] indicate that they may be useful sources for transmission
rates beyond 1 Tb/s.
In this section, the effect of the injected current, the FWHM of
homogeneous broadening, and phonon bottleneck on the rise time, fall time,
and the bit rate will be treated.
Fig.(3.16) shows the simulation results of photon-characteristics when the
inhomogeneous broadening is neglected, N=M=0. In this figure the normalized
number of photons (normalized to its maximum) and the injected current pulse
are plotted versus time. The results of Fig.(3.16) represent the ideal case which
cannot practically be realized. As seen in this figure, the rise time is exactly
equal to the turn-on delay and the time of the relaxation oscillations which is
less than 20 psec. On the other hand, the fall time is negligible as it is less than
10 psec.
Fig. (3.16) Normalized photon-characteristics at and Current
Density; J= 180 A/cm2
In the following investigations, the number of groups as well as the

number of modes are set to 15, i.e. N=M=7. Fig.(3.17) shows the normalized
number of photons versus time at =20 meV, and at
different injected current densities; J=100, 250, 500, and 1000 A/cm2. As
shown in Fig. (3.17), the current injected takes the form of a square pulse of
width 250 psec.
It is shown in this figure that, as the injected current increases the rise
time decreasesand the fall time also decreases. And it is also shown that, the
rate of decreasing the number of photons during the fall time is much smaller
than the rate of decreasing the number of photons during the rise time.
If we consider that an injected current pulse represents a logic "1"
whereas the absence of the current pulse represents a logic "0", then the bit
duration is the time duration of the injected current pulse. If a stream of bits is
represented by successive current pulses, the rise and fall times of the signal
will limit the speed of transmission. It is known that, the maximum bit rate is
the inverse of the bit duration and the minimum bit duration (corresponds to the
maximum bit rate), in this work, is taken equal to the rise time. Therefore, the
maximum possible bit rate increases with increasing the injected current
amplitude.
(a)
(b)
Fig. (3.17.a) Normalized Injected Current Pulse, (b) photon-characteristics at

=20 meV, and J= 100, 250, 500, and 1000 A/cm2
All the above can be explained by that as the current increases the
number of carriers supplied to the active region required to start lasing is
reached faster and the turn-on delay decreases. As a result, the rise time
decreases.
On the other hand, for high current, when the current is switched off, the
number of existing carriers is high enough to increase the rate of stimulated
emission and as a result, the fall time decreases.
Figure (3.18) shows dependence of the rise, fall time and bit rate on the
injected current. As can be seen from this figure, as the injected current
increases the rise time decreases and the fall time alsodecreases. The rate of
decreasing the fall time is small with respect to the rate of the decreasing the
fall time. Therefore, the bit rate increases with the increase of the injected
current.
Fig. (3.18) Depends of the Rise time (a), fall time (b) of the number of photons,
and Bit rate (c) on the injected current at =20 meV,
To demonstrate the effect of reducing the homogenious broadening on the rise

and fall time, the number of generated photons is plotted against time for
as shown in Fig. (3.19).
Fig. (3.19) photon-characteristics at =20 meV, and

Current Density J= 100, 250, 500, and 1000 A/cm2
In comparison to the case presented in Fig.(3.17), it is found that the
number of generated photons reaches its steady state faster and hence the rise
and fall times are smaller for lower FWHM of the homogenous broadening.
Figures (3.20), (3.21) and (3.22) show the dependence of the rise time,
fall time, and the bit rate on the FWHM of the homogenous broadening, .
In these results, the current density is used as a parameter and its value are;
J=1000, 500, 250, 100 A/cm2. Again, these figures explain that, as the
increases, the rise and fall times increase. Hence, the bit rate decreases.
These results can be explained by considering the effect of the

homogeneous broadening of the optical gain of a single dot. When the
homogeneous broadening is negligible with respect to the inhomogeneous
broadening, dots with different energies have no correlation to each other since
they are spatially isolated from each other.Then, all dots that have an optical
gain above the lasing threshold start lasing independently, leading to broad-
band lasing emission and they reach the steady state and decay independently
with no influence of any group on the others. The quantum-dot laser at this
situation behaves in the same way as if it included independent lasing media in
the same cavity. When homogeneous broadening is comparable to
inhomogeneous broadening, lasing mode photons are emitted not only from
energetically resonant dots, central group, but also from other non resonant
dots within the scope of the homogeneous broadening of the central group.
Since carriers of non resonant dots are brought into the central lasing mode by
stimulated emission, lasing emission with a narrow line takes place and the
time to reach steady state and decay time of the lasing mode will be slower
[50].
Fig. (3.20) Rise time versus the Homogenous broadening factor; at
Fig. (3.21) Fall time versus the Homogenous broadening factor; at

Fig. (3.22) Bit rate versus the Homogenous broadening factor; at

2
Current Density CD= 1000 A/cm at different coefficient for phonon
relaxation(Aw)
Fig. (3.24) Rise(a), fall(b) time and Bit rate(c) versus the coefficient of phonon
relaxation(Aw) at =20meV,
The final result is the study of the initial carrier relaxation which
corresponds to phonon bottleneck. Fig. (3.23) shows the photon-characteristics
at =20meV and and Current Density J= 100 A/cm2 at
different coefficient for phonon relaxation; Aw=0.35*1010, and 10.35*1010s-1.
As shown in Fig.(3.23), as the Aw coefficient decreases which means the initial
carrier relaxation time increases, referred to Equations.(3.3, 3.5), the turn on
delay increases and the steady state value becomes lower. This is because, the
injected carriers are consumed in the WL and thus do not contribute to lasing
oscillation. It can be seen also that, the effect of this parameter on the rise and
fall time is weak. To see this effect, we plot in Fig.(3.24) the dependence of
rise and fall time and the bit rate on the Aw coefficient.
As can be seen, the rise time increases and the fall time decrease as the
Aw coefficient increases. As a result, the bit rate increases. These results can be
explained by noting that, the effect of increasing Aw coefficient is equivalent
to the increase of the injected current, which means increasing the supplied
carriers to the QD region
Chapter (4)
QD-SOA-Based Mach-Zehnder Interferometer (MZI)
Introduction
Practical implementation of all-optical signal processing unit requires
integrated all-optical devices for ease of manufacturing, installation, and
operation. The semiconductor optical amplifier MachZehnder interferometer
(SOA-MZI) is an integrated all-optical logic gate which can fulfill these
requirements. Conceptually, SOA-MZI-based logic gate operation is
straightforward, relying on optically inducing XGM, XPM or other nonlinear
phenomena between the SOAs located in each of the two interferometer arms.
This chapter proposes a theoretical model of a QD SOA-MZI based ultrafast
all-optical signal processor which under certain conditions can simultaneously
carry out wavelength conversion WC and 3R Regeneration of the distorted
optical signals. The QD SOA-MZI operation has been analyzed theoretically
by solving the rate equations of the QD-SOA dynamics, optical wave
propagation equations in an active medium, and the MZI equations. Section 4.1
introduces a brief review for the QD SOA-MZI and its transfer function that
will be used to analyze this device. The rate equations are introduced in section
4.2 while the QD-SOA characterizations are theoretically investigated and
demonstrated in section 4.3. Sections 4.4 and 4.5 are devoted to the all-optical
W.C. and 3R where the principle, design, and the numerical simulation results
will be introduced. Finally, section 4.6 summarizes the concluded remarks that
may be obtained from the displayed results.
4.1. SOA-MZI (Brief review)
Realization of future all-optical switching networks regardless of their

exact operational specifications strongly depends on all-optical signal
processing methods and elements. Advanced all-optical signal processing
functions such as all-optical header recognition, buffer, switching, wavelength
conversion, logic gates, flip-flop memory, etc. should be realized. In particular,
wavelength conversion is very crucial in all of optical switching schemes
including optical circuit switching, optical burst switching and optical packet
switching [48, 49]. All-optical signal processing functions are usually
performed using nonlinear optical effects that occur in a device under certain
conditions. All-optical signal processing based on optical fibers profit several
advantages such as easy coupling to the transmission link, low operation noise
and ultrafast nonlinear phenomena (tens of femotoseconds) which make them
attractive for high-speed all-optical signal processing beyond 1 Tb/s. However,
these elements suffer from bulky nature of fiber-based devices which is
demanded for observation of noticeable nonlinear effect and prevent the
integration of the processing unit. Also, due to small nonlinear coefficient, the
input optical power (usually more than 20 dBm) is too high for practical
application in ultra-high bit rate all-optical signal processing systems.
Semiconductor optical amplifier-based devices have been proposed to suitable
alternatives in all-optical signal processing due to the gain and nonlinear
properties, operation at low powers and small device dimensions. One
drawback of SOA based devices relates to long carrier lifetimes (typically tens
to hundreds of picoseconds) which result in significant pattern effect limiting
the maximum pattern-effect-free bit rate. The advent of DQ-SOAs has
promised higher pattern free operation capabilities of SOA-based devices.
Although several studies have been done to increase the operation speed and
gain recovery time of QD-SOAs as discussed in previous chapters. In recent
years considerable progress has beenmade in SOA-based all-optical signal
processing including demonstration of complicated logic devices which are
mainly based on SOA nonlinear phenomena like cross gain modulation
(XGM), cross phase modulation (XPM), four wave mixing (FWM) and cross
polarization modulation (XPolM). Combination of these effects has yielded
state of the art all-optical devices and functions such as high-speed all-optical
wavelength conversion at 320 Gb/s, 640 Gb/s-to-40 Gb/s all-optical
demultiplexing, penalty-free all-optical 3R regeneration (re-amplification,
reshaping and re-timing) at 84 Gb/s, 8-state optical flip-flop memory, optical
shifter register, an optical pseudo-random binary series generator, optical half
adder and full adder [49]. In these complicated systems, optical logic gates play
a significant role. Optical logic gates, specifically, XOR gates, are actually
used to realize packet address recognition in the IST-LASAGNE project [49].
These examples clarify the importance of SOA-based devices in all-optical
signal processing.
Fig. (4.1) SMZ configuration and nonlinear phase response cancel out
mechanism
4.1.1. SOA-MZI Gate
Practical implementation of all-optical signal processing unit requires

integrated all-optical devices for ease of manufacturing, installation, and
operation. The semiconductor optical amplifier MachZehnder interferometer
(SOA-MZI) is an integrated all-optical logic gate which can fulfill these
requirements. Conceptually, SOA-MZI-based logic gate operation is
straightforward, relying on optically inducing XGM, XPM or other nonlinear
phenomena between the SOAs located in each of the two interferometer arms.
Figure 4.1 shows the configuration of a SOA-MZI gate also known as
symmetric MachZehnder (SMZ) where SOAs used as nonlinear elements are
placed in both arms of a MZI [49]. The control light governs the dynamics of
nonlinear optical effects and the probe light experiences the nonlinear optical
effects. The control and probe beams can be either return-to-zero (RZ) pulses,
as in Fig. 4.1, or non-return-to-zero (NRZ) light. The control pulse induces
carrier depletion and thus modulates the gain and phase of the probe light
which are called XGM and XPM, respectively. These nonlinear optical effects
induced through the carrier density change in semiconductors, are generally
highly efficient, which means that device operation can be realized in a
compact size and with low power control beam. In addition to this, the control
light, which depletes carriers, is amplified in SOA and thus, lowers the required
power of input control light. Differential arrangement of SOAs on both arms of
the MZI with an appropriate time delay, resolves the low gain recovery time
since the similar phase responses of the SOAs cancel out each other as depicted
schematically in Fig. (4.1).
The operation of the proposed device can be explained as follows: Control
pulses with a specified duration and repetition rate cause the change in the total
carrier number or the carrier density in SOAs.
Fig. (4.2) Structure of SOA and hybrid-integrated SMZ gate
Short control pulses cause depletion in the carrier density and the slow
recovery in the carrier density is compensated by exciting both arms with an
interval of . In this timing interval the gating window for the probe beam
opens while outside this interval the destructive interference for the probe beam
at the output of the MachZehnder interferometer is maintained even though
the carrier density in the SOAs on both arms is slowly recovered. Therefore,
the rising and falling of the gate window are defined by the control pulse
duration [50]. The technology of integrating optical circuits is an important key
for developing practical MZI-based all-optical gates. SOAs incorporated into
MachZehnder interferometers can be used as appropriate unit call for optical
logic gates. The integration of active and passive waveguides for SMZ gates
has been developed both in a hybrid manner and in a monolithic manner.
Figure (4.2) depicts a hybrid integrated device where SOAs are mounted on a
silica-based planar lightwave circuit (PLC) [48]. Monolithic integration of
SMZ gates with other active devices, such as input and output optical
amplifiers and fixed or tunable diode lasers and significant reduction in the
footprint of MachZehnder optical circuits using photonic-crystal waveguides
[51] are important technological outcomes in the way of realizing integrated
all-optical signal processing devices.
4.1.2. SOA-MZI Transfer Function
Fig. (4.3) Schematic of SOA incorporated MZI structure
QD-SOAs incorporated with MZI are one of the most applicable

configurations in optical logic gates. Similar to other fiber-based devices
including QDSOAs as nonlinear element such as semiconductor laser amplifier
loop optical mirror (SLALOM) and terahertz optical asymmetric demultiplexer
(TOAD), SOA in MZI structure presented in Fig. 4.3can be modeled with a
nonlinear device with a gain effect and phase shift applied on input signal.
Thus, the transfer function of such a structure can be obtained through
following manner. In the above configuration (A1, A2) and (D1, D2) are input
and output lightwaves, respectively, (k1, k2) are normalized coupling
coefficients of the input and output couplers and (B1, B2) and (C1, C2) are
input and output lightwaves to the QDSOAs, respectively. The gain and phase
shift of each QDSOA is considered with (G1, 1) and (G2, 2) for upper and
lower arm QDSOAs [5]. The time-dependent gain can be expressed as
( ) ( ( ) ( )) where ( ) is the SOA modal gain and
( )is the active medium length. Considering each pair of input and output
lightwaves one can write [127]
( ) ( )( )
(4.1)
An optical signal travelling through the amplifier will experience an
amplification of and a phase shift of . Therefore,

( ) ( )( )
(4.2)
Then, the transfer function can be described as
( ) ( )( )
(4.3)
Where
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) )
( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(4.4)
Denoting the input and output signal powers with PA1, PA2, PD1 and PD2
and assuming an ideal 3 dB coupler ( ( ) ( ) ) the transfer
function reduces to
|[ ] | [ ]
(4.5)
|[ ] | [ ]
(4.6)
(4.7)
As mentioned above, when the control signals A1 and/or A2 are fed
intothe two SOAs they modulate the gain of the SOAs and give rise to the
phase modulation of the co-propagating CW signal due to the linewidth
enhancement factor (LEF)[8, 51]. LEF values may vary in a large interval
from the experimentally measured value of LEF =0.1in InAs QD lasers near
the gain saturation regime [51] up to the giant values of LEF =60measured in
InAs/InGaAs QD lasers [52]. However, such limiting cases can be achieved for
specific electronic band structure [54]. The typical values of LEF in QD lasers
are [53]. Detailed measurements of the LEF dependence on
injection current, photon energy, and temperature in QD SOAs have also been
carried out [31].
For low-injection currents, the LEF of the dot GS transition is between 0.4 and
1 increasing up to about 10 with the increase of the carrier density at room
temperature [31]. The phase shift at the QD SOA-MZI output is given by [10]
(4.8)
It is seen from (4.8) that the phase shift is determined by both LEF and
the gain. For the typical values of LEF , gain , and
the phase shift of about is feasible
4.2. Rate Equations
In the QD SOA-MZI, optical signals propagate in an active medium with

the gain determined by the rate equations for the electron transitions in
QD-SOA between WL, GS and ES [55, 56]. In this model, we have taken
into account the two energy levels in the conduction band: GS and ES.
The diagram of the energy levels and electron transitions in the QD
conduction band is shown in Fig. (4.4).The stimulated and spontaneous
radiative transitions occur from GS to the QD valence band level.
Fig. (4.4) (a) Schematic diagram of a QD-SOA, (b) energy band diagram of a
QD system and the WL.
The system of the rate equations accounts for the following transitions:
1) the fast electron transitions from WL to ES with the relaxation time
;
2) the fast electron transitions between ES and GS with the relaxation time
from ES to GS and the relaxation time from GS to ES
;
3) the slow electron escape transitions from ES back to WL with the
electron escape time .
The balance between the WL and ES is determined by the shorter time
of QDs filling. Carriers relax quickly from the ES level to the GS level,
while the former serves as a carrier reservoir for the latter [40]. In general case
the radiative relaxation times depend on the bias current. However, it can be
shown that for moderate values of the WL carrier density
this dependence can be neglected [36, 50]. The spontaneous
radiative time in QDs remainslarge enough: ( ) [55, 56].
For the case of the signal detuning smaller than the QD spectrum homogeneous
broadening the electron rate equations have the form [99]
(4.9)
( )
( ) (4.10)
( ) ( ) ( ) (4.11)
( ) ( ) ( ) (4.12)
where variable Z is the longitudinal direction along the QD-SOAs length L, i.e.
Z=0, means for the input and Z=L for the output facet of each QD-SOA,
variable t is the local time measured in a coordinate system moving with the
pulse group velocity . The functions used in the derivatives [Eqs. (4.9-4.12)]
are the photon density of input data signals, which is related to their power
( ), with the equation as ( ) ( )( ),where
is the effective cross section of the QD-SOAs, is
the group velocity of the propagating signal, and is the photon energy
( , where is the speed of the light in vacuum and is the
wavelength of the incident light). The electron density in WL is , and the
electron occupation probability in the ES and GS is h and f , respectively.
Also, ( ) , where is the
maximum modal gain, where l, and is the number, surface density and
effective thickness of the active QD layers, is the homogeneous linewidth
of the resonant QDs, the inhomogeneous linewidth of the QD ensemble
and is the resonant cross section of the carrier-photon interaction [57].
Furthermore, is the material absorption coefficient, J is the injection current
density, e the electron charge, the electron relaxation time from the WL to
the ES, the surface density of QDs, the effective thickness of the active
layer, the electron escape time from the ES to the WL, the spontaneous
radiative lifetime in the WL, the electron relaxation time from the ES to the
GS, the electron escape time from the GS to the ES and the spontaneous
radiative lifetime in the QDs [41 - 43].
Fig. (4.5) (The considered spatio-
temporal grid on which the 4th order
Runge-Kutta method is applied. L: the
QD-SOAs length. N=10 the number of
uniform segments that the QD-SOA is
divided into. z: the length of each
spatial segment. t: the temporal
interval between two consecutive
samples of an input pulse.
The system of coupled Equations (4.9-4.12) is numerically solved in a

step-wise manner for pulses that belong to a data signal. For this purpose, each
input pulse is sampled over its period at discrete intervals, t, while the QD-
SOA is divided into 10 uniform segments of length z, as shown in Fig. (4.5).
The 4th order Runge-Kutta method (Appendix A) is then applied on the created
spatio-temporal grid of size t x z= t x L/10 4 ps m to find the
amplification factor, which by definition is ( ) ( ) ( ), where L is
the QD-SOA length. This procedure is followed for typical QD-SOA
parameters' values taken from the literature [58, 59], which include
, = 0.25m, , ,
and .
It has to be noted that, the above model specifically Eq.(5, 6) vary
depending on the application. In remaining of this thesis we use this model for
different applications (wavelength conversion, 3R Regeneration, all-optical
logic gates and circuits) and we explain the difference in each case.
Furthermore, the input data pulse streams are belong to a 160 Gbit/s pseudo-
random binary sequence and have a Gaussian power profile[41, 42, 48]:
( )( ) (4.13)
( ) ( )
where is their peak power and =2 ps is their full width at half

maximum, FWHM. BD= 6.25ps is the bit duration.
4.3. QD-SOA CHARACTERIZATION
Given the central role of the QD-SOA in the operation of the MZI
configured as logic gate it is important to characterize the dynamical behaviour
of this device with respect to several critical operational parameters. This is
necessary in order to be able to properly interpret in next sections and chapters
the simulation results obtained when QD-SOAs are incorporated in the MZI.
In fact the information given by most of previous reported works [58-
62] as part of the study on the performance of a QD-SOA-based MZI intended
for use in the implementation of all- optical logic gates at ultrafast bit rates is
not sufficient or complete for the pursued goal. More specifically, [59] have
dealt with the QD- SOA carrier dynamics and the temporal evolution of the
occupation probabilities in the discrete levels of the QD system. In [62] the
temporal dependence of the gain has been obtained both for a single input pulse
and a non return-to-zero (NRZ) input pulse train. In the first case the result
concerns the saturation and quick recovery of the QD-SOA caused by the pulse
as it enters and leaves the device, respectively. In the other case the focus is on
the gain that is modulated by the NRZ input pulse train and it is shown to
respond directly to the input data pattern, i.e., the gain is saturated as long as
logic ones enter the QD-SOA and it recovers when one or more logic zeros
appear at the input. The same study examines also the change of the QD-SOA
gain dynamics by a NRZ input pulse train for different values of which
shows that the decrease of this parameter speeds up the gain recovery of the
QD-SOA. Moreover in [58], the temporal dependence of the gain is derived for
the case of a single input RZ pulse and for different values of J and The
results for J indicate that the increase of this parameter accelerates the gain
recovery of the QD-SOA, while the results for reveal that this parameter is
a limiting factor for the QD-SOA gain dynamics. Finally, regarding the QD-
SOA saturation properties, in [62] the steady-state static gain has been obtained
as a function of the input power for different values of J, which shows that the
gain begins to saturate as the input power is increased and that the saturation
power is increased with J. This dependence on J can also be noticed in [61],
where the 3 dB input saturation power, Pin,sat, is calculated as a function of J for
different values of QD-SOA length. This unveils that if the current density is
kept constant the QD-SOA saturation power is decreased as its length is
increased. This means that the longer the device is, the more easily it can be
saturated by a smaller input power.
Despite the significant contribution of the aforementioned works, a more
comprehensive characterization of a QD-SOA intended for use as nonlinear
element for interferometric switching should take into account the impact of a
whole set of critical parameters. This task is of a greater importance when the
mode of operation is pulsed and the strain imposed on the operating conditions
is quite demanding [63], as in our case. Therefore we have focused on the QD-
SOA gain dynamics and their dependence on these parameters, since it is
expected that they will affect the performance of the proposed logic function.
Specifically, in Figs. (4.7& 4.8) we examine the instantaneous QD-SOA gain
variation for different values of the critical parameters, Ppeak, GmaxJ, L, and .
This task is accomplished for a few pulses, which have been selected to be the
last four pulses in the longest run of these bits inside the PRBS.
This is done in order to ensure that a saturation equilibrium has been
established for the QD-SOA gain dynamics and thus that the conducted
characterization is as realistic as possible. For this purpose the process that is
followed is to change each time one parameter while keeping the rest constant.
Specifically, the typical values chosen to be fixed for, Gmax, J, L, and are
15/cm, 3 kA/cm2, 3mm, and 0.15 ps, respectively. On the other hand the choice
for the peak input data power has been dictated by the gain saturation of the
QD- SOA that occurs under pulsed mode of operation. In this context the
saturated gain, which is defined as the minimum of the instantaneous gain that
is dropped after the pulse has acted on the QD-SOA has been plotted as a
function of this parameter in Fig. (4.6).
Fig. (4.6) Variation of minimum instantaneous QD-SOA gain versus peak input
data power. The difference P = 4 dBm denotes the deviation of the QD-SOA
bias point chosen as fixed for the simulation analysis from the 3 dB input
saturation power.
From this figure we see that the 3 dB saturation input power [32] is
Pin,sat= 7.5dBm. Thus in order for the QD-SOA to be adequately saturated for
the needs of this characterization while at the same time keep Ppeak reasonable
we set Ppeak,fixed= 11.5 dBm. The incremental deviation of this fixed value from
the 3 dB QD-SOA saturation input power under pulsed mode of operation
defines an interval, which is indicated in Fig. 4.6 by the vertical dotted lines
and the arrows attached on either side of them. The extent of this interval is
determined by the, dimensionless, relative difference P = Ppeak,fixed - Pin,sat= 4
dB, within which the QD-SOA single pass gain has been reduced by 5.96 dB.
Therefore the remarks that will be extracted for the QD-SOA characterization
conducted under the specific bias condition will also hold for a lower saturation
level. Figure (4.7a) shows the instantaneous QD-SOA gain variation for
different values of the peak input data power. First, it is observed that the initial
level of the gain is not its maximum modal gain value, which also holds for
Figs. (4.7. b, c, dand4.8. a, b). This happens because as already mentioned the
examined pulses are the last four pulses. For this reason when this pulses enter
the QD-SOA it encounter a gain that has been partially recovered after it have
been saturated by the preceding mark. Now the amount that the gain is dropped
from its maximum value, G, becomes larger as Ppeak is increased.
Fig. (4.7) Instantaneous QD-SOA gain variation for different (a) Peak input
power (b) maximum modal gain (c) current density (d) Length
This is consistent with Fig. (4.6) and the fact that as Ppeak is changed in
this direction the QD-SOA becomes more saturated because of carrier
depletion. Furthermore, this gain drop is favourable to impart a differential
phase between the decomposed components of probe pulse (Fig.(4.1)) as close
as possible to and hence achieve full switching. Then the dynamic gain
response for different values of the QD-SOA maximum modal gain is
illustrated in Fig. (4.7. b). Notably the drop of the gain from its unsaturated
value is greater for larger maximum modal gain. More specifically, for gmax =
11/cm the drop is G 0.97 dB, while for gmax =15cm-1 G 2.7dB. Thus
similarly to the case of the peak input data power the extent of the QD-SOA
saturation quantified by G becomes larger as gmax is increased, which as
mentioned is helpful for creating the desired phase difference between the MZI
arms. Moreover, Fig. (4.7c) shows the instantaneous QD-SOA gain variation
for different values of current density. The increase of J from 2 to 4 kA/cm2
supplies the GS with more carriers that are available for the gain recovery
process and thus the latter is accelerated. However, if J is further increased to 5
kA/cm2 the effect on the dynamical behavior of the gain is not so pronounced.
This happens because the ES and WL, which act as carrier reservoirs for the
GS, have been adequately filled and the additionally supplied carriers do not
fully participate in the QD-SOA gain recovery process. Finally, in Fig. (4.8a)
we present the instantaneous QD-SOA gain variation for different electron
relaxation times from the ES to the GS and for the chosen fixed value of
current density. With the decrease of from 1.3 to 0.3 ps carriers relax faster
from the ES to the GS and so the process of gain recovery is made faster. At
the same time there are more carriers involved in the amplification process
which leads to less intense saturation and gain modulation. This also holds for
the case in which is decreased down to 0.15 ps. But when the QD-SOA
becomes saturated subject to the consecutive bits of the PRBS, more carriers
relax to the GS. Therefore they are depleted in the upper levels, i.e., the ES and
the WL, eventually becoming insufficient for speeding up the QD-SOA gain
recovery. Nevertheless, if the current density is
Fig. (4.8) Instantaneous QD-SOA gain variation for (a) J = 1 kA/cm2, (b) J = 3
kA/cm2.
concurrently increased, the behavior of the gain is altered in a common manner
for all considered changes of , as shown in Fig. (4.8b). This means that when
investigating the impact of on the switching capability of the logic gate it is
also necessary to take into account the simultaneous effect of J.
4.4. Wavelength Conversion (WC)
Cross-gain modulation based wavelength conversion is one of simplest

schemes to achieve all-optical wavelength conversion which employs gain
saturation effect in active region of SOAs. The principle of this scheme for a
QD-SOA based wavelength converter is illustrated in Fig. (4.9a). the input data
signal at the wavelength and a co-propagating CW-beam at the wavelength
are coupled into the SOA. Due to high optical power of data signal, it
causes total carrier depletion in the active region and therefore the gain
saturation occurs. The CW-signal at experiences this change in the gain
so that CW-beam traversing the SOA with a mark (in data signal) will
experience a lower gain than light traversing with a space. This scenario is
sketched in Fig. (4.9b). Therefore, the SOA output contains a copy of the
original data signal with inverted polarity at . A filter should be placed at
the output of the SOA in this technique to omit the and pass the . This
filter can be omitted if the two signals counter-propagate through the SOA.
Fig. (4.9) (a) Wavelength conversion scheme based on cross-gain modulation

in an SOA and (b) mechanism of XGM-based on gain saturation
The main disadvantageous of this method are: 1)The chirped output

signal caused by XGM [48]. This arises from the frequency shift at the leading
and trailing edges of the converted pulses due to carrier dynamics which results
in a severe penalty in polarity conversion scheme and hence limits the
transmission distance in a dispersive fiber. 2) The smaller differential gain for
longer wavelengths. This results in smaller output extinction ratio for up-
conversion (conversion to longer wavelengths) than for down-conversion
(conversion to shorter wavelengths). 3) The possible polarity conversion-based
problems in signal processing. The polarity conversion-based problem of the
introduced structure becomes much important in the case of using RZ data
format. Since the polarity inversion is associated with pulse inversion, devices
employing this scheme should have identical RZ pulse shapes.
Cross-phase modulation based wavelength conversion is another
technique that doesnt have the limitations of the XGM-based schemeFigure
(4.10) schematically shows the structure of which consists MachZehnder
interferometer with two SOAs on both arms of the interferometer [48].
Wavelength conversion in this scheme is achieved according to the different
phase changes experienced by the CW beam in two interferometric arms of
MZI. The data signal at the wavelength coupled to the port 1 modulates the
carrier density and therefore the refractive index of the active region of SOA
due to its high power. Meanwhile, the CW beam at the wavelength is
coupled to port 3 of the MZI-SOA structure and is split into two equal parts (if
the coupler is 3 dB) travelling through the upper and lower interferometer
arms. The CW beam in the lower arm experiences a constant phase change, 2,
which depends on the lower SOA bias current while the phase change
experienced by the CW beam in the upper arm, 1, depends on the bit pattern
of the input data signal. Therefore, at the output of the MZI the split CW beams
can combine constructively or destructively to transfer the data signal pattern to
the CW beam.
The theoretical analysis of the proposed ultrafast QD SOA-MZI processor is
based on the combination of the MZI model with the nonlinear characteristics
and the QD-SOA dynamics. At the output of MZI, the CW optical signals from
the two QD SOAs interfere giving the output intensity [10, 53].
(4.14)
[ ]
(4.15)
[ ]
where is the CW or the clock stream optical signal divided and introduced
via the symmetric coupler into the two QD-SOAs.
are the non inverted converted and the
inverted converted output, respectively. System of equations (4.9-4.12)
constituting a complete set of equations describing XGM and XPM in QD SOA
are essentially nonlinear and extremely complicated. Their analytical solution
in a closed form is hardly possible, and for this reason, this system of equations
has been solved numerically for the same typical parameters values of the QD-
SOA which are stated in previous section.
Fig. (4.10) Schematic of SOA-MZI configuration for wavelength conversion
based on cross phase modulation effect
The situation here is like that, there is only one data signal interacts with
the CW-light signal as shown in Fig. (4.10). In such a case, WC occurs
between the input signal at the wavelength propagating through
the upper arm of QD SOA-MZI and the CW-light with . Figure
(4.11) shows the input waveform (data A) and the simulated output waveforms,
specifically, the non-inverted converted version of input data and the inverted
version. It can be seen from this figure that the quality of the non-inverted
output is better than the quality of the inverted one. Therefore, in the remaining
of this section we will study the effect of the important parameters on the ER
for the non-inverted output.
Fig. (4.11) Realization of WC by XPM between the data signal A with

and CW-light with . for the bit rate 160Gb/s.
Figure (4.12) illustrates the effect on the ER with; (a) peak power of the
input data signals, (b) maximum modal gain, (c) the current densities, and (d)
QD-SOA length. In each case the other parameters are kept fixed.
As it can be observed from Fig. (4.12.a), the obtained curve exhibits a
bell-like variation with a maximum point at around 11dBm, on either side of
which the ER is decreased. In order to interpret this behavior we recall from
Figures (4.6, 4.7) that the peak input data power determines the extent of the
QD-SOA gain excursions, G, which in turn makes the phase difference
between the MZI arms lie in different intervals [82]. This affects analogously
the magnitude of switching and accordingly the ER. Thus initially the ER is
Fig. (4.12) Variation of extinction ratio (ER) with (a) peak data power, (b) the
maximum modal gain, (c) the current densities, and (d)QD-SOA length.
increased with the peak input data power, because QD-SOA1 is progressively
brought into deeper saturation and the phase difference approaches closer to its
optimum value of . However as the examined parameter is increased further
beyond 11dBm, the additional differential gain that is induced causes the phase
difference to diverge away from [82]. As a result the ER does not continue to
improve but it is declined with a steeper slope than that of its rising part due to
the stronger carrier depletion. The ER is acceptable within a total input power
dynamic range of roughly 5.5dBm, whose central peak power of 11dBm which
can be provided by commercial erbium doped fiber amplifier.
Fig. (4.12.b) shows the dependence on maximum modal gain. It can be
noticed that there is a similarity between the obtained curve and that of Fig.
(4.12.a). This is attributed to the common impact that both parameters have on
the QD-SOAs dynamical behaviour, as demonstrated in Section 4.3. Therefore,
as this parameter is altered the phase difference created between the replicas of
CW-light undergoes a variation analogous to that described in the context of
Fig. (4.12.a). This means that in order to achieve switching as anticipated
according to the requirements of wavelength conversion an efficient level of
maximum modal gain is necessary. The ER remains above 10 on either side of
a maximum modal gain of approximately 15 cm-1, where it becomes a
maximum. For given QD- SOAs length this maximum modal gain range can be
achieved in a feasible manner by intervening in the number of the QD layers
when designing the QD-SOA structure [71], as discussed in section 4.2.
Figure (4.12.c) illustrates the ER versus the QD-SOAs current
density. For small current densities, the ER is sharply increased, and after
exceeding its required minimum, it becomes almost independent of this
parameter. This happens because a lower current density facilitates the
saturation of a QD-SOA [61]. As a result the gain of QD-SOA1 is dropped to a
greater extent and it becomes more difficult for it to recover closer to its
unsaturated value, which is additionally verified by Fig. (4.7c). Consequently,
the ER is very low and hence totally inadmissible. In contrast, a larger current
density offers a redundancy of supplied carriers and thus permits the dynamical
optical properties of QD-SOA1 to reach an equilibrium state, which has a
positive impact on the considered metric. Fig. (4.12.c) shows that if J is
adjusted to be over 2.17 kA/cm2 then the ER is made acceptable. The
corresponding bias current is 260.4 mA, which lies within reasonable limits
and can be practically supplied by commercial current sources [61]. Therefore
a moderate current density is fine for allowing the proposed wavelength
conversion circuit to be realized at least with an adequate performance.
Figure (4.12.d) shows the ER as a function of the QD-SOAs length. It can be
noticed that there is an apparent similarity between the obtained curve and that
of Figures (4.12.a & b) for the peak data power and the maximum modal gain,
respectively. This is attributed to the common impact that these parameters
have on the QD-SOAs dynamical behavior and subsequently on the switching
performance. In particular the QD-SOAs length determines the extent that the
gain of each QD-SOA is dropped from its unsaturated level [58] and
subsequently the amount of the differential gain created between the MZI arms.
Since this quantity imparts through the line width enhancement factor a
differential phase shift, it can be realized that the changes of also affect
and hence the ER in a way analogous to that described in the context of Fig.
(4.12.a). this reason the three ER diagrams resemble in shape both having a
rising and a falling part, although the effect on the ER magnitude is more
pronounced for the QD-SOAs length because the gains G1 and G2 that enter in
the expressions of the characteristic transfer functions are influenced directly
by its variation ,Eq. (4.5). The ER remains above 10 dB on either side of a
QD-SOAs length of 3mm, where it becomes maximum, and within a range of
approximately 1.1mm, which for given QD-SOAs maximum modal gain can be
achieved by intervening in the number of the QD layers when designing the
QD-SOA structure.
Design Parameters
According thus to Figs. (4.12a-d) it can be inferred that the requirements
for the critical parameters, to have a good performance with reasonable
amplification, are ,
, mm, and . By
following these guidelines and using the combination of values
, J= , L=3mm, , respectively, which
obviously is not unique and it fall within the specified boundaries, a more than
adequate ER of about 15dB can be obtained, which is reflected on the high
quality of pulse stream obtained at the output [8].
On the other hand, when we use another combination of values such
as , J= , L=4mm, , respectively. These
values are not falling within the specified boundaries. ER in this case equals
4.8dB, which is reflected on the low quality of pulse stream obtained at the
output. The input waveforms and the simulated output waveforms are shown
in Figs. (4.13a-c), respectively.
Fig. (4.13) waveforms of wavelength conversion-based QD-SOA MZI, where

(a) input data stream A, (b) output with ER=15dB, (c) output with ER=4.8dB
Fig. (4.14) Simulated waveforms with pseudo-eye-diagram (PED)where (a)

input data stream A, (b) output with O=98%, (c) output with O=62%
Figures (4.14 a-c) demonstrate Simulated waveforms with pseudo-eye-

diagram (PED) for (a) input data stream A, (b) output with ER=15dB, and (c)
output with ER=4.8dB. As can be seen from these figures, the quality of case
(b) is better than that of case (c). The relative eye opening (O) in case (b)
equals 98%, whilst it equals 62% for case (c).These values indicate a quite
good response of the circuit under consideration at its output terminals in case
(b).
4.5. 3R Regeneration (Re-amplification, Re-shaping and Re-timing)
Short optical pulses propagating in optical fibers are distorted due to the
fiber losses caused by material absorption, Rayleigh scattering, fiber bending,
and due to the broadening caused by the material dispersion, waveguide
dispersion, polarization-mode dispersion, intermodal dispersion [8, 64]. 3R
regeneration is essential for the successful logic operations because of the
ultrafast data signal distortions. 3R regeneration requires an optical clock and a
suitable architecture of the regenerator in order to perform a clocked decision
function [48]. In such a case, the shape of the regenerated pulses is defined by
the shape of the clock pulses [65, 66].
Fig. (4.15) Schematic configuration used for 3R regeneration in an QD-SOS

MZI
The proposed QD SOA-MZI ultrafast all-optical processor can

successfully solve three problems of 3R regeneration. Indeed, the efficient
pattern-effect free optical signal re-amplification may be carried out in each
arm by QD-SOAs. WC based on the all-optical logic gate provides the
reshaping since noise cannot close the gate, and only the data signals have
enough power to close the gate [48]. The retiming in QD-SOA-MZI based
processor is provided by the optical clock which is also essential for the
reshaping [66]. Hence, if the CW signal is replaced with the clock stream, the
3R regeneration can be carried out simultaneously with logic operations. The
analysis shows that for the strongly distorted data signals a separate processor
is needed providing 3R regeneration before the data signal input to the logic
gate.
In our model, there is only one data signal interacts with the clock signal
as shown in Fig. (4.15). In such a case, 3R occurs for the optical signal A at the
wavelength propagating through the upper arm of QD SOA-MZI
with the help of the clock signal with .
Fig. (4.16) Waveforms of 3R-based QD-SOA MZI, where (a) Noisy input data
stream A, (b) Regenerated output, (c) Clock
Figure (4.16) shows the noisy input waveform (data A), the regenerated
output waveforms, and clock waveforms. It can be seen from this figure that
the quality of the regenerated output is excellent and it depends basically on the
clock waveforms. Therefore, in the remaining of this section we will study the
effect of the important parameters on the ER for the regenerated output.
Figure (4.17) illustrates the effect on the ER with; (a) peak power of the input
data signals, (b) maximum modal gain, (c) the current densities, and (d) QD-
SOA length. In each case the other parameters are kept fixed.
As it can be observed from Fig. (4.17.a), the obtained curve exhibits a
bell-like variation with a maximum point at around 12dBm, on either side of
which the ER is decreased. In order to interpret this behaviorwe recall from
Figures (4.6, 4.7) that the peak input data power determines the extent of the
QD-SOA gain excursions, G, which in turn makes the phase difference
the magnitude of switching and accordingly the ER. Thus initially the ER is
increased with the peak input data power, because QD-SOA1 is progressively
brought into deeper saturation and the phase difference approaches closer to its
optimum value of . However as the examined parameter is increased further
beyond 12dBm, the additional differential gain that is induced causes the phase
difference to diverge away from [82]. As a result the ER does not continue to
improve but it is declined with a steeper slope than that of its rising part due to
the stronger carrier depletion. The ER is acceptable within a total input power
dynamic range of roughly 1.9dBm, whose central peak power of 12dBm which
can be provided by commercial erbium doped fiber amplifier.
Fig. (4.17) Variation of 3R extinction ratio (ER) with (a) peak data power, (b)
the maximum modal gain, (c) the current densities, and (d)QD-SOA length.
Fig. (4.17.b) shows the dependence on maximum modal gain. It can be

noticed that there is a similarity between the obtained curve and that of Fig.
(4.17.a). This is attributed to the common impact that both parameters have on
the QD-SOAs dynamical behaviour, as demonstrated in Section 4.3. Therefore,
as this parameter is altered the phase difference created between the replicas of
CW-light undergoes a variation analogous to that described in the context of
Fig. (4.17.a). This means that in order to achieve switching as anticipated
according to the requirements of wavelength conversion an efficient level of
maximum modal gain is necessary. The ER remains above 10 on either side of
a maximum modal gain of approximately 15 cm-1, where it becomes maximum.
For given QD- SOAs length this maximum modal gain range can be achieved
in a feasible manner by intervening in the number of the QD layers when
designing the QD-SOA structure [71], as discussed in section 4.2.
Figure (4.17.c) illustrates the ER versus the QD-SOAs current
density. For small current densities, the ER is sharply increased, and after
the ER is very low and hence totally inadmissible. In contrast, a larger current
density offers a redundancy of supplied carriers and thus permits the dynamical
optical properties of QD-SOA1 to reach an equilibrium state, which has a
positive impact on the considered metric. Fig. (4.17.c) shows that if J is
adjusted to be over 2.8 kA/cm2 then the ER is made acceptable. The
corresponding bias current is 336 mA, which lies within reasonable limits and
can be practically supplied by commercial current sources [61]. Therefore a
moderate current density is fine for allowing the proposed wavelength
conversion circuit to be realized at least with an adequate performance.
Figure (4.17.d) shows the ER as a function of the QD-SOAs length. It can be
noticed that there is an apparent similarity between the obtained curve and that
of Figures (4.17.a & b) for the peak data power and the maximum modal gain,
respectively. This is attributed to the common impact that these parameters
have on the QD-SOAs dynamical behavior and subsequently on the switching
performance. In particular the QD-SOAs length determines the extent that the
gain of each QD-SOA is dropped from its unsaturated level [58] and
subsequently the amount of the differential gain created between the MZI arms.
Since this quantity imparts through the line width enhancement factor a
and hence the ER in a way analogous to that described in the context of Fig.
(4.17.a). this reason the three ER diagrams resemble in shape both having a
rising and a falling part, although the effect on the ER magnitude is more
by its variation ,Eq. (4.5). The ER remains above 10 dB on either side of a
QD-SOAs length of 3mm, where it becomes maximum, and within a range of
approximately 0.29mm, which for given QD-SOAs maximum modal gain can
be achieved by intervening in the number of the QD layers when designing the
QD-SOA structure.
Design Parameters
According thus to Figs. (4.17a-d) it can be inferred that the requirements
for the critical parameters, to have a good performance with reasonable
amplification, are ,
, mm, and .
By following these guidelines and using the combination of values
, J= , L=3mm, , respectively, which
obviously is not unique and it fall within the specified boundaries, a more than
adequate ER of about 10.5dB can be obtained, which is reflected on the high
quality of pulse stream obtained at the output [8].
data, (b) Output with ER=10.5dB, (c) Output with ER=2.8dB
On other hand, when we use another combination of values such as
, J= , L=4mm, , respectively. These values
are not falling within the specified boundaries. Therefore, ER in this case
equals 2.8dB, which is reflected on the low quality of pulse stream obtained at
the output. The input waveforms and the simulated output waveforms in the
two cases are shown in Figs. (4.18a-c), respectively.
Fig. (4.19) Simulated waveforms with pseudo-eye-diagram (PED)where (a) Noisy

input data stream A, (b)output with O=93%, (c) output with O=42.5%
Figures (4.19 a-c) demonstrate Simulated waveforms with pseudo-eye-

diagram (PED) for (a) input data stream A, (b) output with ER=10.5dB, and (c)
output with ER=2.8dB. As can be seen from these figures, the quality of case
(b) is better than that of case (c). In other words, the relative eye opening (O) in
case (b) equals 93%, whilst it equals 42.5% for case (c).These values indicate a
quite good response of the circuit under consideration at its output terminals in
case (b).
Chapter (5)
All-optical Logic Gates
Introduction
All-optical logic gates are indispensable modules for making feasible

the concept of signal processing exclusively by means of light in order to take
full advantage of the potential of optical fibers in modern networks without
problematic conversions in the electronic domain. In This chapter, all-optical
QD-SOA-based MZI switch introduced in chapter four are used to design three
all-optical logic gates; XOR, AND, and OR. Section 5.1 introduces a brief
review for the all-optical logic gates. The next three sections(5.2 5.4) are
devoted to our proposed all-optical logic gates; XOR, AND, and OR gate,
respectively. In each of these three sections, principle and design of proposed
all-optical gate will be introduced. In addition, these sections contain the
simulation results of its gate. Finally, some of the concluding remarks and
discussions are contained in section 5.5.
5.1 All-Optical Logic Gates
In future high-speed optical communication systems, logic gates will

play important roles, such as signal regeneration, addressing, header
recognition, data encoding and encryption [8]. In recent years, people have
demonstrated optical logic using different schemes, including using dual
semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA) Mach-Zehnder interferometer(MZI) [9,
10], semiconductor laser amplifier (SLA) loop mirror [11], ultrafast nonlinear
interferometer (UNI) [12], four-wave mixing (FWM) in SOA [13] and cross
gain (XGM)/cross phase (XPM) modulation in nonlinear devices [14]. Among
above schemes, the SOA based MZI has the advantage of being relatively
stable, simple and compact. As mentioned in previous chapters, operation
speeds of these schemes are limited by no more than 40 Gb/s. In order to
realize higher speed data processing, faster device and schemes are needed.
The emergence of quantum-dot (QD) SOAs in recent years provided a better
device for signal processing at communication band. Up till now, such device
has experimentally demonstrated high saturated output power and low noise
figure [32, 67], ultrafast carrier relaxation between QD energy states [68] and a
much smaller carrier heating (CH) impact on gain and phase recovery [69]. In
recent years, rate equations approach is widely used to simulate these logic
operation based on QD-SOAs [70]. In this chapter,all-optical QD-SOA-based
MZI switch introduced in chapter four are used to design three all-optical logic
gates; XOR, AND, and OR. The reason to choose these gates is that they will
be combined in one logic circuit to perform an all optical full adder in next
chapter. It is worth referring to that the mathematical model that is used in
these analyses is the model introduced in chapter 4. In which, the system of
coupled Equations (4.9-4.12) is numerically solved in a step-wise manner for
pulses that belong to a data signal Eq. (4.13). For this purpose, each input pulse
is sampled over its period at discrete intervals, dt, while the QD-SOA is
divided into n uniform segments of length dZ. The 4th order Runge-Kutta
method is then applied on the created spatio-temporal grid of size
, to find the amplification factor, which by definition is
( ) ( ). This procedure is followed for typical QD-SOA parameters'
values taken from the literature [58, 71]. The general and common parameters
used in the calculations of the proposed gates are summarized in Table (5.1).
Parameter Value Parameter Value
-1
2 cm 1.2ps
1200ps 0.4ns
3ps NQ
Lw 0.25m 4.5
1ns 0.2ns
width 3 m
Pulse duration 6.25 ps Pulse width 2ps
Table 5.1 : Parameters Used for Simulation of the All-
Optical AND
5.2 All-Optical AND Gates
The AND gate is indispensable for achieving lightwave broadband

communications networks as it is involved in the accomplishment of numerous
tasks in the optical domain both in fundamental and system-oriented level, such
as buffering, address comparison, add-drop multiplexing, packet clock and data
recovery, packet header and payload separation, binary pattern recognition,
binary counting, analog-to-digital conversion, digital encoding and comparison,
data regeneration, waveform sampling, binary addition, multiplication,
construction of other logic gates and of combinational logic circuits [48, 72,
73]. Given its importance, multi-lateral role the AND gate has attracted intense
research interest and among the technological options that exist for its
implementation those that exploit a semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA) are
well established [48]. In fact, besides being employed for classical applications
such as signal generation, amplification, and modulation [48, 71], SOAs have
also demonstrated their potential as nonlinear switching elements for
performing all-optical AND logic, either as stand-alone entities [73, 74] or
incorporated in an interferometric configuration [75]. Nevertheless, the
extension of the use of these digital logic modules as AND gate at ultrafast data
rates is limited by the inherently slow SOA gain recovery time and the
associated pattern- dependent performance degradation [29]. The negative by-
product of this fact is that it is not possible to satisfy the unceasing demand for
more bandwidth since single channel data rates are upgrading to magnitudes
that exceed by far the SOAs ultrafast potential [76]. As mentioned in chapter 4,
QD-SOAs with their special structure are very promising devices thanks to
their distinctive physical properties that have been constantly improving during
recent years over conventional SOAs. Owing to its attractive features the QD-
SOA-based MZI has been the primary choice for the demonstration of all-
optical logic functions [77-80].Therefore we introduce in this section a simple,
affordable and versatile way implement the AND gate using the classic MZI
scheme [48]. The adopted approach requires only two distinct data trains
between which the AND function is directly executed, with only one of them
being strong and inserted in only one QD-SOA. The feasibility of the scheme is
thoroughly investigated by applying a numerical model that takes into account
the dynamical behaviour of QD-SOAs in order to simulate the operation of the
standard MZI configured as AND gate when it receives a pair of fully-loaded
pseudorandom binary sequences (PRBS) as inputs. This is done at 160 Gb/s
where it will be shown that the conducted theoretical analysis allows
thoroughly investigating and assessing the impact of these parameters on the
metric of Q-factor (the definition of the Q-factor is presented in Appendix B).
Then we extract a set of design rules for their selection and combination within
their specified allowable range so that the AND function can be executed at the
target ultrafast data rate both with logical correctness and high quality.
5.2.1 Principle of Operation of Proposed AND Gate
The configuration of the proposed AND gate considered in the conducted

theoretical treatment is shown in Fig. (5.1). and the output power can be
expressed as
[ ] (5.1)
All parameters are explained in previous chapters.

The configuration is based on the symmetrical MZI architecture, in which the
same QD-SOAs, QD-SOA1 and QD-SOA2, are placed in the upper and lower
arm, respectively. A data-carrying signal A enters through a wavelength
selective coupler (WSC) QD-SOA1, while a data-carrying signal B is inserted
in the MZI and is split via the input 3 dB coupler C1 into a pair of identical
parts, which travel separated along the QD-SOAs located in their path. Signal
A should be at least an order of magnitude stronger than signal B [58]. These
signals are discriminated by using different wavelengths, such that their
Fig. (5.1) Simulated setup of QD-SOA-based MZI configured for Boolean
AND operation between data A and B.
detuning in the 1550nm region is less thanthe homogeneous broadening of QD-

SOA1 [58]. In this manner only signal A can modify the nonlinear optical
properties of QD-SOA1 and induce a change on the gain and phase of signal B.
Now if B = `0' then regardless of the binary content of A we get nothing at
output port (O/P), simply because there is no input signal on which to imprint
any perturbation of the initially balanced MZI and to transfer to the O/P, as can
be extracted from Eq. (5.1). This is a trivial situation, which changes when B =
`1', namely when data sequence B contains a pulse. In this case the result at
O/P depends on the existence or not of a pulse in the same bit slot of data
sequence A. More specifically, if A = `0', QD-SOA1 remains intact to the same
dynamical state as QD-SOA2 so that the decomposed constituents of B
perceive the same gain. Thus when they recombine at 3 dB coupler C2 they
interfere destructively, which results in a space at O/P. But if A = `1' QD-
SOA1 undergoes a radical change of its gain compared to the non-driven QD-
SOA2. Consequently the copy of B in the upper MZI arm acquires via cross-
phase modulation [81] a nonlinear phase shift against its counterpart in the
lower MZI arm, which eventually creates a relative phase difference between
these components. If this quantity is ideally made equal to then it is possible
to maximize the amount of the power that emerges at O/P and hence the
amplitude of the obtained mark. According to this mode of operation a pulse
occurs at O/P if and only if a pulse is present in both signals A and B whilst no
pulse appears at the specific terminal if a pulse is absent from either A or B or
from both of them. In other words O/P = `0' when (A, B) = (0, 0), (0, 1) or (1,
0), and O/P = `1' when A, B = (1, 1). These combinations of logical pairs and
their outcome form the truth table of Boolean AND logic executed between A
and B, which means that the QD-SOA-based MZI in the setup of Fig. (5.1) is
configured as AND gate.
5.2.2 Numerical Results of Proposed AND Gate
In order to examine whether the proposed QD-SOA-based MZI scheme can be

configured as ultrafast AND gate at 160 Gb/s we evaluate its performance
against the Q-factor. In order to ensure acceptable performance, the Q-factor
must satisfy the criterion to be over six. Details of the design metrics; ER, AM,
Q- Factor, and PED are presented in Appendix B. Thus in the following we
investigate whether this goal can be achieved at 160 Gb/s in terms of the
critical operational parameters, which include the peak input data power as well
the QD-SOAs maximum modal gain, current density and electron relaxation
time from the ES to the GS.Fig. (5.2) illustrates the effect on the Q-factor with
peak power of the input data signals for three different current density values,
when the other parameters are kept fixed.
Fig. (5.2) Variation of Q-Factor with peak data power for different current
densities, keeping other parameters fixed.
As it can be observed, the obtained curve exhibits a bell-like variation
with a maximum point at around 11dBm for J=3kA/cm2, on either side of
which the Q-factor is decreased. In order to interpret this behavior we recall
from Figures (4.6, 4.7) that the peak input data power determines the extent of
the QD-SOA gain excursions, G, which in turn makes the phase difference
the magnitude of switching and accordingly the Q-factor. Thus initially the Q-
factor is increased with the peak input data power, because QD-SOA1 is
progressively brought into deeper saturation and the phase difference
approaches closer to its optimum value of . However as the examined
parameter is increased further beyond 11dBm, the additional differential gain
that is induced causes the phase difference to diverge away from [82]. As a
result the Q-factor does not continue to improve but it is declined with a steeper
slope than that of its rising part due to the stronger carrier depletion. The Q-
factor is acceptable within a total input power dynamic range of roughly 4dBm,
whose central peak power of 10.8 dBm which can be provided by commercial
erbium doped fiber amplifier; we consider the Q- factor = 10 as a limit.
Another point, the common characteristic of all curves is that the maximum
value changes and shifted to the right as the current density becomes larger.
From a physical perspective this happens because the current density
determines the power required to alter the optical properties of a QD-SOA and
properly saturate its gain, and the higher it is the more power is necessary for
this purpose [61]. This fact also explains that as we move well enough into the
falling slope of the curves a larger current density is necessary to enhance the
Q-Factor and hence improve performance for a given power. This in turn
allows selecting the peak data power from a wider range of permissible values,
which potentially offers greater flexibility in the design of the AND gate.
Figure(5.3) shows the Q-factor against the QD-SOAs maximum modal
gain for three different QD-SOAs length, when the other parameters are kept
fixed. It can be noticed that there is a similarity between the obtained curve and
that of Fig. (5.2).This is attributed to the common impact that both parameters
have on the QD-SOAs dynamical behaviour, as demonstrated in Section 4.3.
Therefore, as this parameter is altered the phase difference created between the
replicas of input data signal B undergoes a variation analogous to that
described in the context of Fig. (5.2).This means that in order to achieve
switching as anticipated according to the requirements of AND operation an
efficient level of maximum modal gain is necessary. The Q-factor remains
above 10 on either side of a maximum modal gain of approximately 16 cm-1 for
L=4mm, where it becomes maximum. For given QD- SOAs length this
maximum modal gain range can be achieved in a feasible manner by
intervening in the number of the QD layers when designing the QD-SOA
structure [71], as discussed in section 4.2. It can also note in this figure; the
common characteristic of all curves is that the maximum value is shifted tothe
right as the QD-SOAs length becomes smaller. The smaller value of the
maximum modal gain requires the longer QD-SOAs length to obtain the
maximum value of Q-factor.
Fig. (5.3) Variation of Q-Factor with the maximum modal gain for three
different QD-SOAs length, keeping other parameters fixed
Figure (5.4) illustrates the Q-factor versus the QD-SOAs current

density for two different QD-SOA lengths, when the other parameters are kept
fixed. For small current densities, the Q-factor is sharply increased, and after
the Q-factor is very low and hence totally inadmissible. In contrast, a larger
current density offers a redundancy of supplied carriers and thus permits the
dynamical optical properties of QD-SOA1 to reach an equilibrium state, which
has a positive impact on the considered metric. Fig.(5.4) shows that if J is
adjusted to be over 1.7 kA/cm2 then the Q-factor is made acceptable. The
corresponding bias current is 204 mA, which lies within reasonable limits and
can be practically supplied by commercial current sources [61]. Therefore a
moderate current density is fine for allowing the proposed AND gate to be
realized at least with an adequate performance. The second point which can be
noted from this figure is that the higher value of J requires the longer QD-
SOAs length to obtain the same value of Q-factor.
Fig. (5.4) Variation of Q-Factor with current densities for two different QD-
Figure (5.5) illustrates the effect on the Q-factor with QD-SOAs length
for two different peak powers of the input data signals, when the other
parameters are kept fixed. The common characteristic of these curves is that the
Q-factor is increased with QD-SOAs length to a certain value after that it is
dropped. The maximum value is shifted to the left as the peak power becomes
larger. The smaller value of the QD-SOA length requires the larger peak
control power to obtain the maximum value of Q-factor.
Fig. (5.5) Variation of extinction ratio (Q-Factor) with QD-SOA length for two
different peak data power, keeping other parameters fixed.
Fig. (5.6) Variation of Q-Factor with electron relaxation time from the ES to
the GS for two different QD-SOAs length, keeping other parameters fixed
Figure (5.6) depicts the Q-factor as a function of the QD- SOAs electron
relaxation time from the ES to the GS for two QD-SOAs length, when the other
parameters are kept fixed. This figure demonstrates that in order for the
proposed scheme to operate without logical errors, this parameter must not be
chosen arbitrarily fast, as it would be expected from the evidence available on
the implementation of another basic logic function using the QD-SOA-based
MZI [59]. In fact must not be too small neither too large so as to avoid
impairing the quality of switching in terms of the Q-factor. More specifically,
for >0.32ps the Q-factor starts becoming degraded and as is increased
further in this region the performance of the proposed AND gate is strongly
deteriorated due to the slower QD-SA1 gain recovery process described in the
QD-SOA characterization. On the other hand for <0.32ps the very fast
relaxation of the carriers from the ES to the GS causes the carrier density in the
upper energy levels of the discrete QD-SOA energy diagram to be dramatically
decreased. This results in lack of supplied carriers, which limits the ultrafast
operation of the MZI and renders the Q-factor unacceptable. Thus we need to
take jointly into account the contribution of the current density, as inferred
from the discussion of the QD-SOA characterization (section 4.3). To this end
the current density must be properly chosen as specified from Fig. (5.4). The
Q-factor remains over 6 against within approximately 1.17 ps. The values
lying in this range as well as the maximum of 0.95 ps are typical for [83].
Design Parameters
According thus to Figs. (5.2-5.6) and their interpretation, it can be

inferred that the requirements for the critical parameters are
, , mm,
, and 0.3ps.
By following these guidelines and using the combination of values

, J= , L=4mm, , and ,
respectively, which obviously is not unique, which fall within the specified
boundaries, a more than adequate Q-factor of about 15.15dB and ER of about
14 dB can be obtained, which is reflected on the high quality of pulse stream
obtained at the output [8].On other hand, when we use another combination of
values such as , J= , L=2mm, , and
, respectively. These values are not falling within the specified
boundaries. ER in this case equals 5dB, and Q-factor of about 2.5dB which is
reflected on the low quality of pulse stream obtained at the output. The input
waveforms and the simulated output waveforms for the two cases are shown in
Figs. (5.7), respectively.
Fig. (5.7) waveforms of AND gate -based QD-SOA MZI, where (a) input data
stream A, (b) input data stream B, (c) Output with Q=15.15, (d) Output with
Q=2.5
Figs. (5.8 a-c) demonstrate Simulated waveforms with pseudo-eye-
diagram (PED) for (a) input data stream A or B, (b) output with Q=15.15, and
(c) output with Q=2.5. As can be seen from these figures, the quality of case (b)
is better than that of case (c). The relative eye opening (O) in case (b) equals
92%, whilst it equals 22% for case (c).These values indicate a quite good
response of the circuit under consideration at its output terminals in case (b).
Concurrently, for the case shown in Fig. (5.7c), the marks are sufficiently
balanced and the difference between their peak amplitudes is only 0.1 dB, as
verified by Fig. (5.9.a). In this figure, the uniform drop of QD-SOA1 gain in
response to data signal A can be easily noted. On the other hand, for the case
shown in Fig. (5.7.d), the marks are unbalanced and the difference between
their peak amplitudes is higher than 0.1 dB, as verified by Fig. (5.9.b). In this
figure, the inconsistent drop of QD-SOA1 gain in response to data signal A can
be easily seen.
Fig. (5.8) Simulated waveforms with pseudo-eye-diagram (PED)where (a)
input data stream A, (b) output with O=92%, (c) output with O=22%
Fig. (5.9) Gain response of QD-SOA1 to data stream A of Fig. (5.7). for (a)
Q=15.15, (b) Q=2.5
5.3 All-Optical XOR Gates
XOR logic gate is one of the most applicable gates in optical signal
processing and is a key element to implement primary systems for binary
address and header recognition, binary addition and counting, pattern matching,
decision and comparison, generation of pseudorandom binary sequences,
encryption and coding. This gate has been demonstrated at 40 Gb/s and 80 Gb/s
[80] using SOA-MZI differential schemes that have been deployed to
overcome the speed limitations imposed by the bulk SOAs slow recovery time.
However, it is predicted that QD-SOA based XOR gates have the potential to
operate above 160Gb/s bit rates [53].
A B XOR
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
(b)
(a)
Fig. (5.10) (a) Simulated setup of QD-SOA-based MZI configured for Boolean XOR
operation between data A and B and (b) its truth table.
5.3.1 Principle of Operation of Proposed XOR Gate
The configuration of the proposed XOR gate considered in the

conducted theoretical treatment is shown in Fig. (5.10.a).The output power can
be expressed as [70]
[ ] (5.2)
It is based on the symmetrical MZI architecture, in which the same QD-SOAs;

QD-SOA1 and QD-SOA2, are placed in the upper and lower arm, respectively.
A first input data (A) enters through a wavelength selective coupler (WSC)
QD-SOA1, and a second input data (B) enters through a wavelength selective
coupler (WSC) QD-SOA2. While a clock stream, with the same repetition rate
as the data input but it has a power less than the power of the data input by at
least one order of magnitude, is inserted in the MZI and is split via the input 3
dB coupler C1 into a pair of identical parts, which travel separated along the
QD-SOAs located in their path [58]. These signals are discriminated by using
different wavelengths, such that their detuning in the 1550nm region is less
than the homogeneous broadening of QD-SOA1. In this manner the first input
data A modify the nonlinear optical properties of QD-SOA1 and induce a
change on the gain and phase of the upper part of the clock stream and the
second input data B do the same thing on the lower part of the clock stream.
Now if both A and B equal '0' or '1' then QD-SOA1 remains intact to the same
dynamical state as QD-SOA2 so that the decomposed constituents of the clock
stream perceive the same gain. Thus when they recombine at 3 dB coupler C2
they interfere destructively, which results in a space or pulse free at output port.
On the other hand, if one of A or B equals '1' and the other equals '0' then one
of QD-SOA1 or QD-SOA2 undergoes a radical change of its gain compared to
the non-driven QD-SOA (which has input equals '0'). Consequently, the copy
of the clock stream in one MZI arm acquires via cross-phase modulation [70] a
nonlinear phase shift against its counterpart in the other MZI arm, which
eventually creates a relative phase difference between these components. If this
quantity is ideally made equal to then it is possible to maximize the amount
of the power that emerges at output port and hence the amplitude of the
obtained logic one. According to this mode of operation a pulse occurs at
output port if and only if a pulse is present in only one input data (A or B)
whilst no pulse appears at the specific terminal if A and B are similar. The truth
table is shown in Fig. (5.10.b.). From the above description and the truth table
one can deduce that if the two inputs (A and B) are exactly equals and the two
amplifiers (QD-SOA1 and QD-SOA2) are exactly the same (the parameters in
each amplifier are equals) the output will be perfect, i.e. Q-Factor and ER will
be very high and the AM will be very low. To confirm this concept, the input
waveforms and the simulated output waveform are shown in Figs. (5.11.a, b,
c), respectively while Fig. (5.12) shows a pseudo-eye-diagram [10].
As can be seen from these figures, the quality of the diagram is very
high where ER = 41.2 dB, Q-Factor= 52.5, and the O = 99%. These values
indicate an excellent response of the circuit under consideration at its output
terminals. Verification to the above concept is presented in Fig (5.13). It is
clear from this figure that there is a uniform drop of QD-SOA1 gain in
response to input data A and QD-SOA2 gain in response to input data B.
Therefore, based on the above discussion, we study in the next section the
effect of the difference in the values of important parameters between the two
amplifiers, as well as, the two input data; A and B. In other words, we study the
effect of the delay between the two input data A and B and the effect of power
deference between them. In addition, the deference in QD-SOAs length,
maximum modal gain, and the relaxation time from ES to GS between the two
amplifiers; QD-SOA1 and QD-SOA2 will also be explained.
Fig. (5.11) waveforms of XOR gate -based QD-SOA MZI, where (a) input data
stream A, (b) input data stream B, (c) A XOR B
Fig. (5.12) Simulated waveforms with pseudo-eye-diagram (PED) for A XOR

B
5.3.2 Numerical Results of Proposed XOR Gate
In these numerical results we will concentrate on the influence of the

delta parameters on the three popular metrics; Extinction Ratio ER,
Amplitude Modulation AM, and the Q-Factor. The delta is the value added to
the studying parameters in one QD-SOA and it did not added to the another
amplifier. Specifically, represents the delay in time, in the first case and the
difference in the input peak power, in the second case, between the two input
data; A and B. Then it represents the difference in QD-SOA Length, QD-SOA
maximum modal gain, and finally, the electron relaxation time from ES to GS
between the two QD-SOAs.
Fig. (5.13) (a) Gain response of QD-SOA1 to data stream A, (b)Gain response
of QD-SOA2 to data stream B
Fig. (5.14 ) Delay between the two input pulses
Fig. (5.15) Variation of (a) ER, (b) AM, and (C) Q-factor with the delay
Figure (5.14) shows the meant by delay. The delay is time difference
between the two input data in one bit duration. Fig. (5.15) demonstrates the
influence of this delay on the ER, AM, Q-factor, respectively. As it is expected,
the performance of the XOR gate worse as the delay increases. The ER and Q-
Factor degrade while the AM increases. As can be also seen from this figure,
the delay must be below 0.45 ps because this value is the minimum critical
value for the three metrics. Above this value the ER is under 10dBm which is
the lower limit for the good communications. Although, the delays up to 0.58
ps the Q-factor is still reasonable and up to 0.73 ps the AM is still acceptable,
but we will take the lower limit for the three metrics. We compare in Fig.
(5.16) between the XOR outputs for the two input stream represented in
Fig.(5.11.a, b) in two cases; case (a) delay equals zero, and case (b), delay
equals 1 ps.
Fig. (5.16) waveforms of XOR gate -based QD-SOA MZI, where (a) delay
equals zero, (b) delay equals 1 ps.
Degradation in performance is very clear in case (b) compared to case

(a) in which the XOR output is very good. For case b (1 ps), the bad quality of
the XOR operation is also confirmed by the corresponding pseudo-eye diagram
(PED) [72] which has been plotted in Fig.(5.17) for a 127 bit-long data stream.
An eye-diagram with large eyes indicates a clear transmission with a low bit
error rate and vice versa. Here, we get PED O=18%. This value indicates a bad
response of the circuit under consideration at its output terminals.
Fig. (5.18) illustrates the effect on the three metrics with the difference
in the input peak power between the two input data. As can be seen from theses
curves, ER is the less affected metric than AM and Q-Factor. Differences in
peak power up to 0.28dBm means a good performance with respect to all
metrics and up to 0.44dBn reflect an acceptable performance with respect to
ER and Q-Factor. We compare in Fig. (5.19) between the XOR outputs for the
two input stream represented in Fig.(5.11.a, b) in two cases; case (a), peak
power difference equals zero, and case (b), equals 0.5dBm. As can be seen
from this figure, high AM is very clear but still ones and zeros can be
distinguished from each other which mean the ER is still acceptable.
Fig. (5.17) Simulated waveforms with pseudo-eye-diagram (PED) for A XOR

B at delay equals 1 ps
Fig.(5.20) shows the effect on the three metrics with the difference in lengths
between the two QD-SOAs. As is shown in this figure, the AM is the first
metric affected by this difference then the Q-Factor. Differences up to 0.3mm
the performance is acceptable with respect to ER and Q-Factor. Above this
value the Q-Factor will be less than 6 and the performance no longer
reasonable. We compare in Fig. (5.21) between the XOR outputs for the two
input stream represented in Fig. (5.11.a, b) in two cases; case (a), difference in
Length equals zero, and case (b), equals 0.5mm. It can be noted from this
figure that high AM is very clear but still ones and zeros can be distinguished
from each other which means the ER is still acceptable.
Fig. (5.18)Variation of (a) ER, (b) AM, and (C) Q-factor with the difference in
the peak input power
difference in the peak power equals (a) zero, (b) 0.5dBm.
Figure (5.22) shows the effect on the three metrics with the difference in
the maximum modal gain between the two QD-SOAs. Also it is obvious from
this figure; the three metrics are very sensitive to the difference in the
maximum modal gain between the two amplifiers. This difference has to be
less than 0.025cm-1 to avoid higher AM. Whilst, it has to be less than 0.08cm-1
to obtain a good performance with regarding to ER and Q-Factor. We compare
in Fig. (5.23) between the XOR outputs for the two input stream represented in
Fig. (5.11. a, b) in two cases; case (a), difference in maximum modal gain
equals zero, and case (b), equals 0.2 cm-1. It can be noted from this figure that
the performance in case (b) is very bad; zeros and ones cannot be distinguished
from each other and this comes from lower ER and Q-Factor.
Fig. (5.20) Variation of (a) ER, (b) AM, and (C) Q-factor with the difference in
length
difference in length equals (a) zero, (b) 0.5mm.
Finally, the effect of the difference in the electron relaxation time from
ES to GS between the two amplifiers on the three metrics is explained in Fig.
(5.22). Like all the above parameters except delay in time between the two
data, the AM is the first metric affected by this difference. Differences up to
0.28ps the performance is acceptable with respect to ER and Q-Factor. Above
this value the Q-Factor will be less than 6 and the performance no longer
reasonable.
From the observation and interpretation of Figs.(5.14 to 5.24) it can be deduced
that the difference in each parameter between the two QD-SOAs has to be less
than some values to avoid degradation the XOR performance.
maximum modal gain
Fig. (5.23) waveforms of XOR gate -based QD-SOA MZI, where difference in
maximum modal gain equals (a) zero, (b) 0.2 cm-1.
relaxation time from ES to GS
5.4 All-Optical OR Gates
A Boolean logic OR gate is one of the essential logic gate devices and is
capable of forming more complex all-optical functional blocks, modules, or
subsystems. Several SOA-based logic OR gates have been demonstrated. An
OR gate based on cross-gain modulation effect in a single SOA has a simple
configuration but low extinction ratio and relatively large chirp [84]. OR logic
gates based on cross-phase modulation (XPM) [85] own advantages of high
extinction ratio or high contrast ratio at the cost of complex interferometer
configurations. In this section all optical OR gate based on QD-SOA MZI will
be investigated.
5.4. 1 Principle of Operation of Proposed OR Gate
The configuration of the proposed OR gate considered in the conducted

theoretical treatment is shown in Fig. (5.25). and the output power can be
expressed by Eq. (5.2). It is based on the symmetrical MZI architecture, in
which the same QD-SOAs; QD-SOA1 and QD-SOA2, are placed in the upper
and lower arm, respectively. The input data, call it D, enter through a
wavelength selective coupler (WSC) QD-SOA1, these input data D consist of
the two data we want to OR them; data A and B, which combined through a
wavelength selective coupler (WSC). while a clock stream with the same
reputation rate as the data input but it has a power less than the power of the
data input by at least one order of magnitude is inserted in the MZI and is split
via the input 3 dB coupler C1 into a pair of identical parts, which travel
separated along the QD-SOAs located in their path[50]. These signals are
discriminated by using different wavelengths, such that their detuning in the
1550nm region is less than the homogeneous broadening of QD-SOA1, as
shown in Fig. (5.25). In this manner only the input data (D) can modify the
nonlinear optical properties of QD-SOA1 and induce a change on the gain and
phase of the clock stream. Now if D = `0' which means the two data; A and B
equal zero, then QD-SOA1 remains intact to the same dynamical state as QD-
SOA2 so that the decomposed constituents of the clock stream perceive the
same gain. Thus when they recombine at 3 dB coupler C2 they interfere
destructively, which results in a space or pulse free at output port. The output
equals zero. But if D = `1' which means at least one of the two data; A and B
equals one, QD-SOA1 undergoes a radical change of its gain compared to the
non-driven QD-SOA2. Consequently, the copy of clock stream in the upper
MZI arm acquires via cross-phase modulation [50] a nonlinear phase shift
against its counterpart in the lower MZI arm, which eventually creates a
relative phase difference between these components. If this quantity is ideally
made equal to then it is possible to maximize the amount of the power that
emerges at output port and hence the amplitude of the obtained logic one.
According to this mode of operation a pulse occurs at output port of the OR
gate if and only if a pulse is present at any of the input data A and B whilst no
pulse appears at the specific terminal if a pulse is absent from both, as shown in
Fig.(5.25.b). In other words O/P = '1' when (A,B)= (0,1), (1,0) or (1,1), and O/P
= '0' when (A,B) = (0,0). These combinations of logical pairs and their outcome
form the truth table of Boolean OR logic executed between A and B, which
means that the QD-SOA-based MZI in the setup of Fig. (5.25.a) is configured
as OR gate. It is noteworthy that when both of the input signals are 1 the
upper SOA lies in high saturation mode and the output power will be higher
than the situation where only one of the inputs is 1. Therefore, it is important
to select the input powers such that the QD-SOA works in the saturation region
in the presence of only of input data stream.
5.4.2 Numerical Results of Proposed OR Gate
In order to evaluate the performance of the scheme it is necessary

to select the appropriate metric. This can be done with the help of the truth
table of the OR gate (Fig. 5.25.b). More specifically, we observe that of the
four logical possibilities, three concerns a mark and one a space. Now since the
latter case is the outcome of both data signals A and B being not present and
thus affecting similarly the respective QD-SOAs dynamical behavior, this
means that the resultant 0 is expected to be fully extinguished and so there is
no need to worry about it as it can be clearly distinguished from the 1s.
Therefore we must focus on the 1s and their peak amplitudes for which
although ideally we would desire them to be as equal as possible yet in practice
we could tolerate a maximum relative fluctuation so as to avoid the pattern
effect and its deleterious consequences [29, 86].
A B OR
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
(b)
(a)
Fig. (5.25)(a) Simulated setup of QD-SOA-based MZI configured for

Boolean OR operation between data A and B and (b) its truth table.
In this context the most suitable metric for comparing their level and
assessing the degree of their uniformity is by definition the amplitude
modulation (AM) [87]. In general there is no absolute upper limit for the AM
but according to the information that is available on the performance of SOA-
based switches [88] a value that does not exceed 1dB should be acceptable for
the OR gate [89]. The satisfaction of this requirement depends in turn on the
peak power of the data signals A and B, Ppeak as well as on the QD-SOAs
injected current density, J, maximum modal gain gmax, electron relaxation
time from the ES to the GS, and QD-SOAs length. For this purpose in the
following the impact of these critical parameters on the AM is investigated and
assessed through the observation and interpretation of the numerically derived
curves shown in Figs. (5.26-5.30). These figures have been obtained by setting
them to the fixed values Ppeak =12 dBm, J=3kA/cm2, gmax =16 , L=4mm,
and , which are representative of practical QD-SOA devices [58, 59],
and then scanning one after the other.
Fig. (5.26)Variation of AM with the peak input power for two different current
density, keeping other parameters fixed.
Fig. (5.26) depicts the AM against the equal peak power of data signals A and
B for two values of J. As it can be observed, the AM becomes minimum at
around 11dBm for J=2kA/cm2 and 12dBm for J=3kA/cm2 and on either side of
this point there are two distinct areas where the AM is drastically varied in a
parabolic like manner. In order to interpret this behavior we note first that the
change of the data power launched into QD-SOAs 1 and 2 defines their degree
of saturation and subsequently the reduction of their gains whose relative ratio,
G1/G2, determines in turn the amount of the phase difference,
( ) ( ), Eq. (4.8), induced between the copies of the clock
stream. Thus depending on the level of the driving data power this quantity is
made to lie in different intervals [88], which affects analogously the magnitude
of switching and accordingly the AM. In this context we note further with the
help of the truth table of the Boolean OR operation and the transfer function
that can be extracted from Eq. (4.5), (
( )), that there are three values to R depending on the input data binary
pairs. Specifically, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) is not in AM interest
because it corresponds to the zero output. In all times, G2=Gss because QD-
SOA2 receives no data. Therefore, the value of G1 controls the phase difference
and this in turn change the value of cosine in the transfer function. Since
the cosine is a trigonometric function it has minima and maxima. Therefore the
effect of the data power on the AM can be qualitatively estimated by means of
the impact that different at border points of the trigonometric circle have on
the previous transfer functions. More specifically, when the provided peak
power is such that then ( )[ ] Now since under

this condition for QD-SOA1 is not saturated but operates close to the
small signal gain regime then as a result this is mostly
related to ( ) ( ) . On the other hand, when the provided peak power is
such that then ( )( ) Now since under this condition
for QD-SOA1 is saturated and operates far from the small signal gain
regime. This is mostly related to ( ) these means that the amplitude of the
minimum 1 at the output of the MZI will deviate much away from the
maximum 1, thereby making the AM of the OR gate surpass 1 dB. Therefore,
to achieve an acceptable AM it has to incur the proper ratio between
required for bringing closer ( ) and ( ) From this point on ward things
begin to significantly improve with the launch of more power since the cosine
term in ( ) changes sign and adds to the sum ( ), thus making
( ) approach more to ( ). At Ppeak=11dBm for J=2 kA/cm2 and

Ppeak=12dBm for J=3kA/cm2. Concurrently, and the convergence of
( ) and ( ) becomes maximum, which is translated to a minimum AM. By
continuing to increase the data power exceeds and as it successively runs
through the other two quadrants of values the process described above is
repeated in the inverse order causing the AM to exhibit again a similar trend of
deterioration. Nevertheless this variation is not exactly a mirror image of that
undergone before since are now modified from a lower initial gain
level and in this case the AM is higher when comparing points that are located
equidistantly from its specified minimum, which results in some asymmetry
between the opposite slopes. Overall what matters is whether the AM can be
eventually made acceptable and this is indeed possible within a total power
dynamic range of roughly 8dB that can be achieved by means of erbium doped
fiber amplifiers (EDFAs). Another point can be noted from Fig. (5.26) is that
the minimum value changes and shifted to the right as the current density
becomes larger. From a physical perspective this happens because the current
density determines the power required to alter the optical properties of a QD-
SOA and properly saturate its gain, and the higher it is the more power is
necessary for this purpose [61].
Fig. (5.27)Variation of AM with the current density for two different lengths,
keeping other parameters fixed.
Figure (5.27) illustrates the AM versus the QD-SOAs current density.
As it can be seen, for values less than 0.8 kA/cm2 the AM is very high and thus
inadmissible. This is explained by the fact that the current density determines
the saturation power of a QD-SOA [61] in such way that the lower it is the
easier can the QD-SOA be saturated. The result of this correlation is that the
gain deviates much away from the small signal gain and according to
the previous paragraph so do the corresponding transfer functions in which
they are involved, ( ) and ( ) . It can be noted that, as J is increased the
AM is sharply decreased and when it exceeds the threshold of 1 kA/cm2 the
AM becomes almost constant and independent of this critical parameter. This
evolution is a byproduct of the satisfaction of a sufficient and of a necessary
condition, which together make the AM take the specific form. The first
condition is that the amount of injected carriers is such that it can force the
excursions of the QD-SOAs gains to occur closer to the same average level.
The second condition is that the mark density of the OR output is high, i.e.0.75,
and thus it increases the probability of having a pair of marks within the
switched sequence whose amplitude fluctuation is less than 1dB, as required
for the AM. Then provided that J is adjusted to be over its identified minimum
its final selection is dictated by the requirement that the equivalent bias current
can be supplied by the commercially available current sources while it is not
prohibitive for the practical use of QD-SOAs [61]. Therefore a moderate
current density value of the order of 3kA/cm2should be fine for this purpose.
Fig.(5.28)Variation of AM with the maximum modal gain
Figure (5.28) shows the AM as a function of the QD-SOAs maximum

modal gain. As it can be noticed there is an apparent similarity between the
obtained curve and that of Fig. (5.26) for the peak data power, which is
attributed to the common impact that both parameters have on the QD-SOAs
dynamical behavior and subsequently on the switching performance. In
particular the maximum modal gain determines the extent that the gain of each
QD-SOA is dropped from its unsaturated level [58] and subsequently the
amount of the differential gain created between the MZI arms. Since this
quantity imparts through the line width enhancement factor a differential phase
shift, it can be realized that the changes of also affect and hence the AM
in a way analogous to that described in the context of Fig. (5.26). For this
reason the two AM diagrams resemble in shape both having a falling and a
rising part, although the effect on the AM magnitude is more pronounced for
the small signal gain because the gains G1 and G2 that enter in the expressions
of the characteristic transfer functions are influenced directly by its variation.
The AM remains below 1 dB on either side of a maximum modal gain of
approximately 17cm-1, where it becomes minimum, and within a range of
approximately 3.5cm-1, which for given QD-SOAs length can be achieved by
intervening in the number of the QD layers when designing the QD-SOA
structure, see section 4.2.
Fig. (5.29)Variation of AM with the length
Figure (5.29) shows the AM as a function of the QD-SOAs length. It

can be noticed that there is an apparent similarity between the obtained curve
and that of Fig. (5.26, 5.28) for the peak data power and the maximum modal
gain, respectively. This is attributed to the common impact that these
parameters have on the QD-SOAs dynamical behavior and subsequently on the
switching performance. In particular the QD-SOAs length determines the
extent that the gain of each QD-SOA is dropped from its unsaturated level [58]
and subsequently the amount of the differential gain created between the MZI
arms. Since this quantity imparts through the line width enhancement factor a
and hence the AM in a way analogous to that described in the context of Fig.
(5.26). this reason the three AM diagrams resemble in shape both having a
falling and a rising part, although the effect on the AM magnitude is more
by its variation ,Eq. (4.5). The AM remains below 1 dB on either side of a QD-
SOAs length of approximately 4mm, where it becomes minimum, and within a
range of approximately 1.4mm, which for given QD-SOAs maximum modal
gain can be achieved by intervening in the number of the QD layers when
designing the QD-SOA structure.
Fig.(5.30)waveforms of OR gate -based QD-SOA MZI, where (a) input data

stream A, (b) input data stream B, (c) A OR B
Design Parameters
From the observation and interpretation of Figures (5.26 to 5.29) it can
be deduced that the requirements for the critical parameters are
, , mm,
. Thus using the combination of values
, J= , L=4mm, , and ,
which fall within the specified boundaries, the OR gate can be realized
according to the desired performance standards. This can be seen in Fig. (5.30)
where the OR logic has been executed for convenience of visual representation
between two input data stream shown in Fig. (5.30.a, b). In fact pulses emerge
only at the bit slots of A and B that are not simultaneously occupied by '0' or
equivalently if just one of these inputs is in the 1 logical state, and are
extinguished when both A and B are 1. This proves that the OR operation is
correctly executed for 160 Gb/s RZ data according to its truth table in Fig.
(5.25.b), as it can be alternatively confirmed by comparing the resultant
sequence in Fig. (5.30.c) with the expected one Moreover, despite the non-
uniformity among the output marks, the quality of the logical outcome is more
than adequate since the difference in their amplitudes is strongly suppressed
and its maximum does not exceed 0.5 dB. The existing pattern dependence is
inevitable and cannot be fully eliminated due to the special nature of switching,
which demands combating the amplitude fluctuations of marks that correspond
to a high percentage, 75%, of the output logical possibilities. Despite the
difficulty of this task, the proposed scheme, provided that it is designed by
following the extracted guidelines, can render the AM acceptable to a greater
extent than other SOA-based MZI circuits having the same aim but more
complicated configuration and much lower speed capability [89]. The above
observation is further verified by the pseudo-eye-diagram [10]shown in Fig.
(5.31). An eye-diagram with large eyes indicates a clear transmission with a
low bit rate. Here, we get PED O=89.3%. This value indicates a good response
of the circuit under consideration at its output terminals.
Fig. (5.31)Simulated waveforms with pseudo-eye-diagram (PED) for A OR B

Chapter (6)
Ultrafast All-Optical Full Adder Using Quantum-Dot

Semiconductor Optical Amplifier-Based Mach-Zehnder
Interferometer
Introduction
Interferometric devices have drawn a great interest in all-optical signal
processing for their high-speed photonic activity. Quantum-dot semiconductor
optical amplifier (QD-SOA) - based gate has added a new momentum in this
field to perform all-optical logic and algebraic operations. In this chapter, for
the first time, a new scheme for all-optical full adder using fife QD-SOA based
MachZehnder interferometers is theoretically investigated and demonstrated.
The proposed scheme is driven by three input data streams; two operands and a
bit carried in from the next less significant stage. The proposed scheme consists
of two XOR, two AND, and one OR gate. The impact of the peak data power
as well as of the QD-SOAs current density, maximum modal gain, and QD-
SOAs length on the ER and Q-factor of the switching outcome are explored
and assessed. The operation of the system is demonstrated with 160 Gbit/s.
section 6.1 introduces a brief review for the all-optical full Adder. Principle and
design of proposed all-optical full adder will be explained in section 6.2.
Section 6.3 is devoted to introduce the numerical simulation results of our
proposed design. Finally, section 6.4 summarizes the concluded remarks that
may be obtained from the displayed results
6.1 All optical Full adders
The demand for faster optical communication networks has been on the
rise in recent years. As mentioned in chapter one to accommodate this demand,
the new generation of optical communication networks is moving towards
terabit per second data rates. Such data rates can be achieved if the data remain
in the optical domain eliminating the need to convert the optical signals to
electronic signals and back to optical signals. Therefore, to be successfully able
to achieve higher data rates, advanced optical networks will require all optical
ultra-fast signal processing such as wavelength conversion, optical logic and
arithmetic processing, adddrop function, etc [90, 91]. All -optical
combinational circuits are required for managing of the contentions and the
switch control in a node of an optical packed switched network. Calculating the
addition of Boolean numbers is an important functionality to perform packet
header processing [92].
In recent years, optical logic gates based on several different schemes
are demonstrated and reported, which are based on dual semiconductor optical
amplifier (SOA) MachZehnder interferometer (MZI), semiconductor laser
amplifier (SLA) loop mirror, ultrafast nonlinear interferometers, and four-wave
mixing process in SOA [72], etc.All-optical binary adders have been reported
by using many optical designs such as terahertz optical asymmetric
demultiplexers (TOADs) [93] and ultrafast nonlinear interferometers [94].An
all-optical half adder using an SOA-assisted Sagnac interferometer has been
suggested and demonstrated by several groups of researches [95-97].
A scheme for an ultrahigh-speed all-optical half adder based on four-wave
mixing in SOAs has been demonstrated by Li [96]. The operation of a half
adder/subtractor arithmetic using the darkbright soliton conversion control has
been reported by Phongsanam et al. [95]. Menezes et al. have suggested all-
optical half adder using the symmetric planar three-core non-linear directional
coupler, operating with a short light pulse [97]. Finally, M. Scaffardi et al. have
introduced all-optical full adder using a single SOA as a basic building block
[92]
Among different topologies, monolithically integrated SOA-based MZI
switches are the most promising candidates for all-optical signal processing
devices due to their compact size, thermal stability, high-speed capability, low
switching energy, relative stability, and optical integration compatibility [98].
The technology of quantum-dot SOAs (QD-SOAs) is very appropriate
owing to its remarkably ultrafast response, which, combined with its attractive
characteristics, distinguishes them from conventional SOAs [99, 100]. They
have larger unsaturated gain than bulk SOAs, resulting in higher power optical
amplifiers, but also have enough gain at low injected currents to enable
operation with low power consumption. Their saturation power can be
controlled by changing the injected current with the unsaturated gain kept
constant, thus enabling easy tuning of the operating point for signal
amplification and processing. QD-SOAs exhibit much faster gain recovery
after gain compression than bulk SOAs, enabling amplification and processing
of short pulses with negligible pulse-shape distortion. The all-optical logic
gates, optical wavelength conversion, and optical regeneration based on a QD-
SOA MZI are promising candidates for faster speed of operation compared
with bulk and MQWSOAs due to the comparatively small electron relaxation
times in QDs [77 - 79].
This chapter introduces for the first time (to the knowledge of the
authors) a theoretical model of an ultrafast all-optical full adder based on fife
QD SOA-MZIs. The all-optical adder is potential to execute the addition in the
optical domain up to 160 Gbit/s.
A B C Sum Carry
0 0 0 0
m 0
y
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
(a) (b)
Fig. (6.1) (a) Full adder logic diagram and (b) its Truth table
6.2 Principle and Design of Proposed All-Optical Full Adder
A full adder adds binary numbers and accounts for values carried in as well
as out. A one-bit full adder adds three one-bit numbers, often written as A, B,
and C; A and B are the operands, and C is a bit carried in from the next less
significant stage. The full-adder is usually a component in a cascade of adders,
which add 8, 16, 32, etc. bit wide binary numbers.
As it is known, the full adder is a combinational logic circuit performing
addition of three binary digits. The carry-bit is logic 1 when at least two inputs
have logic 1. Otherwise, it is logic 0. The sum-bit represents the least
significant bit of the three bits binary summation. The truth table shown in Fig.
(6.1.b) explains all the expected cases for the full adder. While, Fig.(6.1.a)
shows the concept upon which the all-optical full adder circuit is designed
[101].
From the standpoint of optics, Fig.(6.2) shows the configuration of the
proposed all-optical full adder. It consists of fife symmetrical QD-SOA-based
MZIs (QD-SOAMZI-1 to QD-SOA MAZI-5) with the same QD-SOA placed
in each of its arms. In the first and second gates (MZI-1, and MZI-2), the first
XOR and the first AND, respectively, the input data are A and B. On the other
hand, the third and fourth gates, (MZI-3, and MZI-4), the second XOR and the
second AND, respectively, the input data are C and the XOR output of the
MZI-1. Finally, the fifth gate, OR (MZI-5), the input data are the AND outputs
of the MZI-2 and MZI-4.The circuit described in Fig. (6.2) can be divided into
three types of gates; XOR, AND, and OR gates which have been explained and
studied in chapter (5). It has to be noting that, the output of any one of these
gates has to be attenuated before using it as input to the next gate to avoid the
cascading amplification.
WSC MZI 3
MZI 1
WSC C1 QD-SOA1 C2
Data A CLK
SUM
C1 QD-SOA1 C2 WSC
CLK Data C
WSC QD-SOA2
Data B
QD-SOA2 WSC MZI 4
C1 QD-SOA1 C2
Data C
WSC
QD-SOA2
WSC MZI 2
Data A WSC
MZI 5
C1 QD-SOA1 C2
Data B C1 QD-SOA1 C2
CLK
WSC Carry
WSC
QD-SOA2
QD-SOA2
Fig (6.2) Configuration of the proposed all-optical full adder using fife symmetrical
QD-SOAs based MZI interferometers
6.3 Simulation Results of the All-Optical Full Adder

In order to study the performance of the proposed QD-SOA based MZI, we
have solved the coupled Eqs.(4.9-4.12)numerically in a step wise manner for
pulses of input data A, B, and C that belong to a 160 Gbit/s pseudo-random
binary sequence and have a Gaussian power profile[175]:
( )( )
( ) ( )
(6.1)
where is their peak power and =2 ps is their full width at half
maximum. BD= 6.25ps is the bit duration. Then the 4th order Runge-Kutta
method is applied to find the amplification factors in both MZI arms, which are
expressed by
( ) ( ) (6.2)
( ) ( ) (6.3)
In this QD-SOA model the values of the different parameters are taken from
the literature on other QD-SOA based interferometric gates [77, 79].
All parameters used in the calculations are summarized in Table 6.1.
In order to assess the performance of the full adder circuit at 160 Gbit/s, we
have to choose which output (Carry or SUM)) we will study?And what is the
suitable metric for this purpose?
Parameter Value Parameter Value

14 cm-1 0.16ps
2 cm-1 1.2ps
1200ps 0.4ns
3ps Pmax 11dBm
NQ L 4mm
Lw 0.25m J 4KA/cm2
1ns 4.5
0.2ns
Table 6.1 : Parameters Used for Simulation of the All-

Optical Full Adder
We will study the Carry bit because it deals with a higher number of gates (4
gates) than the SUM bit (2 gates). With respect to chose the suitable metric,
this can be done with the help of the truth table of the full adder shown in Fig.
(6.1.b).More specifically, we observe that of the eight logical possibilities,
marks (1) and spaces (0) are equal (4 times for each case).Therefore, we must
focus on how to distinguish marks from the spaces. Hence, the most suitable
metric for this purpose is the extinction ratio and the Quality factor[8].
Fig. (6.3) illustrates the effect on the ER with peak power of the input
data signals for three different current density values, when the other
parameters are kept fixed. The common characteristic of all curves is that the
ER is increased with power up to a certain value after that it is decreased. The
maximum value changes and shifted to the right as the current density becomes
larger. From a physical perspective this happens because the current density
determines the power required to alter the optical properties of a QD-SOA and
properly saturate its gain, and the higher it is the more power is necessary for
this purpose [61]. This fact also explains that as we move well enough into the
falling slope of the curves a larger current density is necessary to enhance the
ER and hence improve performance for a given power. This in turn allows
selecting thepeak data power from a wider range of permissible values, which
potentially offers greater flexibility in the design of the full adder circuit.
Fig (6.3)Variation of extinction ratio (ER) with peak data power for different
current densities, keeping other parameters fixed.
Fig.(6.4) shows the variation of ER with QD-SOAs length for three

different peak control powers. The common characteristic of all curves is that
the ER is increased with QD-SOAs length to a certain value after that it is
dropped. The maximum value is shifted to the left as the peak power becomes
larger. The smaller value of the QD-SOA length requires the larger peak
control power to obtain the maximum value of ER. Thus from Figs.(6.4 and
6.5), we say that larger current density and longer QD-SOAs length are
preferable for obtaining a satisfactory performance in terms of the ER with
reduced control power lying in a wider span. In reality, however, this choice is
technically limited by the fact that the extra bias current, which is required
either for providing a higher current density in a given QD-SOA device or
achieving the same current density in a longer QD-SOA, might not be
reasonable for practical QD-SOAs [61, 103].
Fig (6.4) Variation of extinction ratio (ER) with QD-SOA length for different
peak data power, keeping other parameters fixed.
Figure (6.5) shows the variation of ER with current densities for three different
QD-SOA lengths. From this figure, it is observed that among the three QD-
SOAs lengths the ER becomes acceptable only for 3.5 and 4 mm. This in turn
allows keeping the current density below 4 kA/cm, since after reaching its
defined minimum the ER becomes almost independent of this parameter
because there is an oversupply of carriers and the QD-SOA is sufficiently
biased to the desired point.
Figure(6.6) shows the variation of ER with the maximum modal gain for
three different QD-SOAs lengths. The common characteristic of all curves is
that the ER is increased with the maximum modal gain to a certain value after
that it is dropped. The maximum value is shifted to the right as the QD-SOAs
length becomes smaller. The smaller value of the maximum modal gain
requires the longer QD-SOAs length to obtain the maximum value of ER.
Fig (6.5) Variation of ER with current densities for three different QD-SOAs
length, keeping other parameters fixed
Fig (6.6) Variation of ER with the maximum modal gain for three different
QD-SOAs length, keeping other parameters fixed
Figure (6.7) shows that the ER is very sensitive to the variations of the electron
relaxation time from the ES (excited state) to the GS (ground state) since the
slope of the curve is decreased in an exponential-like manner as this relaxation
time is increased, finally becoming more smoother near the left edge of the
diagram. So the transition time between ES and GS must be kept below some
value and ideally be as fast as possible. In this curve it has to be below 0.25ps
to obtain ER a round 10dB.
Figure (6.8) illustrates the effect on the Q-factor with current densities
for three different maximum modal gains, when the other parameters are kept
constant. The common characteristic of all curves is that the Q-factor is
increased with current density up to a certain value after that it is decreased.
The maximum value of Q-factor is dropped when the value of gmax outside the
certain range. So the value of gmax must be fixed at particular value to achieve
the maximum Q-factor value.
Fig (6.7) Variation of ER with electron relaxation time from the ES to the GS.
maximum modal gains, when the other parameters are kept constant.
Fig (6.9) Variation of Q- Factor with current densities for three different QD-
SOA lengths, when the other parameters are kept fixed.
Figure (6.9) shows the variation of Q-factor with current densities for three
different QD-SOA lengths. From this figure, it is observed that among the three
QD-SOAs lengths the Q-factor becomes acceptable only for 4 mm. Thus from
Figs.(6.8 and 6.9), we say that increasing of injection current up to a value
approximately 3.5 kA/cm , more carriers are injected to the wetting layer. Thus
each energy level in the QD can recover to its initial carrier density faster after
carrier depletion by the injected pulse. So, up to a certain value approximately
3.5 kA/cm of the injection current, the Q-factor value increases. After a value
(approximately, above 3.5 kA/cm) of the injection current, more carriers in the
conduction band will be depleted due to stimulated emission. So the QD energy
states will take much longer time to recover their carrier density level, hence
decrease the output quality.
Design Parameters
According thus to Figs. (6.3-6.9) and their interpretation, it can be
inferred that the requirements for the critical parameters are
, , mm,
, and 0.3ps. By following these guidelines
and using the combination of values , J= ,
L=4mm, , and , respectively, which obviously is
not unique and fall within the specified boundaries, a more than adequate Q-
factor of about 12.5dB and ER of about 11.7dB can be obtained, which is
reflected on the high quality of pulse stream obtained at the output [8]. The
input waveforms and the simulated output waveforms are shown in Figs.
(6.10.a-e), respectively. The eye-diagram is the superposition of the outputs for
the repetition period of the inputs. Fig.(6.11) is not a classical eye-diagram
because it is not as informative in the sense that degrading effects, normally
observed in the point-to-point communication links[72], such as noise source,
are added by the detector and optical fibers. This diagram is called a pseudo-
eye-diagram [10]. The relative eye opening (O) is defined as (
) , where and are the minimum and maximum powers at 1-
state and 0-state, respectively. An eye-diagram with large eyes indicates a clear
transmission with a low bit rate. Here, we get PED O=92%. This value
indicates a quite good response of the circuit under consideration at its output
terminals. The cascadeability refers to the ability of a switch to drive directly
from its main output to another input where the signal responsible for switching
is launched and constitutes a key requirement for the perspective of building
combinational circuits. In the cascading stages, the extinction ratio will be
decreased and Q-factor value maybe increased at the output. In the cascading
circuit, high input power at the previous stages is required to provide sufficient
pump power at the input of the subsequent cascading stages. This high pump
power degrades the extinction ratio at the subsequent stages of the subsystem.
Moreover, it leads to improvement of the output Q-factor value and the power
transfer function of the QD-SOA becomes steeper due to the deep gain
saturation caused by the incoming pulses in cross gain modulation operation. It
is also noted that the performance of the subsequent system, which are limited
by the degradation of the extinction ratio is expected to be significantly
enhanced using saturable absorbers[104].
Fig (6.10) waveforms of all-optical full adder, where (a) input data stream A,
(b) input data stream B, (c) input data stream C ( ), (d) output sum-bit S and
(e) output carry-bit ( ).
Fig (6.11)Simulated output waveforms with pseudo-eye-diagram (PED)
Chapter (7)
Conclusion and Suggestions for Future Work
7.1 Conclusions
In the first part of this work, the homogeneous and inhomogeneous

broadening of the optical gain are considered through solving the Multi
Populations Rate Equations MPRE model numerically using fourth-order
Runge-Kutta method. Then three sets of results are introduced. Firstly, we
analyzed the dynamic characteristics of InAs/InP (113) B quantum dot
laser. Turn on delay and steady-state photons improve as the current
increases. With decreasing the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of
homogeneous broadening, turn-on delay decrease and the laser reaches its
steady state faster due to enhancing of central group carriers. As the time of
the initial relaxation becomes longer by decreasing the coefficient of
phonon relaxation Aw, the turn on delay decreases and the steady state
value becomes higher. This is because, the injected carriers are consumed in
the WL and thus do not contribute to lasing oscillation. Secondly, we
analyzed the static characteristics of InAs/InP (113) B quantum dot laser.
We observe the double laser emission phenomena which results from the
efficient carrier relaxation into the GS due to the increase of the Auger
effect for larger injection rates. The nonlinearity appears at light-current
characteristics due to the effect of FWHM of the homogeneous broadening
which connects spatially isolated and energetically different quantum dots.
As a result, the lasing mode photons are emitted not only from energetically
resonant dots, central group, but also from other non resonant dots within
the scope of the homogeneous broadening of the central group. Simulation
results of the static-characteristics of InAs/InP (113) B SAQD-LD show
that there is a better value of corresponding to to extract the
maximum output optical power from the device. Also it shows that as the
increases the threshold current decreases. Then, we find that, the
effect of increasing Aw is equivalent to increase the injected current, which
means increasing the supplied carriers to the QD region. Finally, we
analyzedthe effect of the injected current, the FWHM of the homogenous
broadening, and the initial relaxation (phonon bottleneck) on the rise, fall
time, and the bit rate of the optical pulse. It is founded that, as the injected
current increases the rise time increases while the fall time decreases. As a
result, the bit rate of the optical pulse increases. With respect to the FWHM
of the homogenous broadening , as the increases, the rise and fall
times increase. Consequently, the bit rate decreases.
In the second part of this work, the feasibility of realizing an all-optical
wavelength conversion and 3R at 160 Gb/s using a properly driven QD-
SOA-MZI has been theoretically investigated and demonstrated. By
conducting numerical simulation, a set of curves have been obtained for the
impact of the involved critical parameters on the ER. Based on a detailed
characterization of the dynamical behavior of a QD-SOA that is subject to
an ultrafast data pulse stream, the simulation results have been analyzed and
interpreted. In this manner, the operating conditions, which are favorable in
order for the employed metric to meet its desired criterion, have been
derived. These suggest that it would be possible to achieve the pursued
logic function with error-free performance and high quality for a
combination of moderate values for all involved parameters, which can be
well supported by state-of-the-art QD-SOA technology. This prediction can
enhance the capability of the QD-SOA-based MZI as switching module.
Also itcan complement the suite of bitwise Boolean functions that it can
execute and facilitate its exploitation in more sophisticated circuits and
subsystems such optical logic gates which are introduced in the chapter (5).
The obtained results are interpreted with the help of a complete
characterization of the QD-SOA response to an ultrafast data pulse stream.
This allows specifying the requirements that the critical parameters must
satisfy to achieve acceptable performance.
To be more close to the concept of all optical devices, in chapter (5),
the feasibility of realizing all-optically the Boolean AND, XOR, and OR
gates at 160 Gb/s RZ data using a single QD-SOA-based MZI has been
theoretically investigated and demonstrated. The influence of the identified
critical parameters on the performance of the gate in terms of the amplitude
modulation has been assessed by conducting numerical simulation. The
results of AND gate indicate that in order for the defined metric; Q-Factor
to be acceptable the peak data power must be such that the QD-SOAs are
biased to operate in the 3 dB saturation regime, while they must be driven
by a current and provide a nominal maximum modal gain of the order of
204 mA and 16 dB, respectively. Furthermore their length must be chosen
to be between (3.7 and 4.2 mm). On the other hand, the results of XOR
gate indicate that the difference in each parameter between the two QD-
SOAs or between the two input streams has to be less than some values to
avoid degradation the XOR performance. Finally, the results of OR gate
indicate that in order for the defined metric; AM to be acceptable the peak
data power must be such that the QD-SOAs are biased to operate in the 3
dB saturation regime, while they must be driven by a current and provide a
nominal maximum modal gain of the order of 250 mA and 17 dB,
respectively. Furthermore their length must be chosen to be between (3.6
and 5.1 mm). Provided that these operational conditions are satisfied,
which is technologically feasible, these logic functions can be executed
both with logical correctness and high quality, in a straightforward,
affordable, efficient, cascadable, scalable and competent manner.
Therefore the proposed scheme can constitute a useful choice to be
adopted for implementing the logic gates and employing it as logical unit
in the design of more complex photonic circuits and subsystems. In chapter
(6), one of these complex logic circuits, specifically, the all-optical full
adder is theoretically investigated and demonstrated.
To give a good application to our algorithm, the feasibility of realizing
an ultrafast all-optical full adder using fife QD-SOA based Mach-
Zehnderinterferometers is theoretically investigated and demonstrated in
chapter (6). The impact of the peak data power as well as of the QD-SOAs
current density, maximum modal gain, and QD-SOAs length on the ER
and Q-factor at the output has been thoroughly investigated. The
performance of this optical circuit is extremely fast and operation of the
system is demonstrated with 160Gbit/s. It is important to note that the
predetermined values of the intensities of laser light for incoming pluses
and input data signals are needed to send optical signal in desired channels.
In our proposed design, the measured values of ER and Q-factor are about
11.7 dB and 12.5, respectively, which are more adequate for all-optical
logic based information processing systems. This circuit can be used to
design many complex all-optical circuits. The model can be extended for
studying more complex all-optical circuits of enhanced functionality in
which this proposed circuit developed in this thesis may be assumed as the
basic building blocks.
7.2 Suggestions for Future Work
The Multi Populations Rate Equations model can be used to study the
semiconductor optical amplifiers and absorbers. In turn, we can use it to
model the Quantum Dot Mode-Locked Lasers using Quantum Dot
Saturable Absorbers
Using the all-optical QD-SOA-based MZI switch introduced in chapter
four to design another optical logic gates such as Not, NOR, NAND, .
Using the all- optical logic gates to design more complex circuits such
as all optical multiplier, Multiplexer, Demultiplexer, All-Optical Flip-
Flop,
All optical signal processing systems and all-optical switching

architecture which utilize QD SOA-based logic gates and circuits as
their basis foundation can also be implemented. All-Optical
Header/Payload Separation, All-Optical Correlator, and All-Optical
Packet Routing are examples of these systems.
Appendix (A)
4thOrder Runge-KuttaIntegrator
The Runge-Kutta integrator of 4th order [105] represents a four step

algorithm for the approximate numerical solution of ordinary differential
equations, such as the rate equations.Let us briefly review the implementation
of this method.
Given a differential equation of the form
(A1)
( )
We are interested in obtaining the function y(x) starting from its

derivative. The Runge-Kutta method (which is an improvement of the Euler
method), in its 4th-order form states that the function evaluated at a step i+1
depends on the function evaluated at the step iand a weighted average of the
function evaluated at intermediate steps between iand i+1. In the following we
list this result in an appropriate way [105]
( ) ( )
( )
( )
(A2)
( )
( )
Simple Rate Equations:

Now these equations have to be translated into our set of equations (Eq.
(4.9 to 4.12)) for photon density S, the electron density in WL Nw, the electron
occupation probability in the ES and GS h, f, respectively,to allow for a
numerical implementation. In our problem y must be read as S, Nw, h, f; is
the time step dtbecause our equations are time-dependent (thus, x must be
translated to t). The values k0, k1, k2 and k3 arecalculated for each of the state
variables and represent the differential rate equations in Eq. (4.9-4.12). This
means the program will solve 4 x 4 = 16 equations per iteration. The fourth-
order Runge-Kuttaroutine developed is based on the equations below
(A3)
( )
( ) (A4)
( )
[ ( )]
( )
( )
( ) (A5)
[ ( )]
( )
( )
( ) (A6)
[ ( )]
( )
( )
( ) (A7)
[ ( )]
( )
( )
(A8)
( )
[ ]
( )
( )
As it can be seen in Eqs. (A3-A8) our data structure for the output
variable y consists on a matrix having 4 rows (1st forphoton density, 2ndfor the
electron density in WL, 3rdfor the electron occupation probability in the ES and
the fourth for the electron occupation probability in the GS) and as many
columns as the time vector is long (because our implementation is fixed-step-
like). The variables assigned to k0. . . k3are column-vectors because they
contain the solution of every rate equation; these variables are supposed to be
cleared after the end of each step (only after being computed in the output y). In
equations. (A4 A7) the notationkS(Nw, h, f)
stands for the solution of the
corresponding rate equation for photon density (the photon density, the electron
density in WL, electron occupation probability in the ES, electron occupation
probability in the GS).
Multi Population Rate Equation MPRE
For the Multi Population Rate Equation MPRE model, the same
procedure as the simple rate equations model is followed except for that each
equation replaced by a number of equations represents the modes and groups.
Specifically,
Equation of Nwl , Eq. (3.11) remains one equation
Equation of NES, Eq. (3.12) is replaced by n equations, (n number of groups)
Equation of NGS, Eq. (3.13) is replaced by n equations, (n number of groups)
Equations of SES and SGS;Eqs. (3.14, 3.15) each is replaced by m equations, (m
number of modes)
Therefore, if we have 15 groups and 15 modes, the rate equation actually are 61
equations. This means the program will solve 4 x 61 = 244 equations per
iteration. In this situation the function k in Eq. (A1) is one of the rate equations;
Eq. (3.11) to Eq. (3.15) and is represented by
( )
( )
( )
( ) (A9)
[ ( )]
Appendix (B)
Design Metrics
Through this work there are four design metrics have been used to study
the influence of some important parameters on the performance of the device
under test. These metrics are Extinction Ration ER, Amplitude Modulation
AM, Q-Factor, and Pseudo-Eye-Diagram PED. This appendix introduces a
briefreview for these metrics.
B.1 Extinction Ration ER
In telecommunication, ER is the ratio of to optical power levels of a

digital signal generated by an optical source. The ER may be expressed as a
fraction, in dB, or as a percentage [8]. It may be given by
(B1)
( ) ( )
which means that this extinction ratio (ER) is performed between the minimum
and maximum peak output powers of the marks and spaces, and ,
respectively, occurring at the output of the device.
This metric must be over 10 dB [8, 106] so that the 1s can be clearly
distinguished from the 0s, which is the basic measure of the capability to
execute Boolean logic functions according to the expected performance
standard. In other words, the higher the ER the more clearly can the 1s be
distinguished from the 0s,
B.2 Amplitude Modulation AM
In some cases such as OR gate the resultant 0 is expected to be fully

extinguished and so there is no need to worry about it as it can be clearly
distinguished from the 1s. Therefore we must focus on the 1s and their peak
amplitudes for which although ideally we would desire them to be as equal as
possible yet in practice we could tolerate a maximum relative fluctuation so as
to avoid the pattern effect and its deleterious consequences [86]. In this context
the most suitable metric for comparing their level and assessing the degree of
their uniformity is by definition the amplitude modulation (AM) [29]
(B2)
( ) ( )
where and are the maximum and minimum peak powers,

respectively, among the1s that are contained in the sequence that is switched
at the output port of the device. In general there is no absolute upper limit for
the AM but according to the information that is available on the performance of
SOA-based switches a value that does not exceed 1dB should be acceptable for
the logic gates [86]. In general the lower the AM the more uniform is the level
of the output 1s and the smaller is the related pattern effect
B.3 Q-Factor
The quality factor for the output waveforms can be expressed as

(B3)
Where are the average value of all the out coming "1" and "0" data's
peak power, respectively. are their standard deviations. The Q-factor
is related to the bit error rate in terms of [8]
( ) (B4)
( )

The approximate form of BER is obtained by using the asymptotic expansion

[8] of ( ) and is reasonably accurate for . The BER improves as Q

increases and becomes lower than 1012 for Q >7.

Therefore, In order to ensure acceptable performance, the Q-factor must satisfy
the criterion to be over six [8].
B.4 Pseudo-Eye-Diagram PED
This visual quality indicator is obtained by superimposing the marks and

spaces in the data stream of interest on top of each other and displaying them
within a single bit period. According to this generation method the PED
consists in the general case of two distinct curves, one for the marks and one
for the spaces, while its form depends on the quality of these bits, both
individually and in relation to each other. It is important to note that,
thisindicatoris not a classical eye-diagram because the superimposed curves are
not as informative in the sense that degrading effects, normally observed in the
point-to-point communication links such as noise source, which are added by
the detector and optical fibers. Therefore, thisdiagram is called a pseudo-eye-
diagram [10, 102]. The relative eye opening (O) is defined as
( ) (B5)
where and are the minimum and maximum powers at 1-state and 0-
state, respectively. An eye-diagram with large eyes indicates a clear
transmission with a low bit rate.
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Published Papers
1. M. Nady Abdul Aleem, K. F. A. Hussein, and A.-E.-h. A. Ammar,
"Semiconductor quantum dot lasers as pulse sources for high bit rate
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30th National Radio Science Conference (NRSC2013), April, 16-18,
2013, NTI, Cairo, Egypt.
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Static Characteristics of InAs/InP (113) B Self-Assembled Quantum Dot
Lasers Using Multi- Population Rate Equations MPRE Model", 2nd
conference on New Paradigms in Electronics and Informatics
Technologies ( PEIT '013 ), Nov. 2013, Luxer, Egypt.
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"Ultrafast all-optical full adder using quantum-dot semiconductor
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Electromagnetics Research B, Vol. 54, 69-88, 2013.

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Modeling and Simulation of Quantum Dot Devices and Their Applications in Optical Communications

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Al-AZHAR University

Modeling and Simulation of Quantum Dot Devices

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Eng. Mohamed Nady Abdul Aleem

Under the Supervision of

Prof. Dr. Abd-El-HadiAbd-El-Azim Ammar

Assoc. Prof. Khalid Fawzy Ahmed Hussein

Then the dissertation proposes a theoretical model of a QD SOA-MZI based

List of Abbreviations XII

List of Figures XIV

1.3 Thesis objectives and outline 5

Quantum Dot Devices

2.1 Quantum Dot 8

2.1.1 Semiconductor lasers 8

2.1.2 Density of States 10

2.1.3 Progress in fabricating QD 11

2.1.3.1 Self-assembled growth 12

2.4 Inhomogeneous broadening 13

2.2.1 Advantages of quantum dot lasers 15

2.3 Quantum Dot Amplifier 15

2.3.1 Operation Principles of SOA 16

2.3.2 SOA Gain 18

2.3.3 Gain Saturation 21

2.4 Linewidth Enhancement Factor 23

1.6 Simulation Methods of QD Semiconductor Lasers and Amplifiers 25

Semiconductor Quantum Dot Laser

3.1 Semiconductor Quantum Dot Laser 27

3.2 Multi Populations Rate Equations Model 28

3.3 Numerical Results 34

3.3.1 Dynamic Characteristics of InAs/InP (113) B Self-Assembled 35

3.3.2 Static Characteristics of InAs/InP (113) B Self-Assembled Quantum 41

QD-SOA-Based MachZehnder Interferometer

4.1. SOA-MZI (Brief review) 55

4.1.1. SOA-MZI Gate 57

4.1.2. SOA-MZI Transfer Function 59

4.2. Rate Equations 61

4.3. QD-SOA CHARACTERIZATION 65

4.4. Wavelength Conversion (WC) 70

4.5. 3R Regeneration (Re-amplification, Re-shaping and Re-timing) 78

All-Optical Logic Gates

5.1 All-Optical Logic Gates 84

5.2 All-Optical AND Gates 86

5.2.1 Principle of Operation of Proposed AND Gate 87

5.2.2 Numerical Results of Proposed AND Gate 89

5.3 All-Optical XOR Gates 96

5.3.1 Principle of Operation of Proposed XOR Gate 97

5.3.2 Numerical Results of Proposed XOR Gate 99

5.4 All-Optical OR Gates 106

5.4. 1 Principle of Operation of Proposed OR Gate 106

Ultrafast All-Optical Full Adder Using Quantum-Dot Semiconductor Optical

6.1 All optical Full adders 116

6.2 Principle and Design of Proposed All-Optical Full Adder 119

6.3 Simulation Results of the All-Optical Full Adder 120

Conclusions and Suggestion of Future Work

7.1 Conclusions 130

7.2 Suggestions for Future Work 133

4th Order Runge-Kutta Integrator

4th Order Runge-Kutta Integrator 134

B.1 Extinction Ration ER 137

B.2 Amplitude Modulation AM 137

B.3 Q-Factor 138

B.4 Pseudo-Eye-Diagram PED 139

Published Papers 152

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