39 Steelwork

Erection

W H Arch BSc(Eng), MICE

Contents
39.1 Introduction 39/3

39.2 Effects of the site on a project 39/3

39.3 The effect of plant on design 39/3

39.4 Tolerances 39/5

39.4.1 Camber and vertical curvature of a
bridge 39/5
39.4.2 Tolerances across site butts or joints 39/6

39.5 The interaction of design and erection factors 39/6

39.6 Foundations and temporary supports 39/6

39.7 The partially completed structure 39/8

39.8 Stockyards and transport 39/8

39.9 Manpower and safety 39/9

39.10 Construction and management 39/10

39.11 Summary 39/10

Bibliography 39/10

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39.1 Introduction
It is not entirely by chance that the French refer to a bridge as a
work of art. For it is indeed a very close liaison between science,
and the art of its application, that makes for success in bridge
building. This is particularly true for bridges, but is also
applicable - though perhaps to a lesser degree - in other types of
structures.
A structure, of any type, is essentially designed for its
completed condition, and the act of achieving its successful
completion is that of coping with logistics of its components,
with the partially erected frame, and with the people who will be
involved in its erection.
Many variable factors affect the choice of erection method
which will be used in any particular case, but on the other hand
there are a number of common elements connected with any
erection plan which do not vary from job to job.
For any project to be successful it is essential that the designer
of the structure has clearly in mind how he visualizes the job will
be built. It may well be that the final scheme may vary from that
which was originally envisaged due to modifications and impro-
vements, but at least the original conception would have been
based on a completely thought out, fully integrated design.
The problems posed by the logistics of a job, the control of
materials flow, and also of the organization of the manpower
who will build the structure, are common.
Two examples of design points which the original conception
should be able to accommodate, immediately spring to mind.
The effects of temporary points of support and possible reversal
of stresses during bridge building, and secondly the orientation
of column webs and flanges to enable the closing beams to be
erected in the final stages of completion of a multi-storey frame.
Figure 39.1 This view of the deck of the Forth Road Bridge
during erection shows the changes in profile which can occur
during the erection process. Arrangements must be made to
39.2 Effects of the site on a project accommodate and follow such changes in the crane support
arrangements. The connections in the structure itself must also
The shape and location of the site on which a project is to be accommodate such changes and be designed accordingly
built will have had its effect on the basic design of the structure
to be erected.
For a tall building, for example, the size of the site, as well as dations are properly evaluated. In a bridge erection scheme, for
the eventual use of the building will have determined the column example, the whole stability of the project can depend upon the
centres; the height or number of storeys will have determined adequacy of a temporary pier and, therefore, on the foundations
the section of the column and, therefore, the weight. In a bridge under that pier.
the configuration of the area to be spanned together with the All temporary loads - even of such a transient nature as those
ground conditions will have determined the spans. Only in under the outriggers of a mobile crane - are important. Only by
uncomplicated cases will the economics of the actual design of full attention to such matters can the safety of the men working
the spans themselves be the sole determining factor in the choice on the job be safeguarded, and the safety of the structure itself
of span - or indeed of the method of construction. be assured against collapse.
Thus, the site through its bearing capacity, or through
existing structures or services, has a profound effect on the
design of the structure to be erected upon it. That the design of 39.3 The effect of plant on design
the structure is affected by site conditions is thus clear, but the
effect those same conditions have on the erection method to be Everyone is familiar with the contractor's plant yard. Items go
adopted is even more profound. there from one job, to be refurbished, tested as required, often
A restriction on access for the materials, or the presence of given a coat of paint, and there they lie ready to be sent out on
underground services can each affect the placing of cranes and to the next job.
thus the whole approach to the erection plan. The choice of erection plant which is to be used on the next
Time on a site costs money and a good scheme should, job will, therefore, mean that, for economic reasons, existing
therefore, aim to reduce as far as is practicable the number of tackle will be used where possible. There is, therefore, a need for
manhours required on that site by the maximum use of prefabri- plant which is as universally useful as possible. Mobile cranes,
cation and subassembly off site. If this is taken to extremes then either mounted on wheels or tracks are one example. At the
the components requiring to be lifted could become too large to other end of the scale are the special 'one-off' erection devices
transport or too heavy to lift. There is thus an optimum balance built to suit the peculiarities of a particular job. The chances of
for any one job, and in major construction projects it is not all the peculiarities repeating exactly on another job are remote,
often that what is right for one job is also right for another. and, therefore, the 'one-off' device is only used on the really big
The ground conditions will have been fully evaluated before jobs where the very high cost can be written off against that job.
the foundations of the structure are designed. It is of equal Whatever the type of plant which is being used to erect the
importance that the ground conditions under temporary foun- steel the economics of that job will be vastly affected by the
Figure 39.2 The mobile crane is a standard piece of equipment
for bridge erection. Points to note are the proper provision and
blocking of the outriggers and the use of the minimum radius
possible for handling the lifts
variance between the actual average weight of each piece to be
lifted and the capacity of the crane at each relevant radius. Thus,
in the ideal situation the weight of every piece should equal the
capacities given by the safe-load indicator on the crane. Clearly,
this is an ideal unlikely to be experienced, but a job on which a
conscious effort has been made in that direction will be a more
economic job to build.
Where a contractor's plant yard and operational area is
remote from access to plant hire companies, greater emphasis
must be placed on a careful choice of universally useful pieces of
equipment. Little emphasis can be placed on being able to hire a
major piece of equipment which may be required for a particu-
lar project. An approach often used by international contrac-
tors, building major projects in remote areas, is to buy all the
equipment needed for a job and then to sell it on the local
market at the end of the contract. This option is, generally
speaking, not available to a local contractor working his local
market by carrying out a large number of smaller contracts. He
is in the same position as a small local contractor anywhere, but
without the option of hiring the major plant he may need.
When making a choice between one mobile crane and
another, consideration must be given to the road conditions and
the distances to the likely locations on which the plant will be
used. A truck-mounted crane can be driven on the roads, but a
crane mounted on caterpillar tracks requires a low-loader and
special equipment to move it from one location to another. The
existence of suitable maintenance and testing facilities may
affect the choice between a hydraulically operated crane or one
operated by winches.
If the operational area is large and the likely workload is
predominantly at the light end of the market, conditions may be
such that the planning emphasis should move towards a more
labour-intensive method using easily transportable equipment.
A light lattice pole, guyed to the ground at suitable anchorage
points can be used to erect most single-storey frames and
girders.
Special techniques are needed where the height of the frame
being erected requires that the pole - or the crane - be supported
on the frame itself as it grows upwards. The winch providing the
power to work the crane can either be arranged at ground level,
or to climb with the frame.
The choice of plant and the location of that plant during the
various stages of building a complex frame will have a signifi-
cant effect on the stress generated in the structure during
erection. Very careful thought must, therefore, be given to the
need for temporary material in additional supports and to the
need for additional permanent material to transmit the transient
additional erection loads, stresses and deflections.
The use of models can be an invaluable help in the positioning
of plant for the best use to be made of the capacity available.
The increase in the availability of computer facilities is enabling
the optimization of erection methods, and the resultant require-
ments in terms of additional material, manpower and plant, to
be achieved more easily. In addition, a large number of alterna-
tive possibilities can be considered. A scale model - made of
balsa or of cardboard - can also be invaluable as a method of
explaining to the erection squad exactly what they have to do,
and why.
The temporary supports and the erection cranes are arranged
to safeguard the safety of the structure during erection. It is of
equal importance that full consideration is given to the many
working places where men will have to work during that
erection. The provision of safe means of access to these working
places will have the dual benefit of improving the safety of the
individual, and at the same time of speeding the flow of the
work. Careful thought must be given to the use and location of
Figure 39.3 An erection pole is much lighter and is more easily
broken down into small sections for transport than is a mobile crane
with an equivalent lifting capacity. This pole is being used to erect
the heavy girders of an overhead electric travelling crane. An
safety nets since a badly used net can be a hindrance to the job
and can indeed be a safety hazard rather than providing the
protection intended.
39.4 Tolerances
There are four main areas in which the question of tolerances
can affect the engineer. These are: (1) the accuracy of the
geometry of the structure in the horizontal and (2) the vertical
planes; (3) the accuracy with which the components match at
joints and splices; and (4) lastly - but by no means least - the
control of deformations in the structure, particularly where
welding is involved.
There is only one way of achieving a specified tolerance, and
that is to control the operation right from the start. Begin with
accurate setting out, follow with accurate fabrication and finish
with careful erection. Work which is allowed to slip below
standard can seldom be improved at a later stage.
Whilst coarser tolerances can be accepted at the time the
ground is being excavated, careful centrelines should be marked
on the foundations of columns or piers to ensure that when the
steelwork is positioned on them it will be accurate. Levels of
both concrete and steelwork can be controlled by the careful use
of a dumpy level. It is far easier to place a column on to levelled
pads than it is to pull the whole frame into position after it has
been erected.
erection pole is guyed at the top and bottom and should always be
used in as vertical position as possible. By the use of suitable
tackles in the overhead and ground guys it is possible to 'walk' the
pole from one erection to the next
The specification for each job will determine the tolerances
which can be accepted on that job, and these will reflect the
purposes for which it is to be used. There are a number of
standards which give quantitative guidance on acceptable toler-
ances and these may be quoted in a specification for any
particular job.
39.4.1 Camber and vertical curvature of a bridge
Where a bridge is being built using large prefabricated compo-
nents there is always a possibility that local dimensional varia-
tions and twists can occur across the section. Measures must be
adopted to accommodate these effects so that force to bring the
bridge into contact with its bearings is not necessary. In some
cases it may be necessary to provide a temporary support on the
centreline of the bridge to allow the structure to take up its
natural shape before setting the bearings to suit. If this is
necessary, care has to be taken to ensure that the required
vertical curvature and camber are maintained as closely as
possible. It is important to ensure that controllable errors are
not allowed to remain uncorrected and that the adjustment to
the bearings is not used merely as a means of compensation for
careless work.
The use of machine levels and adjusting screws for levelling
the bearings will enable extreme accuracy to be attained in
setting the upper bearing surfaces of the bearings. There should
be a small air gap between the upper and lower halves of the
bearing during final setting to ensure an even distribution of
load across the bearing before the load is finally transferred.
Great care must be taken to ensure that the bearing is
correctly placed below any diaphragm or stiffener in the struc-
ture above.
There should be no need to emphasize the effects which can be
caused by loads being applied at points not designed to receive
them, or of loads eccentric to their designed position.
The specification of the bridge will lay down the precise
tolerances permitted for position and level of the bearings in
relation to the structure they are supporting. In multi-span
continuous girders the tolerances are tighter than those for
simply supported members so far as level is concerned. The
position of bearings should be such that they are aligned
accurately with the centreline of diaphragms and stiffeners
shown on the drawing.
The procedures in the fabricating shop, and the shop as-
sembly of adjacent sections which the specification may have
called for, will ensure that these components will recreate the
camber called for when they are erected on the bearings we have
been discussing.
It is essential to ensure that the methods used for handling,
stacking and subsequent erection do not cause permanent
distortion of the components. Means of protection should be
provided not only to avoid damage to the slings used, but also to
prevent damage to the component being lifted or stacked.
Incorrect handling can cause deformations and it can also
damage any protective treatment which has been previously
applied. Many of the points made in this section apply equally
to the erection of a building frame.
39.4.2 Tolerances across site butts or joints
The jigs and shop erection procedures used to ensure accuracy
of shop fabrication will have minimized the errors in positioning
of stiffeners, etc. and will have kept distortions within practi-
cable limits. The responsibility of those on site is then to
reassemble the components and erect them into place.
The tolerances allowable in the butt joints between the
components are dictated by the need to limit the eccentricity of
adjoining members and the secondary stresses those eccentrici-
ties would produce. The nature of the stresses, compression or
tension, to which the members will be subjected in service,
affects the acceptable limits. The compression condition re-
quires a more severe limitation than does a connection loaded in
tension. A temporary or transient loading condition, say, during
erection, can of course reverse the permanent condition and this
must be taken into account when the connections are being
designed and fabricated.
If a butt in the flange plate of a girder is to be made by
welding then care must be taken to limit the amount of 'cusping'
that can occur when the butt is completed. It may be necessary
to arrange to have the material preset in order to be able to
compensate for the effects of shrinkage and distortion as the
welded area cools.
The tolerances both of alignment at butts, and of straightness,
will be based on measurement taken over a gauge length
dependent on the spacing of stiffeners, and the amounts of
allowable deviations will in general be based on the thickness of
the plate or flange being measured. Reference has already been
made to the relaxation that is possible in connections subject
only to tension loading.
There is clearly a balance between the maintenance of practi-
cal limits on the accuracy of workmanship and the achievement
of very high standards approaching perfection. The fabrication
industry has always been keenly aware of the need to maintain a
high standard of workmanship in its products whilst at the same
time ensuring that it remains competitive in the market places of
the world. Careful site planning and control can ensure that
these high standards are maintained in the completed structure.
39.5 The interaction of design and
erection factors
In section 39.3 consideration was given to the choice of plant
which would be used in a particular project. The weight of the
pieces to be lifted is clearly of paramount importance in this
consideration.
The weight of a component is a function of its size. Piece
weights, therefore, affect the location of the splices connecting
the components. In addition there are local limitations, and
associated regulations, which limit the size of component that
can be transported. Thus, the site and any limitations imposed
by its access limitations can affect the design just as much as the
capacity of the available crane on the job. All these points must
be borne in mind in addition to the purely design consider-
ations.
The 'nesting' of components must be considered during the
design phase in order to minimize the volume required to be
occupied by a given weight of material, particularly where
transportation by sea is involved. The cost penalties for ship-
ping a bulky lightweight component are very heavy.
The restrictions referred to, where size must be limited, can
result in components which are uneconomical to erect. In these
cases, consideration should be given to ways of enabling subas-
sembly or prefabrication to be carried out at site before finally
lifting the component into place. An example of this in the tall-
building field is shown in Figure 39.4. In this example the floor
beam stubs have been welded to the column shaft after arrival
on site, but before erection. There were a number of advantages
in this procedure. The plain components would 'nest' well for
transport, thus reducing the cost of transportation. The depth of
the floor girder sections could be increased at the columns in
order to be able better to transmit the wind loads, and lastly the
splices remaining to be made up in the air are in a much more
accessible location. Splices should be located just above a floor
level to give safe access for bolting up. The location of the splices
between sections of columns is limited both by the capacity of
the crane available for the erection, and also by the climbing
cycle which has been decided upon. Three floor levels in one
piece is normal, with a reduction towards the lower sections
where heavier scantlings will be used.
39.6 Foundations and temporary
supports
The design of the permanent foundations for a structure will
have been considered in very great detail when the structure was
in the design office. From the point of view of the erector,
however, the temporary condition must be examined. This
applies more particularly to bridge building, but the principle
applies in any erection plan. Not only can transient loadings and
moments which will be applied to foundations during erection
exceed very considerably those which can occur after the
structure is complete, but temporary foundations may also be
required.
Where temporary foundations are required, as much con-
sideration should be given to their design and construction as
their importance to the safety of the erection scheme dictates.
The main foundations will not have been designed without
reference being made to the results of test borings. Where loads
are significant or the effects of settlement on the safety of the
Figure 39.4 A site-subassembled column section for a high-rise
building being erected. Site-subassembly enables more easily
transportable components to be built up into economic units for
structure could be dangerous, then a trial boring should be put
down local to the temporary foundation to ensure that adequate
precautions are taken.
The additional loads that must be considered when designing
temporary foundations should include those that arise from the
incompleteness of the structure that they are supporting. The
effects of wind loading and aerodynamic instability must be
considered. The weights of items of plant, plus the loads they are
carrying and any resultant uplift and dynamic loads due to
movement, can affect the design.
Particularly in bridgework there will be temporary piers to
place on the foundations discussed earlier, and also temporary
extensions to the permanent piers. These are commonly con-
structed of standard components which can be stored and re-
used on future work. In the event that specially designed and
fabricated temporary supports are not being used, a check
calculation should be made to ensure the adequacy of the
standard components planned for use.
The points at which it is required to make connections
between the permanent structure and the temporary erection
erection. In this case also moment connections could be more easily
welded up in optimum conditions and the stub-beam connection
reduced to an easily jigged and readily accessible connection
structures should be given careful consideration. They must be
incorporated in the original design conception. They must be
adequate to carry the various loads and stresses to which they
will be subjected during the progress of the work. It must be
remembered that temperature changes will result in the move-
ment of the structure, and that these movements have to be
accommodated by the design of the temporary works. Remem-
ber too, that the temporary structure will deflect when the load
comes on to it. There must be provision for relieving this load
before the structure can be removed.
In buildings, the temporary structures most commonly used
are, again, props or columns used to support girder structures at
intermediate points during the construction, for example, large
lattice girders spanning distances too great to permit erection of
the component in one subassembly. It is important here to check
the adequacy of the beam carrying the prop, or of the lower
column length being temporarily extended. It is not uncommon
where the temporary erection loads have to be accommodated
for permanent additional material to be incorporated to provide
the additional carrying capacity required.
39.7 The partially completed structure
We have considered the need for temporary supports during the
erection of a structure, and these considerations have dealt
principally with the need to shorten cantilevers during bridge
erection or to prop long girders during assembly in a building.
However, all structures are designed to have a minimum
amount of redundancy and it follows, therefore, that until an
erection procedure is complete the structure is at risk. It is to
eliminate this risk and to take due account of the changing stress
patterns that will arise during an erection procedure that the
engineer must be concerned. It has already been stressed that an
erection scheme should be borne in mind when the original
design is being made, since only by that means can a feasible,
safe and well regulated design be produced.
If a lattice girder structure is to be built out by cantilevering
from a pier it is clear that the stresses in the members will be
reversed until the next pier is reached and the girder spans from
pier to pier. Similarly, only when all the spans are completed will
any continuity assumed by the designer be achieved.
Where the lattice girder is supported by piers or, in the case of
an arch rib, may be supported from above by temporary cables
(see Figure 39.5), very special stress patterns can develop. It may
be necessary to carry out a number of case studies at progressive
stages of erection in order to ensure that the most critical
condition for each member and for each connection has been
considered and adequately dealt with.
A building designed to derive its rigidity from shear walls or
from the composite action of the floor slab will be unstable until
these features are completed. Temporary means of providing
this rigidity must be arranged.
The location of these temporary members, and their stiffness
relative to adjacent members of the partially completed frame
Figure 39.5 In the erection of an arch bridge, temporary supports
are required to assist in cantilevering the two halves of the arch out
from the abutments. Transient loads, deformations and stress
reversals which occur during the erection process must all be
must be carefully considered. It must be possible to construct
the permanent members without removing the temporary load-
carrying members, and to be able to remove the temporary
members afterwards.
The permanent structure must be capable of absorbing the
loads induced by the temporary members. These can in many
cases frame into locations not intended to carry those loads
when the frame is completed. Cases of eccentricity need special
attention in view of the secondary stresses which can be induced.
39.8 Stockyards and transport
We have seen that prefabrication enables manhours to be
expended on the ground rather than at a height, and thus
reduces to the absolute minimum the time that a site is occupied.
It is this factor that enables a steel frame to be put up so quickly,
and to provide an instant support for the follow-up trades.
Inevitably, components must be transported from the factory
to the site. Nothing can ever be perfectly controlled, and a
stockyard is therefore necessary to absorb the differences
between materials arriving on site, and those actually required
from day to day for erection. The effects of delays in the
transport system must be cushioned, otherwise expensive erec-
tion equipment and manpower would be kept idle.
It has been very truly said that a good stockyard control can
make a successful job. The reverse is certainly true: if compo-
nents and fasteners are not sent out to the erection front as
required there will be delays.
Incoming material must be recorded correctly, and located in
order that it can be relocated and transported out when required
without resorting to double handling. It is often convenient to
colour-code the material to conform either to types or area of
calculated carefully for all erection stages and constant checks
made of the actual behaviour of the structure as it grows out of the
crown
the project. Cranage will be provided to handle the weights of
components involved, with the same rules applying as were
discussed in section 39.2. A light crane with large coverage will
be required to handle the light components, and all the heavy
components will be placed under the heavy crane. A Goliath-
type crane is often used for stockyard duties since it occupies
little ground area for its tracks and can easily cover a large area
without reduction of capacity.
Adequate roads - and rail tracks where required - must be
provided to give all-weather service. Axle loads of the vehicles
using a stockyard are heavy and maintenance time on broken
roads is time lost for erection.
Vehicles bringing material into a stockyard will be the normal
form of fixed axle or semi-trailer type of transport common on
the public roads. Only in exceptional cases will it be necessary to
bring components on to site on special transport vehicles
requiring police escort. There are limitations imposed by law on
both the weight and dimensions of loads that can be moved on
the public highway and a knowledge of those restrictions is
essential. Additionally, many sites are located in places where
the road layout, or low bridges, impose restrictions and a study
of these must be undertaken before the component gets stuck
and the site is disrupted.
On-site transport is not restricted in the same way, and the
size of load is similarly subject to different controls. Site
subassembly can lead to awkward loads, and the safe loading
and fixing of these on the site transport is important.
The proper control and distribution of fasteners is important.
Bolts should be rebagged into 'sets' required for particular
connections or areas. This saves time at the splice, and also cuts
down the waste of bolts when an excessive number are issued by
the store. The proper storage of welding electrodes, their issue
and conditioning while being held at the point of use are also
functions often delegated to the stockyard stores control func-
tion.
Figure 39.6 An example of an unsafe working platform. To ask a
man to work under such conditions endangers not only the man on
the platform but also the safety of the other men with whom he is
working, and the safety of the whole job could be endangered
39.9 Manpower and safety
None of the operations discussed in this chapter can be carried
out without an adequate and sufficiently skilled number of men.
The proper use of subassembly techniques can reduce the
number of manhours which have to be worked at a height, but
work has still to be done up on the open steel, and this must be
properly planned.
Steel erection is a task that can only be learned by experience.
Formal training can teach the basic skills of rigging, scaffolding,
slinging, crane driving, burning and welding, but only ex-
perience can enable these skills to be applied on the job. It is the
individual erector who brings his expertise and skill; it is the
employer who must provide the planned erection method and
adequate equipment to enable the erector to safely apply his
skill. He needs not only the crane and the spanners, but also a
safe place in which to work. Figure 39.6 shows a man working
on an unsafe platform. Not only is it dangerous for a person
working in such conditions, but the safety of the whole job
could be put at risk. The provision of boxes to contain loose
tools, and good housekeeping in the handling of small compo-
nents in general can each help to ensure a smooth running, and a
safe, job.
In the UK, a large number of regulations control the manner
of the ordering of work on a construction site, and these,
together with summaries of them are available from HMSO and
from RoSPA. These cover such major items as the testing and
retesting of lifting equipment and the dimensional requirements
for working platforms and access ways. Many accidents,
though, are caused not by major problems, but by insufficient
attention being given to the small items.
Thought given to the design and detailing of the steelwork
itself can result in a real reduction in the risk of an accident
occurring during erection.
Accidents will always happen, but careful planning from the
start will prevent a simple accident from escalating into a major
calamity.
39.10 Construction management
The construction manager is a man whose function is becoming
increasingly important. The basic object of management on a
construction site is to have the right component at the right
place at the right time with adequate equipment and men to
handle it, and to repeat this over and again to complete the
structure on time and within a cost target.
To this basic requirement must be added the co-ordination of
a number of contractors, each with his own problems and
targets, together with an ability to overcome problems created
by other influences, often outside his direct control.
There are a number of contractual forms within which
construction work can be carried out, but one important feature
of all these is that the roles of the parties to the contract are
clearly defined. It is essential that responsibilities are clearly
defined in this way since we have seen how closely the original
design affects the erection process and vice versa. These inter-
connecting factors must be appreciated by all the parties or
disputes, and perhaps tragedies, can result.
There is a variety of ways in which a prospective owner can
have the management of the construction of his project orga-
nized. One factor common to all methods, however, is that the
earlier in the time-scale all the parties who are to be involved can
add their particular expertise to the planning of that project,
then the sooner the project can be started, and the sooner it can
be completed. The attainment of this ideal situation is made
easier with some forms of contract and management organiza-
tion than with others.
In what is being presented here as the ideal situation, a project
team is brought together at the inception of the planning of the
project. This team will comprise those who will be directly
responsible for each of the phases of the project, from the
design, not only of the frame, but of all the associated services,
right through to the site erection functions, at the other end of
the planning and construction time-scale.
The other end of the spectrum is the job where all the
functions are carried out in watertight compartments, the
designs being prepared in a number of engineers' offices, and the
contractors tendering in isolation. With this system no mean-
ingful discussions can take place between those who either are,
or will be, most intimately involved with the project until so late
a time in the construction process that their contribution can
only be limited.
39.11 Summary
The more complex a project becomes and the more services are
involved - a tall building is an excellent example - the greater
the need for early consultation and planning. In a tall building
where the lower floors can be approaching occupancy while
those above are having services installed and those at the top are
still being framed, the whole complex construction pattern is
seen in microcosm.
Accesses for foundation construction must integrate with the
demolition of what was there before. Material arriving on site
requires close control and schedules if traffic chaos and a
hopelessly congested site are to be avoided.
The positioning of cranes and the stability of the partially
completed frame and of any temporary works must be very
carefully thought through.
The safety of those working on the structure and of those
working, and perhaps also living, in the vicinity of the new
structure must be constantly considered.
Only by the co-operation of everybody who will be involved
in the project, be it bridge or building, can the best design be
made, the best construction method adopted and the earliest
completion date obtained.
All these factors - design, method of construction and con-
struction time - must be optimized if the owner is to be able to
make use of his new facility at the earliest possible time and so
be able to generate revenue from his investment.
Bibliography
Arch, W. H. (1985) Structural steelwork erection. British Council for
Steel Erection, London
Barron, T. (1963) Erection of constructional steelwork. Iliffe, London.
Constrado (1972) Steel designers' manual (4th edn). Crosby Lockwood,
London.
Leech, L. V. (1972) Structural steelwork for students. Butterworths,
London.
O'Connor, C. (1971) Design of bridge superstructures.
Wiley-Interscience, Chichester.
Ward, F. C., Bryant, E. G. and Pound, R. P. (1970) 'Simply supported
bridges in composite construction'. British Council for Steel Erection,
London
Journal
Building with steel: controlled circulation, British Steel Corporation,
address: 9 Albert Embankment, London SEl 7SN