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SCIENCES CURRICULA:
PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS
Only workbook for HSE 3704
SU1-3: Assignment 02 (2017)
Contents
Study Unit 1: CURRICULUM THEORIES ................................................................. 3
1.1 THE CONCEPT: CURRICULUM AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ..... 4
1.1.1 Curriculum defined in terms of subject matter (content) ............................. 9
1.1.2 Curriculum defined in terms of outcomes (product).................................. 11
1.1.3 Curriculum defined in terms of process (planned learning experiences) .. 14
1.1.4 Curriculum defined in terms of praxis (interactions) ................................. 15
1.1.5 Curriculum as having a conceptual and a cultural dimension................... 21
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT .............................. 24
1.3 THE PURPOSE OF A CURRICULUM ........................................................ 25
1.3.1 The academic-rationalist perspective ....................................................... 27
1.3.2 The cognitive processes perspective ....................................................... 28
1.3.3 The humanistic (personal relevance) perspective .................................... 30
1.3.4 The social reconstructionist (social adaptation and reconstruction)
perspective / Critical theory ............................................................................... 30
1.3.5 The personal commitment perspective .................................................... 32
1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF CURRICULA ........................................................... 37
1.5 CURRICULUM TERMINOLOGY................................................................. 38
1.6 THE CURRICULUM COMMITTEE ............................................................. 39
1.7 SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 41
In this first study unit you will be introduced to the field of curriculum studies. We will
focus on the following questions:
What is a curriculum?
What is the purpose of a curriculum?
What is meant by curriculum development?
How is a curriculum developed?
Specific outcomes:
After you have worked through this study unit you will be able to conceptualise the
meaning of the concept of curriculum and its purposes, based on your ability to
distinguish between different perspectives about the meaning of the concept
of curriculum
distinguish between different perspectives about the purpose of a curriculum
analyse a given definition of curriculum
explain what a curriculum is from a chosen perspective, or from a combination
of perspectives
argue in favour of a perspective, or combination of perspectives, about the
purpose of a curriculum within the context of your own profession
enhance effective communication by using curriculum
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 3
1.1 THE CONCEPT: CURRICULUM AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Traditionally curriculum is defined as a course of study - those items that establish
the course (Wiles & Bondi 2011:3). The word curriculum is derived from the Latin
word curro or currere which means to run'' (Billings & Halstead 2012:79; Iwasiw &
Goldenberg, 2015:4). In this sense curriculum refers to an educational journey or
race that learners embark on to achieve some educational goal.
How we define the concept of curriculum depends on our perspective about what a
curriculum is, as well as our perspective about the nature of education and the world.
It is for this reason that various, often diverse, definitions of curriculum are found in
the literature. It is important to understand these different perspectives because our
own view about what a curriculum is will influence the decisions we make about the
type of curriculum which we value.
Activity 1.1 (5): In your own words, without consulting any sources, write down what
YOU think the term curriculum entails.
NOTE: In all instances of written responses, please insert your response/answer
between the two * so that your entry appears in blue.
* A curriculum is a collective study of work designed to achieve a specific outcome. It
entails a detailed approach with structured learning objectives and specific
outcomes. A timeframe is provided to meet these outcomes. The students go
through different learning experiences through a journey of an educational process
to achieve a preset educational goal. The curriculum will include content of
educational objectives and planned interactions of the pupils. The curriculum is
based on philosophys, goals and guidelines to deliver a specific program within a
timeframe. The content is preplanned and refers to facts, ideas and generalities
based on the subject or discipline, including skills and attitudes that the students
need to attain. The Learners enquiring minds are guided by subject content of a
discipline/subject.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 4
Lets look at a few evidence-based definitions of a curriculum!
Ebert, Ebert and Bently (2013) defines curriculum as
the means and materials with which students will interact for the
purpose of achieving identified educational outcomes.
Keatings definition suggests three major points, the first being that learning is a
formal educational plan. We do plan theoretical and clinical teaching sessions and
learning opportunities. Usually we use a curriculum document to guide us. This
document includes the content and skills, for example, which learners should acquire
in order to achieve specified learning outcomes (goals), and an indication of how
learning assessment will occur. In addition the educational plan also specifies which
clinical areas the learners should be exposed to and the number of hours needed for
each exposure.
On the other hand, we need to ask ourselves whether we can really plan all possible
specific learning experiences. Learning is a private journey. It is not owned by the
educator. It can at times be quite spontaneous. Learning possibilities may arise that
have not been anticipated while the learners utilise planned learning opportunities
and interact with the learning material, with the educator and with one another. The
nature of health sciences education, and of education in general, is such that
learners are likely to learn in groups in both the classroom and clinical areas and will
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 5
also spend time working individually in both the educational institution and the
clinical field.
Thirdly, the definition suggests that a curriculum provides guidelines for the delivery
of a specific educational programme. This means that this definition sheds light on
the fact that a curriculum comprises an implementation guideline in addition to the
educational plan. A curriculum therefore communicates an educational plan and
guidelines on how the educational plan should be applied in practice. Therefore the
curriculum involves not only a formal educational plan but also what happens in the
teaching-learning situation.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 6
Keating's definition does contribute something to our understanding of the meaning
of the concept of curriculum in terms of having a conceptual and cultural dimension.
We at least know that if we follow this viewpoint we need to plan carefully for all the
learning opportunities that a learner requires to become a competent health care
practitioner. We also know that we have to establish a guideline which educators and
learners can use to ascertain that teaching and learning actually contribute towards
achieving the goals as stated in the educational plan. In addition we need to
explicate the philosophical underpinnings (or foundations) of the curriculum.
Tip: You may consult any relevant source, such as these suggestions:
http://www.edudemic.com/benefits-of-mind-mapping/ and/or
http://www.education.com/reference/article/curriculum-definition/ and/or
http://www.slideshare.net/UmairAshraf/curriculum-history-and-elements-of-
curriculum and/or
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/strengthening-education-
systems/quality-framework/technical-notes/different-meaning-of-curriculum/
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 7
Sources 1. Developing Health Science curricula.: The Concept: Curriculum and Curriculum Development Only study guide for HSE
3704 University of South Africa Pretoria, 2017
2 Billings & Halstead 2012:79 Teaching in nursing: a guide for faculty 3rd edition. St Louis: Elsevier Saunders
Activity 1.3 (5): In the myUnisa discussion forum, under the topic Curriculum
Development Definitions, paste your Mind Map. Take a look at some of your co-
students mind maps and leave feedback (an academic comment). [Nicely done is
not an academic comment.]
Copy and paste the two responses that you have provided on two other students
mind maps here :
Student 1: 57181098 (number). Your response: You have posted a curriculum
development and not Definition of curriculum _
Student 2: 341217178 (number). Your response: your mind map lacks flow
and there is a spelling error.
Copy and paste two responses that you have received on your mind map
here (5):
Sources 1. Developing Health Science curricula.: The Concept: Curriculum and Curriculum Development Only study guide for HSE
3704 University of South Africa Pretoria, 2017
2 Billings & Halstead 2012:79 Teaching in nursing: a guide for faculty 3rd edition. St Louis: Elsevier Saunders
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 8
Student 1: S J LEMAO 55147844 (number). Their response: your mind map is clear and
very informative
We will quickly discuss each of the above perspectives. As you read through these
descriptions, you must highlight or circle the basic concepts as it relates to this
definition/perspective. (You will use these keywords for the next activity.)
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 9
Below is a definition that reflects the view that a curriculum is a collection of subject
matter.
Bell (Quinn 2007:107) defines curriculum as follows:
A curriculum is the offering of socially valued knowledge, skills and
attitudes made available to learners through a variety of
arrangements during the time they are at school, college or
university.
You might also want to look at Dr Asgaris presentation (Slideshare, slide 12 of 63)
for her perspective on the content or subject based curriculum.
Activity 1.4 (5): Write down the key-words that you have circled for the CONTENT-
based curriculum:
* subject matter
* transmission of knowledge
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 10
* pre-planned activity with assortment of activities
In Billings and Halstead (2012:79) you will find another definition by RC Doll.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 11
Most people have thought over the years that the outcomes were the
curriculum content: What will the kids know? What can they recall
on a test? But outcomes are not content, they're performances.
If one then needs to visually illustrate the process, it would look something like my
diagram below:
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 12
Activity 1.5 (5): Taking all the above definitions and explanations into account, write
down the key-words that you have circled for the OUTCOMES-based curriculum:
* skills development
* performance of activities
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 13
http://www.slideshare.net/alwynlau/outcomebased-
education?next_slideshow=1
**Please bear in mind that not all content on the World Wide-Web is always 100%
accurate so use viewer discretion.**
Examples of definitions that are based on the process-based perspective are that of
Ornstein and Levin (2006:414):
... planned experiences provided through instruction,
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 14
Activity 1.6 (5): Write down the key-words that you have circled for the PROCESS-
based curriculum:
If you want to read more about the process-based curriculum, try this (rather old)
article: Knight, P. 2001. Complexity and curriculum: a process approach to
curruculum-making. Teaching in Higher Education, 6 (3). pp. 369-381. ISSN 1356-
2517.
Grundy (in Yek & Penney, 2006:7) describes the teaching and learning process as:
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 15
a process which takes the experiences of both the learner and the
teacher and, through dialogue and negotiation, recognizes them both
as problematic.
Study Billings and Halstead (2012:7980) and add the definitions by William E Doll
(2002) and Nelms (1991) to this section. You will notice that WE Doll (in Billings &
Halstead, 2012:79) focusses on the shifting paradigm where the focus is not solely
on the individual undertaking the study. Look at the five major concepts as used by
him:
Currere
Complexity
Cosmology
Conversation
Community
These definitions indicate that all other aspects of curriculum such as programmes of
study, written plans, and extracurricular activities are adjuncts to educator-learner
and learner-learner interactions. This perspective is based on the assumption that a
curriculum is what actually happens in the teaching-learning setting as opposed to a
written plan, which might not be realised in practice as intended.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 16
Activity 1.7 (5): Write down the key-words that you have circled for the PRAXIS-
based curriculum:
*It involves on the job experience
*It deals with reality
*there is active interaction and communication between student and educators
Activity 1.8 (44): In table format (see outline provided) differentiate between the
different perspectives on curriculum development / curriculum delivery model.
Use the keywords that you have written down. You must upload the final table to
your portfolio.
For this activity, you may work in groups of four (4). One of the easiest ways to do
group work over a distance, is by using collaborative online documents. Remember
that you will also need to include YOUR perspective on the rest of the teams
contributions towards the project. The total must add up to 100%.
Enter the names and student numbers of the four group members here:
Name: _________ Student nr: _________ Contributed 25%
Name: _________ Student nr: _________ Contributed ______%
Name: _________ Student nr: _________ Contributed ______%
Name: _________ Student nr: _________ Contributed ______%
A few websites that you might want to consult for information regarding the table:
http://infed.org/mobi/curriculum-theory-and-practice/
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 17
UCD teaching and learning @ www.ucd.ie and
http://www.ucd.ie/t4cms/ucdtlp00631.pdf
http://www.sabes.org/curriculum/instruction/bit-about-curriculum.pdf
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 18
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HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 19
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HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 20
practices
From the above categories, we can distinguish between two major uses of the
concept of curriculum. Some educators use the concept to refer to a written
description of what is intended to happen in the educational setting. For instance, a
curriculum is seen to constitute pre-specified content which educators are supposed
to teach, the outcomes which the learners should achieve and the learning
opportunities which the educators should create and the learners should utilise.
Others use it to refer to what actually happens in the educational setting (e.g. the
learning experiences which the learners encounter as well as their interactions and
collaboration which result in their learning). These educators use the concept to refer
to the teaching-learning strategies which they actually employ, the learners' clinical
learning experiences, and so on. The resultant learning may be either intended or
unintended.
Grundy (1987:5,7) combines these two uses of the concept by stating that a
curriculum consists of a conceptual and a cultural dimension. The conceptual
dimension refers to a plan according to which education should be rendered. This
plan consists of pre-specified content, outcomes and learning opportunities which
are presented to the learners. The cultural dimension is the learning experiences of
learners as a result of the implementation of the educational plan in practice. It is
clear that this perspective encompasses all of the above perspectives; it is therefore
an eclectic approach.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 21
in the form of a written document and the process whereby educators
make decisions to implement those activities given interaction with
context variables such as learners, resources, educators and the
learning environment.
This perspective even goes further in that the concept of curriculum is understood to
include guidelines according to which the educational plan could be implemented in
practice. Specific learning outcomes, study guides, learning contracts and learning
assessment tools could be incorporated in the implementation guidelines. The
implementation guidelines would then serve as point of departure for personnel
development on how to implement the educational plan in practice. This is to ensure
that the experiences of learners during their interactions with the educational plan
and with educators do in fact contribute to achievement of the intended outcomes as
stated in the educational plan. Figure 2 serves as an example.
At this point, note the fact that a curriculum is influenced by its context. If you read
the previous/above definition by Print (1993:9) again you will discover that the author
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 22
specifies context variables, namely learners, educators and the environment. This
matter will be elaborated on in study units 2 and 4 where we discuss the context of
the curriculum and the situation analysis which is aimed at investigating the context
of a particular curriculum.
Activity 1.9 (5): Consider your personal view about curriculum that you have written
down at the beginning of this study unit. Now reflect on the following:
Do you think your stated view was realistic? (Motivate your answer)
*Yes
*when I read all the definitions of a curriculum it appears I have captured the
main concepts in my definition.
What misconceptions did you have prior to studying the various perspectives
about what a curriculum is?
*none
How would you define curriculum at this point? Use your own words.
*this is a well-developed process of study with aims, objectives and outcomes.
There are many diverse ideas from different theories. The main concept is
developed from the educators individual method and views. These are not
applied in isolation but a combination of the different models and theorists.
It is quite acceptable if you were unable to explain what curriculum meant to you in
activity 1.1. We trust that you were able to do so now. Defining curriculum now was
probably difficult because there are various perspectives about what a curriculum is,
and you had to consider each of these perspectives. You might even be a bit
confused. At this point it is sufficient for you to understand that various perspectives
exist and to be able to formulate your own definition, based on what you have read
so far.
By now you are probably wondering how you, as a potential educator, are to make
sense of these widely differing approaches. The implications of each of the various
perspectives will become clear to you as you proceed through this and the other third
level health sciences education modules. At this point you should note that the
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 23
perspective which is adopted by your profession will influence the type of curriculum
which will be developed to educate health care professionals.
Activity 1.10 (10): As stated above, all teaching staff are involved in curriculum
development. Compiling your lesson plans is viewed as crucial to your teaching
responsibilities and form part of your class preparation. Watch the following video-
clip on Curriculum Development (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AAkKSgSChJA)
and explain which of the two members views are correct. Note that there are two
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 24
video clips at this address. Both are worth watching. [Remember to include the
sources that you have consulted. At Unisa we make use of the Harvard method.]
* The member who requested the other member to design a curriculum is correct.
She is right as curriculum development is a collective approach and not an individual
on their own. A curriculum is developed by the curriculum committee. This is
reviewed by different committees before approval and application.
* Sources
1. Developing Health Science curricula. Principles and processes. Only study guide for HSE 3704 University of South Africa
Pretoria, 2017.
2. Billings, D.M Halstead, JA 2009 Teaching in nursing: a guide for faculty 3rd edition. St Louis: Elsevier Saunders
Can you teach/facilitate from someone elses lesson plan? Substantiate your
answer.
*Yes, you most certainly can. Prior knowledge and research of the subject content
are important to be able to teach from someone elses lesson plan.
Activity 1.11 (5): What is your opinion about the purpose of education and by
implication the curriculum? State your opinion by circling the option that reflects your
opinion best:
SA = strongly agree
A = agree
D = disagree
SD = strongly disagree
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 25
(1) The purpose is to transmit and preserve a cultural heritage, for example the
existing culture of your profession.
A D SD
SA
(2) The purpose is to develop thinking, problem solving and learning skills among
learners.
SA A D SD
(3) The purpose is to promote personal development of each individual learner (self-
actualisation).
SA A D SD
SA
At some point, we will ask you to review your responses. In the meantime, we will
continue to explore various perspectives about the purpose of a curriculum, as found
in the literature.
You may use and add any reliable source such as Glatthorn, Boschee, Whitehead
and Boshee, (2012, Chapter 1) to add depth to our discussions below by integrating
the content into our discussions in the study guide.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 26
Figure 3: Curriculum perspectives (Manley-Delacruz, 1990:5)
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 27
An expression of the purpose of a curriculum, in terms of conveyance of the
intellectual tradition or culture of a particular health profession, supports the
development of a content-centred, a behavioural objectives-based or an outcomes-
based curriculum.
According to Barone (2012:3) there are eternal truths that one needs to discovered.
However, an overstuffed curriculum should be avoided and
the most worthwhile learning centers on those enduring ideas and
artifacts that have stood the test of time.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 28
*Nursing should be evidence base, this method will encourage research , teach
knowledge, skills and values that will assist the community and the profession
Activity 1.13 (5): Given the statement above, reflect on how you were taught certain
practical skills (e.g. wound-dressing) when you were a student. Were you taught a
sequence of steps that you had to follow, or were you taught the basic principles of
wound-dressing?
*The step by step approach was used to teach wound dressing in my training
Do you think this was a good way of teaching? (Substantiate your answer)
*Yes, it was a worthy way of teaching. This method of teaching correlates the steps
that involve wound healing. Emphasising prevention and infection control. Infection
prevention and control is the central principle in wound healing.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 29
1.3.3 The humanistic (personal relevance) perspective
This perspective focuses on the learner as an individual and on meeting the basic
needs and aspirations of each learner. Humanists believe that the purpose of a
curriculum is to provide each learner with intrinsically rewarding learning experiences
that contribute to personal liberation and development, namely self-actualisation.
The ideals of personal growth, integrity and autonomy are pursued. The aim is the
development of the total person, namely the intellectual, emotional, moral and
spiritual development of learners. In terms of thinking skills, the aim is to develop
creative thinking abilities of learners. The curriculum consists of intrinsically valuable
learning experiences that will promote the self-actualisation of each learner. An
individualised approach is maintained to meet the needs of each learner in his or her
quest for personal development (McNeil 1996:1).
Activity 1.14 (20): What are the unique features of a flexible curriculum? Please
consult the CHEs (2013) document for in-depth insight into this.
*this is centred on the student
*its intentions are to build the person in totality
*the student is provided with personal rewards such as self-actualisation and
personal development
Social reconstructivists are concerned with the relation of the curriculum to society
as it should be, as opposed to society as it is. According to social reconstructivists,
the primary concern of education is to deal with the needs and problems of society,
rather than those of the individual learner, and to contribute to the creation of a better
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 30
social order. Theodore Brameld believed that the purpose of a curriculum is the
enhancement of social reform by providing liberatory education. Learners are
empowered by acquiring the ability to contribute to social reform as opposed to
accepting current realities and practices or merely adapting to social change. This is
done by developing thinking skills that will enable learners to show a healthy
scepticism about the world, their community and their schooling (McNeil 1996:1).
Learners are encouraged to ask critical questions and have meaningful dialog they
are guided, but NOT told what to think or believe (Education.com). Freire opposed
the thought that educators deposit knowledge into the students heads. He believed
that, through a process of inquiry, the child/student must invent and reinvent the
world (Houston Community College System, n.d.). The needs of society are seen as
greater than those of the individual and the focus of the curriculum is therefore to
meet the most urgent needs of society. Learners are confronted with the many
severe problems that humankind experiences. They are equipped with the skills to
analyse arguments, look for valid evidence and reach sound conclusions. They are
taught to use these skills to conduct a critical survey of the community, analyse
political practices, consider proposals for change and determine which of the
proposals for change suit the needs of the community. On an individual level,
learners are also taught how to shape their own destiny; thus they take control over
their own lives, bearing in mind that empowered individuals can contribute towards
social change.
Activity 1.15 (5): Do you think that all teaching institutions will be able to adopt a
social reconstructive curriculum? (As always, substantiate your answer.)
*yes, the likely hood is very probable
*the curriculum should aim at results, accomplishments and outcomes. The learning
environment should be active, self-motivated with a positive atmosphere for the
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 31
students. This should ensure that the curriculum is flexible for the clinical faciltators
or tutors.
The central concern of this perspective is commitment on the part of the educator
and the learners. According to this perspective the purpose of a curriculum is to
develop, in learners, a personal commitment to intellectual inquiry and learning. The
aim is to encourage the personal liberation that comes from understanding and
appreciating the questions that the traditional disciplines ask - and from being able to
synthesise them to appreciate a variety of modes of knowing. The outcome is
knowledgeable and competent practitioners who are committed to whatever they do.
This commitment is characterised by a passion for working hard and experiencing
the joys of intellectual exploration (Vallance 1986:27-28).
The personal commitment perspective paves the way for developing a praxis
(practice) curriculum, using an eclectic approach by incorporating the academic
rationalist and humanist perspectives. A committed individual is able to embrace a
personal ethic of social responsibility and service, and exhibit ethical behaviour in all
professional activities.
Activity 1.16 (5+5): Let's revisit your own views about the purpose of a curriculum.
Without looking at your previous responses, what is your opinion about the purpose
of a curriculum in your own profession? State your opinion by circling the option in
the box that reflects your opinion best:
SA = strongly agree
A = agree
D = disagree
SD = strongly disagree
(1) The purpose is to transmit and preserve the existing culture of your profession.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 32
SA A D SD
SA
(2) The purpose is to develop thinking, problem solving and learning skills in
learners.
SA A D SD
SA
Let us reflect: Did your view on the purpose of a curriculum change? What,
according to your own opinion, contributed to a changed view? If your views
remained the same, can you give any reasons why? (Remember: The above options
do not represent right or wrong answers. Your responses depend on your personal
views.) (5)
*No my opinion has not changed. The curriculum should develop the learner to
change into a caring professional. Build on their knowledge and skills that could be
used positively to display the change that she would want to see in the community or
society that she would be involved in.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 33
Table 2: Perspective Definitions of Curriculum (Glatthorn, Boschee, Whitehead and Boshee, 2012:3)
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 34
Table 3: Perspectives about the purpose of a curriculum
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 35
Perspectives about the purpose of a curriculum
Academic- Cognitive Humanistic / Social Personal
rationalist process Personal Reconstructionist commitment
vocational
value
Structure of - Content- - Content specific - Learner- - Community based - Eclectic
curriculum centred - Problem-based centred / education (academic
- Objective/ curriculum Individualised - Praxis curriculum rationalist +
outcome - Process approach humanist)
based curriculum - Flexible
- Behavioural curriculum
- Experiential
learning
Student - Develop - Active learner - Autonomy - Analyse arguments - Knowledgeab
competencies rational mind involvement - Personal - Find Evidence le and
- Standards of - Problem-solving growth - Reach sound competent
reason - Integrity conclusions practitioners
- Insight and - Self- - Students shape own - Create
intellectual actualization destiny take students who
skills - control over own will work hard
- Research lives - Students who
enjoy
intellectual
exploration
Structuring - Taxonomies - Problem solving - Student - Social problems or -
elements - Scaffolding and trouble- research and work adjustment
of knowledge shooting projects skills
processes
Technology - Industry and - Intellectual - Career - Critical -
Educational Technology: Processes: Exploration Consumerism:
goals appreciate develop creative and Vocation: establish values on
the evolution solutions to develop the impact of
of industry present and human industry and
and future societal potential for technology and how
technology problems using responsible it alters our
technical work, leisure, environment.
means. and
citizenship
roles in a
technological
society.
Curriculum - Lawtons - - - Lawtons cultural -
model cultural analysis model
analysis
model
-
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 36
1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF CURRICULA
There are many ways of classifying curricula. In the figure below, an overview is
provided to illustrate the different types of curricula.
Figure 4: Relationship of types of curricula (Glatthorn, Boschee, Whitehead and Boshee, 2012:31)
Activity 1.17 (25): Look at the definitions below and in any of your prescribed books
(such as Billings and Halstead, 2012:80-82), Glatthorn, Boschee, Whitehead and
Boshee, (2012) and formulate your OWN definitions.
Add your definition to the table.
Provide an example of each type of curricula.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 37
Table 4: Types of Curricula
Type of Description
curriculum
Legitimate / -Consist of curriculum framework with philosophy and mission.
Official -It states list of competences, objectives and individual courses.
EXAMPLE:
-A detailed set of objectives for a Midwifery Module.
-Competences to be achieved to pass the module.
-Total number of competences to be achieved.
Actual / -Consist of the actual teaching plan that is being taught to the students by the
Operational educators.
-It focuses on all domains of learning in the classroom (knowledge, skills and
attitude.
EXAMPLE:
-Lesson pal on the anatomy and physiology of the airway system.
-Assessment of the airway system.
-Abnormalities of the airway system.
- Use of mannequins is used to visualise system being studied
Illegitimate -Consist of known and actively taught curriculum by the educators.
-There is no written evaluation method for this type of curriculum.
EXAMPLE:
-Role play to teach caring, compassionate and stimulate feelings of
sensitivity.
-Story telling to create a real life situation an d stimulate caring feelings.
Hidden -Consists of verbal and nonverbal communication.
-The focus is on beliefs, values and morals.
EXAPMLE:
-Dress code-of the educators indirectly affects the students.
-Body language demonstrated by educators when communicating with students
affects the students. Educators who demonstrates caring and respect will
receive this back.
Null curriculum -Consists of both content and behaviours that are not tauht.
-Consists of curriculum that is being overlooked.
EXAMPLE:
-Critical thinking must be encourage to develop decision making stategies must
of the students. The faculty need to ensure that the skill is included by
constantly evaluating the the curriculum to avoid misconceptions.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 38
The content, outcomes, learning activities and assessment strategies of HSE3704,
together with those of all the other modules which you have to complete before you
can graduate, constitute the curriculum for the educational programme for which you
are registered.
The timetable lists the specific theoretical and clinical learning sessions that the
learners should attend, their times, the venues and the educators involved.
The core curriculum consists of the fundamental knowledge, attitudes and skills
that are considered to be essential in order to know and understand the subject or to
practise effectively in a particular field. The list of courses or learning opportunities
from which the learners may choose a number of options to meet their unique
learning needs are called electives.
In other words, curriculation is the activity in terms of which each phase of curriculum
development is actually brought into being.
Curriculum development is a very broad concept that encompasses all the
processes involved in the production and implementation of a curriculum, from the
initial idea through to monitoring and review. Curriculum development and
curriculation are often regarded as synonymous.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 39
institutions the curriculum is developed by a team, known as the curriculum
committee. The composition of the committee may vary from institution to institution.
In a small educational institution all educators may serve on the committee, together
with some representatives of the clinical area. At large institutions only the subject
heads, together with the principal and representatives of the clinical areas, may
constitute the curriculum committee. The principal generally serves as chairperson of
the committee. At some university departments, academics and subject experts,
media specialists and graphic designers, as well as respected colleagues from other
educational institutions, may serve on the curriculum committee.
In the ideal situation, the committee will be constituted with the following members:
Project leader
Module leader
Project manager from Directorate of Curriculum and Learning Development:
education consultant and specialist
Course coordinator
Teaching assistants
External moderator
Instructional designer
Scriptwriter
Sound-and-Video production
Graphic designer/artist
Programmer and ICT consultant:
Librarian
Member from departmental quality assurance team
Language editor
Previous students who have completed the module
Any partners or providers
Financial department
The work of the curriculum committee is on-going. Once the course is running, the
curriculum committee still meets regularly in order to evaluate and improve the
curriculum.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 40
We discussed various matters related to curriculum development in this study unit. It
is the curriculum committee who is responsible for curriculum development. The
functions of the curriculum committee will therefore become apparent to you as you
proceed through this study guide. Make notes on the functions of the curriculum
committee as you work through each study unit.
1.7 SUMMARY
By actively working through this study unit, you should have acquired a perspective
on the many interpretations of the concept of curriculum, its purpose and the way it
can be classified. By now you should also be familiar with the terms that are used in
curriculum theory. We will continue with our orientation to curriculum theory in study
unit 2, by examining and analysing some of the major curriculum models found in the
literature.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 41
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook
Contents
Study Unit 2: CURRICULUM MODELS .................................................................. 43
2.1 OVERVIEW ................................................................................................. 43
2.2 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................... 43
2.3 MODELS DEPICTING THE NATURE OF A CURRICULUM ...................... 44
2.4 MODELS DEPICTING THE NATURE OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
51
2.5 THE CURRICULUM DEBATE: PROCESS OR PRAXIS? ........................... 68
2.6 SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 70
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 42
Week 3-4
16 hours
2.1 OVERVIEW
&&&&&&&&&&&&
Study unit 2 of this study guide, Developing Health Sciences Curricula: Principles
and Process, deals with curriculum models.
We provide an outline of selected models depicting the nature of the curriculum and
curriculum development. Note that models help us to visualise the curriculum and
the curriculum development process. This greatly enhances our understanding of
these abstract concepts. S
After you have worked through this study unit you should be able to conceptualise
the nature of a curriculum and curriculum development, based on your ability to &
discuss specified models depicting the nature of a curriculum
discuss specified models depicting the nature of curriculum development
debate the relative value of specified curriculum development models for
curriculum development in your profession
debate the merits of the process and praxis curriculum for health sciences
education
You will be able to achieve most of the learning outcomes by working through this
study unit. Where necessary, we will refer you to appropriate supplementary sources
such as sections in textbooks, video-clips, SlideShare presentations or articles.
Should you come across any valuable sources that can assist your co-students,
kindly share them with the group on myUnisa.
2.2 INTRODUCTION
In study unit 1 of this module you became acquainted with various perspectives on
what a curriculum is and the purpose of a curriculum. You were also introduced to
curriculum terminology used in curriculum studies. In this study unit we will focus on
curriculum models that will enable you to gain a better understanding of what
Zais (1976:96-98) developed a very useful model that gives us a clear indication of
what a curriculum comprises.
In short, from Zais's model we can deduce that a curriculum consists of a structure
that is influenced by a set of underlying philosophical assumptions.
Note that you already have knowledge about the curriculum structure. Many learning
activities of the first and second levels of the Health Sciences Education course
introduced you to the specifics of the curriculum structure. You already know how to
formulate learning outcomes, select and teach clinical and theoretical subject
content, facilitate learning in students and conduct learning assessments. We can
therefore say that you are already partly competent in curriculum development,
specifically at the micro level of development.
*Theory is the basis of the foundation phase, next the clinical sessions and finally
there is the prospect of learning phase.
This definition specifically accounts for the foundations of the curriculum and aspects
of the curriculum structure. With regard to its structure, only the goals were
specifically mentioned. The other components which constitute a curriculum were
implied in the definition, but not mentioned specifically. The definition suggests that a
curriculum provides guidelines for the delivery of a specific educational programme.
This possibly implies that the curriculum content and the teaching, learning and
learning assessment strategies are considered to be part of a curriculum.
At this point we should state that a curriculum is socially situated. This means that a
curriculum evolves from the needs and demands of a particular society and that,
once developed, it is implemented in the particular society, thus having an impact on
that society. For instance, the philosophical assumptions underpinning a particular
curriculum are closely related to the value system of the broader society. Similarly,
the curriculum structure is also influenced by society. If, for instance, a need exists
for graduates who are able to solve problems, then problem solving will be one of the
curriculum outcomes. Cognitive learning theories should therefore underlie the
curriculum. Curriculum content should then include problem-solving strategies,
learners should engage in learning activities that require them to solve problems
independently and strategies to assess their problem-solving abilities should be
devised. Curriculum implementation is also influenced by certain conditions in
Activity 2.3 (5): Given the above, do you think that it if feasible for a NEI (nursing
education institution) to buy or use a curriculum that was developed and successfully
implemented in another country? (Substantiate your answer.)
* According to Keating (2006:2), curriculum is socially structured. This makes it
inapplicable, to apply a curriculum that is devoted to a specific society and apply this
to a totally different society. Each society has exclusive demands and requirements
that are entirely different to other societies. Specifiers such as. religion, politics and
economic structure.
In the health sciences we strive to prepare health practitioners who can function in a
particular health care setting in order to contribute to meeting the health care needs
of society. It is therefore imperative that we also introduce you to a model that
specifically deals with the social context of a curriculum, namely Lawton's cultural
analysis model.
Lawton (Kelly 2004:48) developed a cultural analysis model that is based on the
assumption that the main purpose of a curriculum is to initiate learners into the
cultural heritage of society or into what is best in it. Lawton (Gultig et al 2002:24)
defines curriculum as a selection from the culture of society.
This definition implies that content that represents the finest intellectual and artistic
achievements of society are selected for inclusion in a curriculum. The objectives
that we formulate and our decisions about the content to be included are derived
from an analysis of society. It is therefore clear that a curriculum develops from a
particular social context. However, it is also implemented in a particular context and
various factors in society will enhance or even impede successful curriculum
implementation. Therefore you need to understand the social and cultural context
of a particular curriculum before you can embark on curriculum development.
Lawton's model is designed for general education and is very broad. Nevertheless,
this model is thought particularly suitable for directing health sciences educators'
attention to the contextual nature of the curriculum at a time when health sciences
education is required to respond to the demands of an ever-changing world and to
meet the changing needs in society. The model can be easily adapted to health
sciences education if the notion of society is limited to the groups immediately
concerned.
Activity 2.4: You might want to read Lawtons earlier publication on this: Lawton, D.
1975. Class, Culture and the Curriculum. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.
The context of a curriculum refers to all the factors inside and outside the
educational institution that influence a curriculum. Various global, national and
regional trends in society, the health care system, the educational system and your
profession influence what and how learners should learn. These factors are
discussed in the HSE3702 and the HSE150 modules. Figure 2.2 gives a visual
presentation of the context of a curriculum.
Consider the definition by Quinn (2007:108-109), did you recognise that the structure
of a curriculum has been incorporated in the definition? These are the intentions
(outcomes), content, teaching-learning strategies and learning assessment
strategies. In addition to this, Quinn also incorporates the curriculum foundation
(ideology) and its context. Would you agree that this definition is much more
comprehensive than the definitions which we discussed in study unit 1?
Now that you have more insight into what a curriculum comprises, we will proceed by
shifting our focus to curriculum development.
Activity 2.5 (5): In your own words, explain the difference between the terms
curriculum and curriculum development:
Curriculum:
* It is the official learning strategy that has been approved on by the curriculum
committee and permitted and accredited by the educational bodies.
Curriculum development:
* It is the procedure of determining, choosing and collecting all learning theories,
activities and appraisal methods that are required to have the curriculum accepted
and applied into a Nursing school.
Activity 2.6 (44): At the end of this study unit, you will have to complete this table
below. It must be pasted or uploaded into your e-portfolio. (It would therefore be a
good idea to keep the table next to you and to start entering data as you read
through the various sections). Please join the discussion on myUnisa regarding this
activity.
Curriculum is Formal plan of study Based on outcomes Based on objectives Based on society
Consist of Foundation Subjects A linear fixed sequence Foundation
Structure Discipline Structure
Social context
Focus Philosophical Outcomes Objectives Students
underpinnings Knowledgeable Content Educators
students Learning experiences Society
evaluation
Emphasize Goals Skills Student behaviour Inclusion of social heritage
Aims Knowledge Achievement of goals into curriculum
Objectives individual
Education is The primary focus of Sharing of knowledge A step by step approach Vehicle for the teaching of
seen as the curriculum One step must be societal values, heritage
achieved before moving to
the next step
Purpose To impact knowledge To produce competent To prepare the students To prepare students who
and skills to students workforce who can easily step by step in acquisition are cultural sensistive and
adapt to the working of knowledge aware of their own and
environment To have a structured others cultures
approach in learning Aware of the needs of the
society
Known as Epistemology OBE Prescriptive Praxis
Dangers Lack of students Students might lack Restrictive to both Lacks research
theoretical foundation students and educator
Look at the presentation by Herren, Duncan and Ricketts for a quick overview of
Tylers curriculum development model. According to Tyler's model, curriculum
development proceeds in a linear fashion, following a fixed sequence. The major
activities that are involved in curriculum development are to:
state objectives,
specify the curriculum content and educational strategies,
organise the curriculum and develop learning assessment strategies.
First, objectives (the behaviour that a learner should be able to display through his
or her thoughts, actions or feelings) are formulated, usually in behavioural terms.
These objectives are organised in a hierarchy of aims, goals and objectives that
enables learners to proceed in a step-by-step manner through lower levels to higher
levels of behaviour.
Second, relevant curriculum content is selected and organised to ensure that the
stated objectives are met in a logical fashion.
Third, teaching and learning strategies are designed.
Finally, assessment criteria to measure achievement of the stated objectives are
developed. These assessment criteria are open to measurement, so that learning
can be quantified.
As in the case of curriculum development, this model also supports the notion that
learning takes place in a linear fashion. Learning experiences are planned to ensure
that step-by-step procedures are followed to effect learning. Tyler's model is called
prescriptive because the stated hierarchy of objectives is a predetermined
educational plan, or blueprint, to be followed by educators and learners, thus
allowing little scope for creativity or making few allowances for the interests and
needs of individual learners.
Tyler's model is used to develop a behavioural objectives curriculum.
The outcomes-based movement has its roots in the work of Ralph Tyler, among
others.
Activity 2.7 (10): Read this light-hearted blog (Why Dont We Teach the Telephone
Book?) by Dr Klionsky (2014) where he shares this view. Do you agree with him?
(Substantiate your answer clearly so that it reflects the fact that you have read this e-
article)
No I do not agree. The students will learn verbatim to memorise numbers
instead of promoting their critical thinking skills. The students can learn how to
find the numbers that they are searching for.
Tyler's model makes provision for organising the content and learning experiences to
optimise learning, while the outcomes-based model indicates that relative
weighting should be allocated to the content. The outcomes-based model makes
provision for exploring curriculum context and developing a curriculum which is
specific to and suitable for a specific context, while Tyler's model does not make
provision for the curriculum context. None of the models make provision for
considering the curriculum foundations, namely the underlying philosophical
assumptions which influence the decisions that educators make during curriculum
development and which will determine the characteristics of the resultant curriculum.
Read Uys and Gwele (2005, Chapter 12) for more information on OBE.
You will notice that, apart from being cyclical, Nicholls and Nicholls's model also
differs from Tyler's model in that it is not objectives-driven. Provision is also made for
conducting a situation analysis to investigate the curriculum context and assess the
needs of society. Remember that we have stated that a curriculum evolves from
You can read the paper by De Mesa (pg 5 - 6) for more information on the model of
Audrey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls.
In the section on the nature of a curriculum you have learnt that a curriculum
consists of a foundation and a structure, and that it evolves from and is implemented
in a particular social context. If you review the curriculum development models that
have been discussed so far (Tyler's model, the outcomes-based model, and Nicholls
and Nicholls's model) and compare them with the models that depict the nature of a
curriculum (those of Zais and Lawton), you will realise that, up to now, curriculum
development has been seen as involving the structure of the curriculum, and that the
social context of a curriculum has been acknowledged by including a situation
analysis (context analysis) as one of the actions involved in curriculum development.
None of the above curriculum development models involves actions that allow the
curriculum committee to reflect on the foundations of a particular curriculum during
its development. It is therefore appropriate to consider another category of
curriculum development models: dynamic-interactive curriculum development
models.
You might have noticed that the models of Tyler and Nicholls and Nicholls, and the
outcomes-based model, represent curriculum development as a rather simple
phenomenon - which it certainly is not. We will therefore explore curriculum
development in more depth, by introducing the model of Print (1993:81-89), which
adds more dimensions to this complex phenomenon (figure 2.6).
Print (1993:46) says that any curriculum document should include a description of
the curriculum perspectives of the curriculum developers. This can include the
consensus decisions that were made, as well as the curriculum criteria that were
formulated, based on those decisions.
Activity 2.8: (10) Sometimes it is easier for learners to depict what they have learnt
in a graphical sketch such as a mind-map than to summarise it in words. A mind-
map enhances insight into the learning material and learners' ability to remember
what they have learnt. Now draw a mind-map of the actions that are involved in the
organisation phase.
Debating and
reaching consensus
about meaning of
curriculum
Sources
1. Developing Health Science curricula.: Organisation Phase. Only study guide for HSE 3704 University of South Africa Pretoria,
2017
2 Billings & Halstead 2012:79 Teaching in nursing: a guide for faculty 3rd edition. St Louis: Elsevier Saunders
You should have indicated that the end-result of this phase is as follows: formulating
criteria for the proposed curriculum.
These decisions are influenced by the consensus decisions and curriculum criteria of
the organisation phase.
DEVELOPMENT PHASE
Sources
1. Developing Health Science curricula.: Development Phase of a curriculum. Only study guide for HSE 3704 University of South Africa Pretoria,
2017
2 Billings & Halstead 2012:79 Teaching in nursing: a guide for faculty 3rd edition. St Louis: Elsevier Saunders
The activities that you should have included in your mind-map are:
conducting a situation analysis
specifying the aims/goals and objectives or outcomes
outlining curriculum content (theoretical and clinical)
outlining learning activities that are planned for learners (learning
opportunities which the learners should utilise)
specifying how learning will be evaluated (assessed)
You should have indicated that the end-result of this phase is as follows: a workable
curriculum by which teaching and learning will be effected in practice.
You might have noticed that Print's model differs from the other two models for
different reasons:
The linear-prescriptive and cyclic models do not allow explicitly for
deliberations about the foundation of a curriculum. Print's model bridges that
gap because educators, together with interested parties such as learners,
community leaders and practitioners, can participate in the deliberations of the
organisation phase.
Print's model is unique in the sense that curriculum application (curriculum
implementation and evaluation) is seen as part of the curriculum
development process. Curriculum development is therefore not complete
once a curriculum has been designed and a curriculum document has been
produced.
Another feature of this model is that a clear distinction is made between
assessment of learning and evaluation of the entire curriculum. At some
point you will learn that assessment of learning is only one of many strategies
educators use to evaluate a curriculum.
The primary concern of the process curriculum is a value issue, advising us to select
curriculum content in relation to its likely contribution to the learner's development.
Educators decide about the specifics that the learners must learn, but within the
The process curriculum is aimed at developing the learners' intellect (cognition), their
ability to learn (metacognition) and to make independent judgements, in addition to
being technically proficient. The learners are taught how to practise higher order
thinking skills such as problem solving. They are taught to exercise judgement, for
example clinical judgement, which entails the ability to critically evaluate rules of
practice and to decide on the most appropriate actions in a given situation. This
is opposed to an approach requiring that rules, regulations and procedures should
be accepted without valuing their validity. Learners therefore learn to act based on
sound judgements as opposed to performing rule-driven or procedure-driven
behaviours.
Learners are encouraged to adopt and maintain a critical disposition towards the
world and the learning material. In a praxis curriculum, knowledge, actions and
critical reflections are in constant interactions. The curriculum develops through the
dynamic interactions of action and reflection. At its centre is praxis, namely
committed and informed actions. Learning occurs through the learners' intellectual
responses to the actions. This means that concrete learning experiences are the
focus of critical reflections, by learners. The principles of experiential learning
underpin the praxis curriculum; therefore this curriculum lends itself to community-
based education.
The curriculum focuses less on structure and content, and more on the dynamic of
learning through discovery, dialogue and critical reflection. The study field and
problem-centred designs are appropriate for a praxis curriculum. The learning
material is closely related to the social issues and realities that the health
professionals encounter in the real world.
Critical reflections do not occur in isolation. Learning is seen as a social process and
the learning climate is characterised by dialogue. Dialogue and negotiation
characterise the learning process. The preferred teaching strategies include
collaborative learning.
2.6 SUMMARY
By working actively through this study unit you should have acquired insight into how
models can be used to conceptualise the curriculum and curriculum development. In
the following study units you will study various aspects of the curriculum
development process in more depth. In subsequent study units you will learn more
Contents
Study Unit 3 ............................................................................................................ 73
STAGES AND STEPS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT .................................. 73
3.1 OVERVIEW ................................................................................................. 73
3.2 3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 73
3.3 3.2 PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT .............................. 74
3.4 3.3 STAGES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ..................................... 81
3.5 SUMMARY ................................................................................................ 118
Study Unit 3
STAGES AND STEPS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
3.1 OVERVIEW
&&&&&&&&&&&&
We give an overview of the curriculum development process in this study unit. The
information given here will enable you to understand the stages of curriculum
development, the actions involved in each stage, as well as the principles on which
curriculum development is based. W
After you have worked through this study unit, you will be able to plan and implement
a curriculum development strategy, based on your ability to
& explain what curriculum development entails
& describe the principles of curriculum development
& discuss the constraints influencing curriculum development
& discuss the stages of curriculum development
You will be able to achieve most of the learning outcomes by working through this
study unit. Where necessary, we will refer you to appropriate text, articles or video-
clips. For further enrichment we suggest you read one or more of the books or
articles listed in the list of references and suggested readings at the end of the study
guide, or any relevant literature of your choice.
3.2 INTRODUCTION
Activity 3.1 (30): After reading through the educational principles of curriculum
development, create a Mind-map to summarise the key-principles of each approach
and paste it into the box below.
Sources
1. Developing Health Science curricula.: educational principles. Only study guide for HSE 3704 University of South Africa Pretoria, 2017
2 Billings & Halstead 2012:79 Teaching in nursing: a guide for faculty 3rd edition. St Louis: Elsevier Saunders
Sources
1. Developing Health Science curricula.:
2 Billings & Halstead 2012:79 Teaching i
Sources
1. Developing Health Science curricula.: The stages of curriculum development. Only study guide for HSE 3704 University of South Africa
Pretoria, 2017
2 Billings & Halstead 2012:79 Teaching in nursing: a guide for faculty 3rd edition. St Louis: Elsevier Saunders
The situation analysis will be discussed in detail in study unit 4 of this study guide.
Issues that should be considered include the following:
The curriculum committee must determine the educational needs of the
health science professions and the learners alike.
It is essential to conduct market research to obtain the views of employers
and other stakeholders on training of future health care personnel and the
competencies required for qualified health care professionals. Health services
managers and professional practitioners in the clinical settings will be able to
shed light on the kind of practitioner that has to be trained.
Ideas for new courses and/or new content should be obtained with due
consideration of the issues and trends which influence health, illness and
care.
Recent knowledge and technological innovations and trends have to be
identified and the curriculum should be updated accordingly.
a) Educators
The ratio of educators to learners may be very low (eg 1:30), making it
difficult to plan for learner accompaniment by educators. If availability of
educators is limited, it might be necessary to scale down expectations. For
instance, the curriculum committee might feel that learners should spend at
least a month at an AIDS clinic and receive individual attention because of the
relevance of AIDS in our society. However, a low educator learner ratio might
force the curriculum committee to allocate two weeks to this learning
opportunity and accept the fact that learners will be accompanied in groups
(and not on an individual basis) during those two weeks.
There may be a given number of educator posts, and you must plan within
that framework, taking shortages of educators into consideration. If shortages
of educators exist, it might be necessary to develop a curriculum that allows
for self-directed learning by the learners. This is of course a positive
development, provided that self-directed learning is applied in an
educationally sound manner and learners are not left alone to fend for
themselves.
The educators available to work on the course are of diverse backgrounds
and specialities, which may result in differences of opinion on what learners
should learn and how teaching should be done. For instance, an educator
who specialises in curative health care might be of the opinion that curative
health care issues are the most important thing in the curriculum. He or she
may be opposed by those who specialise in emergency care or community
health care. Therefore it will be necessary to compromise in the interest of a
balanced curriculum.
Educators will have only a certain time available to develop their lesson plans
and other learning material, to consult learners, to assess learners' work, and
b) Learners
Learners will have a set amount of time to devote to each subject. Time must
also be spent on other subjects as well as other aspects of their lives. Often,
each member of the curriculum committee is of the opinion that his or her
subject is the most important and that a great proportion of available time
should be allocated to that subject. Learners may not, as a result of other
pressures, be able to cope with such a demand.
Existing knowledge, skills and relevant attitudes may constrain curriculum
development: therefore the learners' backgrounds must be taken into account.
For instance, the curriculum committee might have grand visions about what
should be taught to learners and how it should be done, while inadequate
secondary education standards might make it impossible to achieve these
visions with available candidates who enter a particular health sciences
educational programme. For instance, will problem-based learning succeed if
high school graduates are underprepared for the demands of self-directed
learning? And will computer-assisted instruction succeed if the learners are
computer illiterate when they enter the professional education programme?
Learners may have certain expectations about what constitutes an
acceptable course in terms of workload, teaching methods, assessment, and
so on. For instance, curriculum developers might believe that inquiry learning
strategies, using a problem-based approach, will prepare learners for the
demands of the modern world, while learner bodies might pressurise
educators to revert to giving lectures, a method that might be in conflict with
the notion of inquiry learning.
August Decemberr January February April May June July August September October November December January
Form
plan
team
Curriculum development
Analysis of core
modules Curriculum
draft
Internal
validation
Document
to panel
Validation
event
Implementation
Response to
validation conditions
Intake of
students
Sources
1. Developing Health Science curricula.: The exploratory phase - critical path analysis. Only study guide for HSE 3704 University of South Africa Pretoria, 2017
2 Billings & Halstead 2012:79 Teaching in nursing: a guide for faculty 3rd edition. St Louis: Elsevier Saunders
Activity 3.5 (20): Page to activity 2.9 in study unit 2 of this workbook in which you
compiled a mind-map of Print's organisation phase. Incorporate your mind-map and
our discussions in section 2.3.3 on the organisation phase into this section (section
3.4.1.4) on the exploratory stage of curriculum development. Include the activities
stated by Print in this part of the study guide. Paste it in the space provided below
your private portfolio. In the space below, create a mind map on curriculum
deliberations.
curriculum deliberations
Sources
1. Developing Health Science curricula.: Definition of a curriculum. Only study guide for HSE 3704 University of South Africa Pretoria, 2017
2 Billings & Halstead 2012:79 Teaching in nursing: a guide for faculty 3rd edition. St Louis: Elsevier Saunders
Curriculum design does not only refer to the creation of an entirely new curriculum,
but may also entail re-planning an existing curriculum.
Our discussion of aspects of curriculum design in the following sections will be brief,
because each was discussed in the first and second level modules of the health
sciences education course.
Revise Print's (1993) development stage (which we refer to here as the curriculum
design stage) in study unit 2. Bring forward the discussion about Print's development
stage and integrate it into our discussions on curriculum design in section 3.4.1.4.
This will give you a good overview of what curriculum design entails.
During curriculum design the theoretical and clinical outcomes at various levels of
the educational programme are formulated. The theoretical and clinical content
that would support the achievement of the outcomes is specified. The content is also
organised and sequenced to reflect a particular curriculum organisation. It should
also be stated which teaching strategies and learning opportunities would best
help to achieve the outcomes and contribute towards optimal professional and
personal development of the learners. Lastly, criteria for the assessment of learning
(theoretical and clinical) are formulated. These criteria are incorporated into
assessment instruments and should closely reflect the stated outcomes.
Suitable assessment methods are also developed. All of these matters are
incorporated into an educational plan and implementation guide. The educational
plan and implementation guidelines should be congruent with the criteria that were
stated during the exploratory stage.
a) Formulating outcomes
You are already familiar with planning and formulating learning outcomes. Please
refer to the first and second level Health Sciences Education modules and revise the
sections which deal with learning outcomes.
Activity 3.6: (10+5+5) Read the articles / webpages from the page by Gardner, the
article by Maher, as well as the webpage of UNSW. List the criteria that curriculum
outcomes must adhere to. They must be:
* Specific
*Active
*Aligned
*Achievable
Go online to www.wordle.net or tagxedo and try to make a word cloud by using the
criteria listed above. Please paste it in the space below AND in your e-portfolio.
Although the benefits of stating / creating outcomes are widely praised and
encouraged, Maher alludes us to certain potential drawbacks. Quickly list the
drawbacks.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 95
*Stifling creativity
*Disempowerment of teachers and learners
*One size fits all; the problem with level descriptions
*The commodification of knowledge
Activity 3.7: (5) Why do you think UNESCO refers to curriculum design and content
selection as both a political and technical process? Substantiate your answer.
*Curriculum development is a combination of a political and technical process.
The status of curriculum for society is that the curriculum is a matter of
community interest. Curriculum involves a technical feature that are the
accountability of curriculum specialists (technicians). Curriculum experts and
dedicated committees that should work in synergy with the support of curriculum-
specialized institutions1. Curriculum processes should be advantageous by
providing a widespread volume, development and sharing, together with the
contribution of pertinent education agents and stakeholders.
Think about what we discussed so far. This has implications for the selection of
curriculum content. It is evident that it is not sufficient to merely choose a collection
of subjects. The curriculum committee should also indicate which practical and
technical skills the learners need, and the intellectual processes which they
should apply. The values which the learners should adopt to develop the attitudes
required of a health care professional should also be identified.
Another important point is that the curriculum content should not be viewed in
isolation. The educational strategies, learning opportunities and assessment
strategies should contribute towards learning experiences through which the learners
acquire the required knowledge, skills, intellectual abilities, values and attitudes.
So, clearly, the purpose of selecting and teaching curriculum content and assessing
learning must be to enable learners to generate knowledge, as opposed to merely
memorise facts.
We have explained what subject matter is in the previous section. When we teach
subject matter to the learners, this corresponds to Bloom's levels of knowledge
and understanding. We expect that learners learn specific facts and use the facts
to classify phenomena, make generalisations or identify trends, for example. The
learners are also required to interpret what they have learnt and show their
understanding of an issue in their own words.
The different subjects that we teach learners make unique demands on their logical
reasoning skills. It is necessary that we teach not only factual matter pertaining to
each subject, but also the relevant inquiry, learning and thought processes which the
learners have to apply to construct knowledge, namely to attribute meaning to what
they have learnt.
We also explained that the term processes is used to refer to intellectual skills such
as critical thinking, problem solving, decision making and communication. When our
teaching is aimed at developing intellectual processes in the learners, this
corresponds to Bloom's levels of application, analysis, evaluation and
synthesis. These abilities are not restricted to a specific subject or subject
discipline.
These higher intellectual skills require that the learners can bring together subject
matter from more than one subject discipline and use it in an integrated manner to
complete the task at hand. It is therefore clear that processes and subject matter
should be regarded as being interdependent. The subject matter that we teach to
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 100
learners provides the sources of factual information and principles that learners
require to enable them to practise these intellectual processes.
Cholowski and Chan (1995:150) cite various research results that indicate that
successful problem solving requires not only the ability to practise problem-solving
processes, but also a rich knowledge base. However, proficiency in problem solving
does not depend on gaining more and more knowledge, but rather on an increased
ability to apply the acquired knowledge. This also applies to other thought processes.
For example, the ability to think critically is closely related to learners' ability to apply
their knowledge to make sound decisions and think creatively.
Educators should therefore link the problems that learners confront at any given
point in time to the knowledge that they have already acquired. Learners must be
enabled to recall their existing knowledge and apply this knowledge to the given
problem in order to find an appropriate solution.
From our discussions on curriculum content so far, it should be clear that the content
dimension comprises more than meets the eye, and that we should not regard it
narrowly as just the subject matter dealt with by an educator within a particular
lesson.
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v Criteria for selecting curriculum content
The following are commonly cited criteria which we can use to select curriculum
content:
Significance. Significant content is essential and fundamental to the
discipline or theme under study. In other words, it is an important sample of
the particular field of study or discipline. Curriculum committees are advised to
strike a balance between principles, concepts and facts to enhance the
significance of curriculum content. Learners will benefit more if we teach facts
in order to illustrate principles and concepts rather than confronting them with
vast amounts of facts that are easily forgotten.
Fundamental knowledge, principles and processes have a greater field of
applicability than a collection of isolated facts, as they rest on basic ideas.
Furthermore, it is less inclined to become obsolete than factual content. The
focus should therefore be on the teaching of principles and intellectual
processes. If we regard problem solving as a basic process in health
sciences, knowledge which is offered by means of problem-solving methods
should be more meaningful than knowledge offered as facts.
Utility. The criterion of utility dictates that the curriculum content should be
useful. The content should be professionally relevant and enable the learners
to apply what they have learnt in their professional education. Professionally
relevant content is essential to prepare the learners for their roles and
functions. Learners who pursue health sciences education are striving to
qualify themselves for a specific occupation. Unnecessary, time-consuming
and irrelevant information kills motivation and contributes to frustration.
While a theoretical stance is valuable to broaden learners' perspectives, the
curriculum committee should ensure that the content is not too abstract and
general. It should be relevant to the real world in which the learners will work
and live and they should be able to translate what they have learnt into
competent practice, and to solve problems and cope with the demands of the
world outside the educational institution.
However, curriculum content should not be restricted to what has immediate
practical application, particularly in health care settings. It must rather allow
the learners to make contributions to their professions and society in general
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 102
that extend beyond their immediate work responsibilities and their personal
interests. It should therefore also contribute towards the learners' personal
development.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 103
Interest. This criterion dictates that provision should be made for the unique
interests of the learners. However, health sciences education is also
concerned with professional interests, so the curriculum cannot cater solely
for the learners' individual interests. The curriculum committee should
consider including elective courses. These electives can be chosen to allow
the learners to study topics which they are interested in and which provide
enriching learning experiences.
Content should be organised in some logical way to facilitate teaching and learning.
A curriculum is organised horizontally and vertically.
Horizontal curriculum organisation involves decision making about scope
and depth.
Vertical curriculum organisation involves decision making about sequence
and continuity.
Other dimensions of curriculum organisation that we will discuss are articulation
and balance.
i Scope
When curriculum developers make decisions about the scope of the curriculum, they
must consider the breadth versus the depth of curriculum content. Scope is also
concerned with the variety and form of learning experiences and appropriate
teaching strategies. Let's have a closer look at the scope of a curriculum.
The curriculum committee must set the boundaries for (or scope of) curriculum
content. A number of questions need to be answered:
Should we include the behavioural sciences and humanities in addition to the
life sciences and professional disciplines?
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 105
What about the arts in addition to the sciences?
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 106
Figure 3-4: Concept map
ii Depth
The curriculum committee must decide on the depth in which curriculum content is to
be studied in addition to the scope of coverage. A curriculum that is broad in scope
covers a vast number of themes and topics in a relatively superficial way. A
curriculum that is not broad in scope covers fewer themes and topics, but deals with
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 107
them in greater depth by uncovering layer after layer of related concepts, principles
and meanings. In short, if the breadth of content is limited, it generally allows
learners to study the content in depth. A curriculum that is broad in scope does not
make provision for studying curriculum content in depth.
One way of ensuring that depth is added to the curriculum is to select teaching
strategies and learning opportunities which enable learners to
learn the subject matter and master the necessary practical or technical skills
construct meanings, namely to develop insight into the principles which
underpin what they read or hear, or the situations which they encounter
critically reflect on what they have learnt and challenge the social, cultural and
historical trends related to the subject matter (which dictates that they should
understand the curriculum content according to a specific ideological stance,
while acknowledging that alternative perspectives are in order)
iii Sequencing
Sequencing of curriculum content refers to establishing a logical progression
through content, to ensure accumulative learning. Sequencing involves breaking
up the content and learning experiences into manageable steps to facilitate learning.
This content should then be introduced in such a manner that a logical progression is
maintained. When determining sequence, the curriculum committee need to ask
what order is to be followed in the curriculum. In other words, they need to determine
when to offer the what of the curriculum.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 108
Figure 3-5: Progression from simple to complex
Note that the subject matter that the learners should master, as well as the skills,
intellectual processes, values and attitudes that they have to acquire, are all
sequenced to promote progressive learning. Sequencing also calls for increasingly
complex learning experiences as the learner matures. Planning should ensure that
learners are capable of mental operations that are suitably complex and abstract by
the time they are called upon to use them.
Complexity resides in both the curriculum content as such and the learners'
perception of the complexity of the content that they have to master. For instance,
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 109
the learners' abilities to master the more advanced concepts and principles will be
greatly enhanced by first ensuring that they acquire any prerequisite knowledge
before they are exposed to the more advanced content. By so doing, learners may
be more inclined to perceive the complexity of the curriculum as appropriate. Should
they not have the previous knowledge needed to cope with the increasing complexity
of the content, however, they would simply find it too difficult. For example, learners
with an understanding of basic chemistry and mathematical procedures may find it a
lot easier to grasp pharmacological subject content than would learners without this
prerequisite knowledge. Curriculum developers must therefore specify successful
completion of modules in chemistry and mathematics as prerequisites for entry into a
pharmacology module.
Activity 3.8: (5) Write down two examples where certain subjects or pre-knowledge
is required to master another subject. Substantiate your choices.
*knowledge of anatomy and physiology of the system before examining
abnormalities
iv Continuity
Continuity (figure 3.5) refers to an approach whereby main themes and skills are
repeatedly studied by learners. The same concepts are repeatedly introduced into
various levels of the curriculum, but each time more depth or breadth is added to
facilitate increased levels of insight in learners. The breadth and depth of the study of
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 110
the respective themes and skills will increase progressively as learners move to
more advanced levels of the curriculum.
The concepts that are offered in a simple form during the first year are extended in
complexity, scope, depth and sophistication in subsequent years.
v Articulation
Articulation is a further dimension of curriculum design which is achieved by linking
various aspects of curriculum content. Such linkages can be either vertical or
horizontal.
Vertical articulation occurs when learning material of a given level is linked
to learning material of another level. Mastering the learning material of the
lower level would, for instance, constitute prerequisite knowledge for the
learner's entry into the higher level curriculum content. For instance, some
knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the cerebrovascular system
would be a prerequisite for studying health problems related to
cerebrovascular incidents. When teaching cerebrovascular incidents,
educators should develop learning activities that would enable learners to
bring their existing knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the
cerebrovascular system to the surface. This existing knowledge could then
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 111
serve as a conceptual structure that could make it easier for learners to grasp
the new subject matter.
Horizontal articulation is achieved if learning matter that is presented to
learners on a given level is linked to other related learning matter on that
same level. For instance, if the principles of nutrition and subject content on
the basic human needs applied to infants are taught in the first year, but
during different time frames, then linkages between the two topics must be
established to enable learners to understand how the principles of nutrition
can be applied to meeting the nutritional needs of infants. Such an approach
would not only eliminate unnecessary repetition in the curriculum, but would
also obviate a fragmented curriculum.
vi Balance
Curriculum design should be balanced. Balance is maintained by allocating a relative
weight to each topic and subject. Curriculum developers should consider the
social realities when deciding on the relative weight of various curriculum topics.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 112
Balance should therefore reflect social realities. The social realities of a specific
community can be determined by studying the findings of the situational analysis
that were done before the process of curriculum design was started. In a developing
country, for example, where communicable diseases are prevalent and basic health
care is rendered, more weight will be allocated to health issues related to
communicable diseases and less weight to the latest developments in genetic
research. More time will be allocated to teaching about communicable diseases and
more emphasis will be placed on assessing learners' knowledge about
communicable diseases (refer to table 3.2).
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 113
e) Selecting teaching strategies and learning opportunities
You are already familiar with the planning and implementation of theoretical and
clinical teaching strategies and you have already developed and implemented lesson
plans when you completed the Health Sciences Education Practica module. Please
refer to the first and second level Health Sciences Education modules.
Activity 3.9: (7) Select any module that you are familiar with. State the name of the
module. Describe at least three (3) teaching strategies and three (3) learning
opportunities that you will include (for this module) when you develop your
curriculum.
*Name of module: Neonatal Intensive Care Nursing
Activity 3.10: (4) Select any module that you are familiar with. State the name of the
module. Describe at least three (3) assessment strategies that you will include (for
this module) when you develop your curriculum. Substantiate your answer.
* Name of module: Neonatal Intensive Care Nursing
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 114
3.4.2.3 Preparing for curriculum validation
Regardless of whether a new curriculum is being developed or an existing curriculum
is being revised, it must be submitted to the relevant statutory body for validation
after completion of the curriculum design process. Therefore a validation document
must be compiled, which should comprise an outline of the following:
foundations of the curriculum (e.g. the philosophy, educational paradigm and
learning theories underpinning the curriculum, and the institutional vision,
mission and philosophy)
curriculum rationale (e.g. the broad purpose of the curriculum and the exit
outcomes)
substance of the curriculum (the learning outcomes, curriculum content,
assessment methods and criteria)
the proposed teaching strategies and learning opportunities.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 115
The curriculum is evaluated informally on a continuous basis, and corrections
are made.
In this study unit we only mention what curriculum implementation entails because
you already have experience in curriculum implementation. Refer to the Health
Sciences Education Practica module.HSE2603.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 116
Activity 3.11: (30) Return to your original mind-map of the curriculum development process. Use all the knowledge you have
acquired during this process and create an extensive mind-map to illustrate the entire process. You may create it in MindMeister
or you may make a Voice-over-PowerPoint Presentation, or use MSWors Draw (Insert shapes). Upload it to your e-portfolio and
paste the final image in the space.
Sources
1. Developing Health Science curricula.: Curriculum implementation. Only study guide for HSE 3704 University of South Africa Pretoria, 2017
2 Billings & Halstead 2012:79 Teaching in nursing: a guide for faculty 3rd edition. St Louis: Elsevier Saunders
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 117
3.4.4 Monitoring and review stage
The monitoring and review stage is the stage during which curriculum evaluation is
done. This is done by means of a formal curriculum evaluation strategy. The
curriculum evaluation findings are documented, together with recommendations for
change. These recommendations form the basis for a repeat of the entire
curriculum development process, beginning with the exploratory stage.
You should now be able to link the four stages of curriculum development with one
another.
3.5 SUMMARY
In this study unit we dealt with the principles of curriculum development, the stages
and the steps of curriculum development. These discussions provide a broad
overview of how a curriculum is developed. In the following study units we discuss in
detail those aspects of curriculum development which are not covered in the other
Health Sciences Education modules.
HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 118