Soil Tests: TMH1: 1986

METHOD A1
THE WET PREPARATION AND SIEVE ANALYSIS OF
GRAVEL, SAND AND SOIL SAMPLES

The preparation of a gravel, sand or soil sample involves

the quantitative separation of the soil fines portion, i.e. the
material passing the 0,425 mm sieve, from the coarser
portion as well as the sieve analysis of the coarser portion.
The soil fines are required for the mechanical analysis and
for the determination of the Atterberg constants and the
linear shrinkage.
 Soil Tests: TMH1: 1986
Sieve Size
(mm)
63.0
53.0
37.5
26.5
19.0
13.2
4.75
2.0
0.425
0.075

Percentage of material passing each sieve for grading.

 Soil Tests: TMH1: 1986
METHOD A6
THE DETERMINATION OF THE GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN
SOILS BY MEANS OF A HYDROMETER

This method covers the quantitative determination of the

distribution of particle sizes in soils. The distribution of
particles sizes larger than 0,075 mm is determined by
sieving, while the distribution of particle sizes smaller than
0,075mm is determined by a sedimentation process, based
on Stokes' law, using a specially calibrated hydrometer. This
method does not give absolute results, but gives data which
are comparable and consistent if the method is followed in
detail.
Grading and Hydrometer Exercise (continues):
Total Mass: 12.06 kg

Mass on Sieve Cumm Mass on Mass Passing

Sieve Size (mm) % Passing Sieve
(kg / g) (kg / g) (kg / g)
53.0 0.0 0.0 12.06 100

37.5 0.5 0.5 11.56 96

26.5 0.85 1.35 10.71 89

19.0 1.07 2.42 9.64 80

Sample Size (<19.0mm): 1245.7 g (1125.4/1245.7)*80
13.2 120.3 120.3 1125.4 72
2.0 203.4 323.7 922.0 59
0.425 295.3 619.09 626.7 40
Wet Sieving through 0.075 mm (Sample -0.425mm = 100g) (78/100)*40
0.075 22 22 78 31
Hydrometer (Material on 0.425mm = 50g)
Time Reading
18 seconds 37 Coarse Sand in Soil Mortar (37/50*40/100) 30

Fine Sand in Soil Mortar Use P0.425 Compare with

40 seconds
Silt in Soil Mortar 0.075. Should
1 hour Use P2.0 be close. Use
Clay in Soil Mortar
P0.075.
7 hours Fine Clay in Soil Mortar
Size distribution and grading:
130 Clay Silt Sand Gravel

120
Fine Med Coarse Fine Med Coarse
110

100
% Passing by Mass

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000
0.002

0.050
0.075

0.425

2.000

4.750

13.200
19.000
Sieve Size (mm)
 Size distribution and grading
Sieve %
Size Pass
(mm) Sieve 100

53.0 100 90

80

37.5 96 70

Fine graded material

% Passing by Mass

60
26.5 89
50

40
19.0 80
30

13.2 72 20

10
2.0 59
0

53.0
2.0
0.002

0.050
0.075

0.425

4.75

13.2
19.0
26.5
37.5
0.425 40 Sieve Size (mm)

0.075 31
 Size distribution and grading

Fine Graded

Continuous Graded

Gap Single Sized

Gap Graded
Fuller Maximum Density = 100*[Sieve Size/Max Sieve Size]0.5
= 100*[0.075/37.5]0.5 = 4.472 ~ 4.5%

Less Compactability
% Passing

8%
0.075

37.5

Log Sieve Size (mm)

 When too much material >0.075,
low CBR when wet.
If P0.075 > 12%, CBR disappear
when material becomes wet.
CBR Base

6% - 8% 12%

Log Sieve Size (mm)

 Soil Tests: TMH1: 1986
METHOD A2
THE DETERMINATION OF THE LIQUID LIMIT OF SOILS BY MEANS
OF THE FLOW CURVE METHOD

Scope:
The liquid limit of a soil as defined below is determined by using the device
specified to plot a curve of the number of taps necessary to obtain a specific
consistency of the soil fines against the moisture contents in three trials.
Provision is also made for the calculation of the liquid limit from a one-point
determination if that method is specified.

Definition:
The liquid limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed as a
percentage of the mass of the oven-dried soil, at the boundary between
the liquid and plastic states The moisture content at this boundary is
arbitrari1y defined as the liquid limit and is the moisture content at a
consistency as determined by means of the standard liquid limit
apparatus.
 Soil Tests: TMH1: 1986
METHOD A3
THE DETERMINATION OF THE PLASTIC LIMIT AND PLASTICITY INDEX OF
SOILS
Scope:
This method covers the determination of the plastic limit of a soil as defined
hereunder by measuring the lowest moisture content at which the soil can be
rolled into threads 3 mm in diameter without the threads crumbling. It also
covers the calculation of the plasticity index from the liquid limit determined
in Method A2, and the plastic limit.
Definition:
Plastic limit: The plastic limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed
as percentage of the mass of the oven-dried soil, at the boundary between
the plastic and semi-solid states.
Plasticity index: The plasticity index of a soil is the numerical, difference
between the liquid limit and the plastic limit of the soil and indicates the
magnitude of the range of the moisture contents over which the soil is in
a plastic condition.
 Soil Tests: TMH1: 1986
METHOD A4
THE DETERMINATION OF THE LINEAR SHRINKAGE OF SOILS

Scope:
This method covers the determination of the linear shrinkage of soil
when it is dried from a moisture content equivalent to the liquid limit
to the oven-dry state.

Definition:
The linear shrinkage of a soil for the moisture content equivalent to the
liquid limit, is the decrease in one dimension, expressed as a percentage
of the original dimension of the soil mass, when the moisture content is
reduced from the liquid limit to an oven-dry state.
 Soil Tests: TMH1: 1986
Atterberg Limits: Dry Clay + Water Change from a
solid state to a semi-solid state
to a plastic and then a liquid
Liquid state.

Liquid Limit (LL)

Plastic
H2O Plastic Limit (PL)
Semi - Solid

Shrinkage Limit (%LS)

Solid

Plasticity Index (PI) = (LL)- (PL)

 Soil Tests: TMH1: 1986
Example: Calculation of Liquid Limit:
Moisture Content (MC)
= [Mass water/Mass dry soil]*100
Cont. No.
37 38 36
Liquid Limit (LL)
Cont + Wet Soil (g)
25.30

27.4
Cont + Dry Soil (g)
24.28

MC %
26.1
Container Mass (g)
20.37
24.7
Mass Water (g)
25.3
1.02

Mass Dry Material (g)

3.91 18 22 25 28
Log Taps
No. of Taps
22 28 18

MC %
Thus LL = 25.3 %
26.1 24.7 27.4
 Soil Tests: TMH1: 1986
Plastic Limit (PL) = Average of MC1 & MC2
Example: MC1 = 20.1% and MC2 = 20.4%
Thus PL = [20.1 + 20.4]/2 = 20.2%

Plasticity Index (PI) = [LL PL] = 25.3 20.2 = 5

Plasticity Index (PI) 0 1% NP (Non Plastic)

2 3% SP (Slightly Plastic)

Rule of Thumb: PI approx = LS *2

 Cone Penetration Test

Moisture Content (W) %

80g
MC3

W20
MC2

Penetrate W5
MC1
for 5 seconds

s1 5 s2 20 s3
S (mm)
Penetration (mm)

-0.425mm
LL = W20 4
PI = 1.23 * (W20 W5) 1.3
Test at three different PI NP if Penetration < 5
moisture conditions. PI < 2 can be obtained
Plot results.
 COMPACTION
Compaction Improves:
Strength
Bearing capacity
Permeability
Slope Stability

Compaction is affected by:

Dry density of material
Moisture content of material
Type of material (i.e. grading, particle shape etc.)
Compaction energy
 Samus Clandillon, 2000. Compaction and Geotechnical Aspects of Highway Design, B.Eng. (Hons) Civil &
Transportation Eng, Napier University, Edinburgh

What is compaction?
Compaction is the reduction in the void ratio on a soil by mechanical
means at constant moisture. In all civil engineering contracts soil is used
as a construction material. Compaction of a soil is carried out to improve
the soil properties and is a technique specified by the contractor. The
most common examples are the sub-base of a road where the compaction
may be in-situ, or an embankment where the soil is brought in, frequently
from a cutting being constructed elsewhere. Compaction is carried out by
rolling or tamping and causes compression of the soil by expelling air
from the voids. It is not possible to remove water from the voids by
compaction, but the addition of water to a slightly moist soil facilitates
compaction by reducing surface tension. However, there is an optimum
moisture content above which the addition of water causes an increase in
voids.
 Samus Clandillon, 2000. Compaction and Geotechnical Aspects of Highway Design, B.Eng. (Hons) Civil &
Transportation Eng, Napier University, Edinburgh

Laboratory compaction tests provide the basis for control procedures used on
site. Compaction tests provide the following basic data for soils:
The relationship between dry density and moisture content for a given
degree of compactive effort.
The moisture content for the most efficient compaction that is, at which
the maximum dry density is achieved under that compactive effort.
The value of the maximum dry density so achieved.

In order to meet the objectives of compaction, the sole purpose of applying

mechanical energy to the soil is to force the solid particles closer together.
The mechanical process of compaction involves the application of pressure to
a soil for a very short duration. This is different to consolidation which is the
process of reducing the soil voids by applying pressure over a sustained
period of time sufficient to allow both excess air and moisture to flow from
the soil. See the thumbnail on the right.
 Samus Clandillon, 2000. Compaction and Geotechnical Aspects of Highway Design, B.Eng. (Hons) Civil &
Transportation Eng, Napier University, Edinburgh

Compaction can be applied to improve the properties of an existing soil or in the process
of placing fill.

The main objectives are to:

increase shear strength and therefore bearing capacity
increase stiffness and therefore reduce future settlement
decrease voids ratio and so permeability, thus reducing potential frost heave.

A number of factors will affect the degree of compaction that can be achieved:
Nature and type of soil, i.e. sand or clay, grading, plasticity.
Water content at the time of compaction.
Site conditions, e.g. weather, type of site, layer thickness.
Compactive effort: type of plant (weight, vibration, number of passes)

Soils can be considered to consist of three components or phases:

Solid soil particles
Liquid, usually water, in the voids between the soil particles
Gas, usually air, in the remaining voids between the soil particles
 Samus Clandillon, 2000. Compaction and Geotechnical Aspects of Highway Design, B.Eng. (Hons) Civil &
Transportation Eng, Napier University, Edinburgh

If no gas is present the soil is said to be saturated, and if it contains

no liquid it is a dry soil. Compaction is the process whereby the soil
particles are mechanically made to pack more closely through a
reduction in the air voids.

The amount of compaction that can be achieved depends on the

compactive effort applied and the pre-existing density, moisture
content and percentage of air voids in the soil. The volume percentage
of the three phases can be seen diagrammatically below.
 Soil Tests: TMH1: 1986
METHOD A7
THE DETERMINATION OF THE MAXIMUM DRY DENSITY AND
OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT OF GRAVEL, SOIL AND SAND
Scope:
The maximum dry density and optimum moisture content, as defined below,
are determined by establishing the moisture-density relationship of the
material when prepared and compacted at the Modified AASHTO compaction
effort at different moisture contents.

Definition:
Maximum Density. The maximum density of a material for a specific
compactive effort is the highest density obtainable when the compaction is
carried out on the material at varied moisture contents.

Optimum Moisture Content. The optimum moisture content for a specific

compactive effort is the moisture content at which the maximum dry density
is obtained.
Example: (MDD and OMC)

Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content

1. APPROXIMATE VALUES
b) Wet Density
Mould No.
Volume of mould (kg/m3) (F) 2.55 2.55 2.55 2.55 2.55
Mass Mould + Wet Soil (g) 11447 11588 11692 11713 11672
Mass Mould (g) 6700 6700 6700 6700 6700
Mass Wet Soil (g) (W) 4747 4888 4992 5013 4972
Wet Density (kg/m3) (W/F) 1862 1917 1958 1966 1950
2. ACTUAL VALUES
a) Moisture
Container No. 6 7 8 9 10
Mass Containet + Wet Soil (g) 627 569 601 557 620
Mass Containet + Dry Soil (g) 577 518 543 499 553
Mass Container (g) 98 89 96 89 91
Mass Water (g) 50 51 58 58 67
Mass Dry Soil (g) 479 429 447 410 462
Moisture Content (%) (D) 10.4 11.9 13.0 14 14.5
b) Dry Density (kg/m3) (W/F)/(100+D) 1686 1713 1733 1722 1703
Example: (MDD and OMC) continues
Dry Density vs Moisture Content

1,780 2120
Zero Air Voids
Curve
1,770 Gs = 3.15g/cm 3 2110

1,760
2100
1,750

Dry Unit Weight (kg/m 3)

Dry Density (kg/m 3)

2090
1,740

1,730 2080

1,720
2070

1,710
2060
1,700

2050
1,690

1,680 2040
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Moisture Content (%)

Maximum Dry Density (kg/m3) 1736 Optimum Moisture Content 13.4%

Zero Air Voids Line (ZAVL)
ENERGY E1 > E2 > E3
Line of Optimum
More Energy, less MC

ZAVL

OMC 5 35%
Dry Density 1400 2500kg/m3
Dry Density (kg/m3)

E3

E2
MDD

E1

OMC

Moisture Content (%)

 Calculation ZAVL
zav = (Gs * w)/(1 + (w * Gs)) 1 where: zav = zero-air-void unit weight
or w = unit weight of water
zav = w / (w + (1/ Gs)) 2 Gs = specific gravity of soil solid

w = moisture content

Thus if: Gs = 3.15 g/cm3

w = 1000 kg/m3
Then:
Moisture Content
15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0
zav 2117 2094 2073 2051
Calculation Degree of Saturation
Calculation of Degree of Saturation at Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content:

d = ( w * s)/(w + ( w / G s* s)) where: d = Maximum Dry Density

w = unit weight of water

G s = specific gravity of soil solid

w = moisture content

s = Degree of Saturation

W ith the manipulation of the formula with w = 13.4%, d = 1736 kg/m 3 then:
s= 51.8%

Discussion:

-For the optimum moisture content of 13.4, the zero-air-void unit weight per calculation will be 2215 kg/m3.
-This is considerably higher than the 1736 kg/m3 calculated maximum dry density.
-This is due to the fact that there is still some voids in the material that were not occupied during compaction
-The latter is is due to the soil type (grain size distribution, shape of the soil grains).
-If the given material were to have no moisture content, the theoretical maximum density (zero-voids)
3
would be 3150 kg/m . This would imply that a "solid" state has been reached.
-The 51.8% saturation implies that in the given the sample (at MDD) there is theoretically still 48.2% voids
that can be filled before the theoretical "solid" state can be reached.
Pavement Technology IV: 2004
 Field Compaction MOD

Field Compaction = [DDfield / DDlab] * 100

Example: DDfield 2000kg/m3; MOD = 2150kg/m3
Thus, Field Density = (2000/2150)*100 = 93% MOD AASHTO
Specifications:
Base 98% MOD AASHTO
S/Base 95% MOD AASHTO
Selected 93% MOD AASHTO
Subgrade 90% MOD AASHTO
G1 86 - 88% Apparent Density (Density of a grain + voids + cracks)

Crushed Stone: compacted to 98% MOD AASHTO did not hold up to rutting, Engineers
wanted more compaction, 108-110% MOD AASHTO
Rather 88% of Apparent density (In terms of inherent properties)
 Soil Tests: TMH1: 1986
METHOD A10a
THE DETERMINATION OF THE IN-PLACE DRY DENSITY OF SOIL
OR GRAVEL BY THE SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD
Scope:
The in-place dry density of compacted soil or gravel, as defined below, is
determined by making a hole in the compacted layer and dividing the mass of
the material removed from the hole by the volume of the hole, which is
determined by filling the hole with sand with known density.

Definition:
The in-place dry density of a material is the mass per unit volume of the
material and is expressed in kilograms per cubic meter.

1 2

Problem (voids) slow, sand, 1hour

 Soil Tests: TMH1: 1986
METHOD A10b
THE DETERMINATION OF THE IN-PLACE DRY DENSITY OF SOIL
OR GRAVEL BY NUCLEAR METHOD

Scope:
This method describes the in-place determination of the density and moisture
content of a compacted layer by nuclear method.

Definition:
The in-place dry density of a material is the dry mass per unit volume of the
material expressed in kilograms per cubic meter.
Density relates to counts
MC in theory
Emulsion error MC
Hydrocarbons
Use oven dry MC
Pavement Technology IV: 2004
 Soil Tests: TMH1: 1986
METHOD A8
THE DETERMINATION OF THE CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO OF
UNTREATED SOILS AND GRAVELS
Scope:
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of a material, as defined below, is
determined by measuring the load required to allow a standard piston to
penetrate the surface of a material compacted according to Method A7. The
determination of the CBR-density relationship and swell of the material is
also covered.
Definition:
The California Bearing Ratio of a material is the load in Newton, expressed as
a percentage of the California standard values, required to allow a circular
piston of 1935mm2 to penetrate the surface of a compacted material at a
rate of 1.27mm per minute to depths of 2.54, 5.08 and 7.62mm. The
California standard values for these three depths are 13.344, 20.016 and
25.354kN respectively.
Example: (CBR) CBR - Curve

Penetration Load 16

Reading Reading
15
(mm) (kN) 14.60
0.00 0.00 14
1.27 0.60
2.54 1.60 13

3.81 4.10
12
5.08 8.00 11.60
6.35 10.50 11
7.62 12.30
8.89 13.80 10

Load Reading (kN)

9
CBR2.54 = 6.4 * 100
8
13.344
= 48.0% 7
6.40
6
CBR5.08 = 11.6 * 100
5
20.016
4
= 58.0%
3

CBR7.62 = 14.6 * 100 2 In SA, CBR @ 2.54mm

25.354
1
= 57.6%
0
2.54 5.08 7.62
0 1 20 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
% Swell = 2.2 *100 = 1.7% Penetration Reading (m m )
127
 CBR specs: Base CBR 80% @ 98% MOD AASHTO
S/Base CBR 45% @ 95% MOD AASHTO
Selected CBR 25% @ 93% MOD AASHTO

Compare with spec Example (G5 or G6?):

% Mod AASHTO DD (kg/m3) CBR % Log CBR

MOD AAHSTO 100 1652 52 1.72
NRB 96 1586 46 1.66
STD AASHTO 92.6 1530 37 1.57

G5 log1045 = 1.65 @ 95%

G6 log1025 = 1.4 @ 93%

1.72
Log CBR

1.65 1.66

1.57

1.4
92.6 93 95 96 100
G6, as CBR is lower than G5 Dry Density (% MOD)