OMEGA plus

April 2015 inaugural edition

One

An invitation
to the
fascinating
world of
Mathematics

by
Epsilon Delta Society- University of Colombo
 Omega plus One

OMEGA plus
One
Editors note

Mathematics is widely regard- Note of welcome

ed as the queen of sciences,
not only because it is indis-
pensable from any branch of
Mus? Mei publiest? Quonsuntes consul hor-
science but also because of tus, Cupio uncus, quit; nu cone turniu curs
the mystique and beauty of ocupiossed ius hos, clemorum ius, nonone qui
mathematics. However stu-
dents rarely appreciate or even
conum tem haciis Maed mei prarei plium et;
get the chance to appreciate etrae clego hilicat quast? Ules? quastemus me-
or understand the unrivaled diorus Muludes traterv ivideti cribus; nostrae
beauty and aura of mathemat-
ics in a typical classroom en-
nu consus publiqua pro, ma, conterripti patque
vironment. Omega plus one is conena, non Itabi pra prorum defeceriori, tatus,
therefore our humble effort to ut quam, untervis hos, Catus consulabus huc
demonstrate what mathemat-
ics is all about in an illustrative
tandumMarem intelium nortum igitremnit, di
and simple way to everyone satilicis, ina, consult iacepes or autum ilintiam
who has encountered mathe- dit, nicaperem conem confir lis.
matics in any capacity. (which
is likely to be everyone in the
Uriviviciam audam iae con tra, Catquam ma,
world) We believe the maga- Cast publiam dient.
zine does have something for It addum critus elus, erio intudel larimanum
everyone, from middle to high
school students to mathemat-
ocatus caes videnat, sum Patrarid diem et, co-
ics undergraduates to a casual ent.
reader who may have followed Poriptem forae conemor unte, dete consulus,
mathematics as a subject a
good 20 years back. We have
sis il horectum inum erficio, consulto vir intro-
tried to illustrate mathematics rum que num, di convertis ia? O tam nortem
in a different perspective to orentint.
what it is commonly encoun-
tered. We want to hear from
Uperfec uppliacio videorimum sus iam eo,
you so please write to me on nondit coma, untra di te abit Cat. Cul hos, eto-
your views on the magazine dit; Catienium pribuncul vissi pecus, crum
any areas you want it to focus
on and improve. Hope you
des bonihic aeciam moraeto is es! Vermis
will enjoy what is to follow. opostruntium quamendie iamenatem, vite in
Thesath Nanayakkara

3
AT A GLANCE
R
Why study Mathematics beyond high school?
E
S Can a tortoise beat the fastest man in the world? Zenos paradox and
the curious case of convergence
O
U Problem Solving Strategies- Pigeonhole Principle
R
Mathematics of Chaos
C
E Mathematical Properties of Lissajous Figures

Contact Us

Your feedback is vital in us achieving our

objective. Ideas solutions articles, criticism all

99
will be equally welcomed.

Conact us on :
www.fb.com/
epsilondeltaUOC@gmail.com

or mail us at,

Epsilon Delta Society,

Department of Mathematics,
University of Colombo 99
F A word on the cover page
Mathematical Games
U
N Comics The image on the cover is a yet
another instance of mathemat-
ical fractals being used to cre-
W Puzzles ated wonderful graphics (You
can learn all about fractals in
I page ). The original image was
Maths Humour
T created by Kathleen Smith and
is used with permission
H Fallacies

M Paradoxes
A
T All throughout the magazine,
have fun and learn the easy
H way
S

F
Whats common between a sun- E
flower, Mona Lisa, an
Aston Martin a Fibonacci sequence A
and T
Nehara?- Find out in page
U
R
Lets explore the beautiful, simple E
yet infinitely complex world of
S
99
mathematical fractals- pages
2015 April Edition

Why Study Mathematics

beyond High School?
by Dr. Avantha Kodithuwakku.

M
athematics is a subject regarded at high We all use mathematics every day, sometimes without
levels in the school curriculums. Both in knowing that we do so. Mathematics is used in the
local and London curriculums, students constructions of almost all the things we use. It could
attitude towards mathematics is special. This is be building a house, a smart phone, a computer, or de-
mainly because it is considered as a difficult sub- signing a policy plan for a bank or an insurance com-
ject by many (not all). Though we know a lot about pany, some mathematics is involved in those. Without
mathematics taught in schools we know a very lit- theoretical mathematics none of those could have
tle about mathematics taught in universities. Have been developed. Still such applications are only a very
you ever wondered what kind of mathematics is small part of the vast subject of mathematics. In ab-
taught in universities? stract mathematics we discuss theories beyond the real
world applications. It is in physical science students
It appears that students in schools do not know get the luxury of learning such abstract mathematics.
much about the kind of mathematics they will If one really likes mathematics and is really good at it,
learn at a university. In Sri Lanka as a mathematics then doing higher studies in theoretical mathematics
student one has mainly two options to choose from will be the ideal option for such person.
when entering to a university: physical sciences
and engineering. From these two, students know No particular area in studies should be considered
very little about the physical science stream. In superior to another. What we do depend on or should
our country people think engineering studies to depend on what we prefer. This applies not only math-
be superior to physical science studies. This wrong ematics related studies such as physical and engineer-
understanding is there mainly because of the way ing studies, but also to all other studies including artis-
the cutoff marks are given for university entrance tic studies. I have known a mathematics professor who
in mathematics stream. However such superiority entered into a university to do music. What we really
is not there in other countries like USA. feel right about can take us to our goals. When making
decisions on the path to select we need to know where
It is under physical science one learns theoretical that path is lead to. The path that mathematics can
mathematics. To see the beauty of mathematics, take you however is not correctly understood in Sri
the theoretical side of the subject should be stud- Lanka and hope this will change in the future.
ied. Physical science stream is the path to become
a mathematician or a scientist. Mathematicians
around the world do research in different areas of
mathematics and come up with new theories. Deep
understanding of mathematical theories is need-
ed to do research in mathematics. Mathematics
courses in physical science are designed with an
aim to prepare students to pursue higher studies in
mathematics.

6

THE GOLDEN RATIO
(aN Introduction to the most mysterious number)
W
hat do petal arrangements in a red
rose, an attractive human face, the
famous paintings Mona Lisa and
Sacrament of the Last Supper , the
great pyramids of Egypt, the mystifying spiral shells
of mollusks and the structure on the universe have in
common? Whilst it may be difficult to grasp, these
diverse looking examples and many more have an
unique number and a simple number sequence com-
mon to them. In the next few pages let me introduce
you to the fascinating and mysterious world of the
Golden ratio and Fibonacci numbers.
Lets start by defining these two concepts. The Fi-
bonacci sequence is an infinite number sequence in
which the first two terms are defined to be 1 and 1
and then each successive term is formed as the sum
of the previous two terms of the sequence.
For a more mathematical definition let X n be the nth
Omega plus One
by Thesath Nanayakkara
term of the Fibonacci sequence.
Then X1 = X 2 = 1 , and for each n>2 ;
X n = X n1 + X n 2
Therefore the first few terms of the sequence are as
follows
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34.
What about the golden ratio? It is an irrational real
number., but then it is not just another number, it
is a number which has been of interest to mathema-
ticians, physicists, philosophers, beauticians, archi-
tects, artists, financial analysts, musicians since antiq-
uity. This number has the propensity to appear when
you least expect, and even contribute to understand-
ing of things which (at least from the outside) have
very little to do with mathematics or even science.
7
2015 April Edition

The mystifying properties of the First observe that

golden ratio were first indentified
from a geometrical context. Lets with 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1...
use the following definition to and by using algebra to arrive at
1+ 5 1
get us started. It is the founder of * =1 its value.
2 5 1 .
geometry Euclid of Alexandria
who has first used this concept 2 We have also seen that
around 300 BC in his cele- Therefore for our convenience we
brated book Elements. Capturing will use the following notations.
1
Euclids idea and altering a bit for =1+ .
easier understanding consider the 1+ 5 1 1 5
= = By using a similar method as
following definition. If a line is 2 and 2
divided so that the ratio of the above by continually substituting
From this point it can be easily for the value we can now arrive
total length to the length of the
longer segment is the same as observed that is an irrational
number, in other words it cannot at the expression
the ratio of the length of the lon-
ger segment to the length of the be written as a ratio of two finite
1
shorter segment then this ratio integers, using the irrationality of = 1+
1
is said to be the golden ratio.. the number 5 . The interested 1+
1
Lets use this fact to calculate the reader can try to prove the irra- 1+
1
golden number. tionality without using this fact. 1+
1 +
(Assume it is a rational number
Suppose a line is divided in to
and obtain a contradiction).
two segments a and b, and also Also use the definition of to
1.6180 and 0.6180 can be used
assume that b is greater than a. prove the following identities.
Then if we assume the golden
1
ratio hypothesis. as approximations for and 1)For any positive integer n
respectively.
n + n +1 =
n+2
b a+b We will now use these facts along 2)Similarly for any positive integer
= =
a b with the quadratic equation
2 1 =0 to arrive at inter- 1 1 1
Where is the golden ratio. (The esting mathematical expressions n = +
n
n +1
n+2
Greek letter is usually used to for .
denote the golden ratio using the 1 1 1
first letter of the Greek sculptor First notice that from 3) + + .. =
2
3
Phidias.) 2 1 =0 we can obtain
Therefore that = + 1 . But then we (Hint: Think of convergent geo-
can expand it further by sub- metric series)
b a 1
stituting = + 1 for
= +1 = +1 4)Calculate the ratios between
a b successive Fibonacci numbers.
Then we obtain= +1 +1
2 1 =0 Well continue one more time (That is if X n and X n +1 are two
successive terms in a Fibonacci
This is a straightforward quadratic then= + 1 + 1 .This
equation which can be solved eas- procedure can be continued X n +1
indefinitely to arrive at. sequence calculate ).
ily and the two solutions can be Xn

1+ 5 1 5 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1... X n +1
obtained as and . 5)Now suppose lim exists
2 2 n X
n
prove that this value is equal to the
golden ratio.
Verify the result by starting off

8
2015 April Edition

The last exercise shows an interrelationship be-
tween the Fibonacci numbers and the Golden Ratio.
This is not the only the relationship either. It can
be shown that any Fibonacci number can be found
using a formulae involving the Golden Ratio.
found that irrespective of cultural discrepancies all
groups had the same perceptions of facial beauty. Dr.
Marquardt developed a facial beauty mask based on
a series of phi related rectangles, triangles and deca-
gons, and remarkably many historical faces share
proportions that are conforming to this beauty mask.

The true beauty of the golden ratio lies in its uni-

versal ubiquity. Now having developed basic
mathematical properties of the golden ratio, in the
next few pages we will examine the wonderful
applications of the golden ratio and then Fibonacci
numbers in the world we live in. We will start with
a beautiful face and the golden ratio from the next
section.

BEAUTY IN THE EYE OF THE BEHOLD-

ER? Or Is it?

From the days of Queen Nefertiti and Helen of Troy

to modern day, beauty and attractiveness in a human
face has mystified and captivated humans.

But what has attractiveness in a face got to do with

mathematics? Well the answer is quite a lot, if scien-
tists, psychologists and beauticians are to be believed.
Beauty is in the eye of the beholder, but it is argued
that what the beholder beholds is an unconscious
mathematical process and thats the reason why
beauty surpasses time, culture and race.

Before moving on lets discuss briefly about the ori-

gins of the mathematics behind facial beauty analy-
sis. For many years people believed that beauty was
indeed in the eye of the beholder and that it varies
marquardt beauty mask conforming to different
according to race, era and gender. But more recently eras and races
scientists, psychologists have observed something re-
markable in perceived physically beauty, something The natural question now would be whether all these
to do with the mysterious golden ratio. (Refer last proportions and concepts work in the real world.
page for a definition and basic properties of the gold- Well try to address that question in an interactive
en ratio) way in the next section.
A beautiful face is said to have many -ratios across (Continued in the next page)
regardless of the race, age, gender or the era of the
person it belongs to, including the ratio of height of
the head to the width of the face.

Dr. Stephen Marquardt conducted research on hu-

man beauty for years, analyzing the human face from
ancient to modern times. Through his research he

9
 Omega plus One

a
b

The dimensions of each ellipse

and rectangle is of golden ratio
(1+5)/2

eg : the ratio between the blue

solid line and the blue dashed
line is of the golden ratio

The distance between two con-

secutive vertical or hortizontal
lines are of the golden ratio

eg: * the solid white line and

dashed white line is of the
golden ratio

10
 Omega plus One

GOLDEN RATIO And

Beauty A fact or a myth
We have discussed some fascinating ideas of the golden ratio being associated
with beauty. But does it really work or is it a myth? We did our best to find out.

In order to answer the question we invited someone who inarguably, has one
of the most beautiful faces in the country, Nehara Peiris Rajapakse to help us
unravel the mystery. Nehara requires no introduction; she has been one of the
most popular personalities in Sri Lanka ever since starting off her career, and
is cited by media and fans alike as one of the most naturally attractive persons
in the country. But while no one would dispute her beauty what would be the
mathematics verdict? Lets find out
Take a look at the image It must be said that this width of her face. Which of
# , In red is a sequence of construction was a purely course indicates the ratio is
golden rectangles and gold- geometric construction, of the golden proportion.
en ellipses enclosed in each constructed independently The first ellipse almost flaw-
rectangle. A golden ellipse of the photograph. The only lessly captures her face and
is just an ellipse in which input which was taken from its shape. The second ellipse
its ratio of the major to the photograph is the dis- goes through the outsides
the minor axis (a/b) is the tance between the top of her of the two pupils in each
golden ratio, and a gold- head to the bottom of the eye and also through the
en rectangle is a rectangle chin (i.e. The height of her midpoints of her forehead
whos dimensions are of the head), so that the sequence and mouth. As the sequence
golden proportion. Also can be constructed in appro- progresses each element
each rectangle (except the priate size with respect to captures an identity of her
outmost and the innermost the photograph. face, I would leave it to the
rectangles), has the prop- reader to examine them.
erty that the ratio of the Observe how impeccably In addition use the ratios
distances to the two nearest the shape of her face and between rectangles vertical-
neighboring rectangles are its symmetry is captured by ly and horizontally to find
of the golden ratio. this sequence. The dimen- many of the abundant gold-
sions of the original golden en ratios in her face. What
rectangle fit perfectly to the is remarkable is that most
height of her head and the of these ratio s are precisely

11
2015 April Edition

the ratios many researches

claimed to be of the golden
ratio in a beautiful face,
Isnt it remarkable on how
an abstract geometrical ob-
ject can approximate a hu-
man face with such high ac-
curacy? It must be said that
any human face would not
conform to our golden rect-
angle and ellipse sequence,
but if scientists and psychol-
ogists are to be believed any
face which is regarded as
beautiful universally, should
work just as fine.

Next up we have an image

(#2) where the same pho-
tograph is analyzed using
what is commonly termed
a golden grid. The golden
grid starts with a golden
rectangle and then there are
horizontal (and vertical)
lines included in such a way
that the ratio between the
distance between a particu-
lar line and the line above it
to the distance between that
line and the line below it is of
the golden proportion. If this
isnt clear take a look at the
image to see a more concise
explanation. The same works
for vertical lines.
Now use the properties of the
grid, especially the relative
ratio between the consecu-
tive lines to observe many
golden ratios between key
features of her face like eyes,
nose, ears and sides. For
example it is clear that from
the bottom of the chin to
the middle of the mouth to
the nostrils are of the golden
ratio, there are many many
more. I will leave it to the
reader to further analyze
golden ratios using the pic-
ture. What is remarkable is
that this is not a coincidence;
most of these ratios were ex-
actly the ones that scientists
and beauticians claimed that
were present in any beau-
tiful face. The more golden
ratios a person has in a face
the more attractive it is sup-
posed to be.
Weve also analyzed the pho-
tograph using the smiling
Marquardts beauty mask.
Again it is astonishing how
well the mask fits her face.
From the eyebrows to the
eyes to the lips to the teeth
the mask looks as if it was
made for this photograph.
But again it wasnt the mask
too was a mathematical
creation. There are a series
of Phi related geometrical
constructions behind the
mask. The interested reader
is recommended to follow
Dr. Marquardts website sited
below for a more detailed
explanation.

12
 Omega plus One

To put things in perspec-

tive recall that the number
we are talking about here
can be defined in a range of
mathematical ways. From
as the solution of a quadrat-
ic equation, to as a limit of
the ratio of two consecutive
Fibonacci numbers as it tends
to infinity, to the dimensions
of an aesthetically pleasing
rectangle. You could never
have imagined such an ir-
rational real number can be
used to explain why someone
is perceived to be beautiful.
But mathematics isnt called
the queen of sciences for
nothing. Whilst most would
be unaware of it and few
appreciate it is inseparable
from nature, and from our
lives. Since we were talking

of physical beauty in a person it must be said In the next page I will try to briefly illustrate
that if you care enough to notice it mathe- the many other diverse applications of the
matics itself is as beautiful as any beautiful golden ratio to the world or even the universe
face the world has ever seen. To answer the we live in.
question I asked earlier, yes Nehara is math-
ematically beautiful but as I doubt many of
you needed any more evidence to believe she
was indeed beautiful, this would have helped
you to realized that and appreciate the fact
that mathematics is as beautiful to your mind
and brain as she is or anyone else is to your
eyes. It is just that you need to take that lit-
tle effort to realize that, just like you need to
open your eyes to recognize had appreciate
that any person it beautiful, you need to open
your mind and brain to appreciate the beauty
of mathematics.

Smiling beauty mask

13
2015 April Edition

The Aston Martin DB 9.-www.astonmartin.com

Aesthetically Pleasing Rectangles and Architecture and Art
What are the dimensions of the rect- Luxury car manufacturer Aston expectation. Many scholars and
angle you find most pleasing? Whilst Martin has claimed that they have researchers have speculated that
this may sound a bit of a silly ques- incorporated the Golden ratio in the golden ratio was consciously
tion, ancient Greeks believed that a many of its design including Rapide used by many artists due to the
rectangle in which its dimensions S and DB 9. beliefs of ancient Greeks.
are of the golden ratio is the most Some of the ancient artists of
aesthetically pleasing of all rectan- The golden ratio sits at the heart of every Aston Martin. Balanced
gles, and therefore incorporated it to
many of their architectural designs.
from any angle, each exterior line of Rapide S works in concert and
This fact was backed up by experi- every proportion is precisely measured to create a lithe, pure form.
ments of modern psychologists and Our engineering follows the same principle. A near perfect weight
researchers. distribution ensures Rapide S is balanced in form and balanced in
function.-
The golden proportion is said to be Aston Martin
present in many ancient architecture,
ranging from the magnificent Egyp-
tian Pyramids to the Parthenon in Art and Da Vinci course were mathematicians, one
Greece. Whether the constructions of which is Da Vinci. Da Vinci
were made consciously or if they The aura of the golden ratio is that created the illustrations for the
were a coincident result of building it appears everywhere, and art is no book De Divina Proportione
up an aesthetically pleasing design
is however is debatable. However
these observations were not without
dispute and many researches were
conducted on these matters. How-
ever given that there exist concrete
evidence of the Greeks and others
of ancient times knew of the golden
ratio and their properties there is
a strong case to believe that these
observations were true.
Even in modern times Golden ratio
is incorporated in many designs.

14
 Omega plus One

(The Divine Proportion) by Luca Nature

Pacioli. In this publication Pacioli
has written about mathematical
proportions especially the golden
ratio and its application to art and
architecture. There are many illus-
trations in this book that adhere to
the golden ratio.
There are other examples of the
golden proportion being used
in many of Da Vincis own work
even prior to the publication of
De Divina Proportione, the
most striking of which is the last
supper. In this painting there are
various design and architectural
features that exhibit very clear
golden ratios. Many researchers
believe that the famous painting
Mona Lisa contains many ele-
ments of the golden ratio, such
as the golden spiral. Similarly the
Perhaps the most fascinating element of the golden ratio is that it along
with
the Fibonacci sequence is everywhere in nature. From petals to spirals
of shells to galaxy structures they are everywhere.
Flower Petals
Most flowers have a number of petals which is a Fibonacci number.
Some of which are illustrated in the table below.
3 Lily Iris
5 buttercup, wild rose, larkspur, columbine (aquilegia), pinks
8 delphiniums
13 ragwort, corn marigold, cineraria, some daisies
21 aster, black-eyed susan, chicory
34 plantain, pyrethrum
55,89 michaelmas daisies, the asteraceae family
Seed heads
Fibonacci numbers and the golden ratio are also present in the ar-
rangement of seeds in a head of a flower. The classic example of this is
the sunflower. In most instances the head of the flower consists of the
seeds which are migrated from the centre then eventually fill up the
whole space. These seeds are arranged in spirals of Fibonacci numbers
and it is no coincidence either as seen by the following passage.

Patterning seeds in spirals of Fibonacci numbers allows for the maxi-

Vitruvian Man is often shown in mum number of seeds on a seed head, packed uniformly, with no crowd-
connection with the golden ratio ing at the center and no bald patches at the edges. In other words, the
The Sacrament of the Last Supper sunflower has found optimal space utilization for its seed head. The
by Salvador Dali was painted on Fibonacci sequence works so well for the sunflower because of one key
a golden rectangle and you could characteristicgrowth. On a sunflower seed head, the individual seeds
also observe an enormous dodeca- grow and the center of the seed head continues to add new seeds, push-
hedron above the table. Since the ing those at the periphery outwards. Following the Fibonacci sequence
polyhedron consists of 12 regular ensures growth on the same terms indefinitely. That is to say, as a seed
Pentagons, it is closely connected head grows, seeds will always be packed uniformly, and with maximum
to the golden section. compactness. (Biomimicry Guild)

Seed heads of a flower

The Sacrament of the Last Supper by Salvador Dali

15
2015 April Edition

Spirals, Shells, Galaxies and much much more

We have seen that if you sum up the squares of

Fibonacci numbers, this sum will equal to the last
Fibonacci number used in the series times the next
Fibonacci number..The Fibonacci spiral can be con-
structed using this property.

A golden spiral is a logarithmic spiral whose growth

factor is , the golden ratio. And an approximation
can be made to the golden spiral by means of a
Fibonacci Spiral. A Fibonacci spiral is an approx-
imation of the golden spiral using quarter-circle
arcs inscribed in squares of Fibonacci-number sides
an example of using Fibonacci numbers upto 34 is
shown in image below.
Nautilus sea shell and the spiral structure

The Golden Spiral has appeared in many natural phe-

nomena some of which are captured below. In 2014
South African researchers have even claimed that
the golden ratio and in particular the golden spiral
governs the structure of the universe., and that space
time in define by the golden ratio

As I have mentioned before it would take an encyclo-

pedia to discuss at least the more prominent prop-
erties and applications of the golden ratio. Therefore
it was impossible to the number any justice by a few
pages. But I hope these examples would have made
you realize a few of its fascinating properties, and
interested reader is encouraged to find out more for
themselves.

16
 Omega plus One

Mathematics Fallacies
learning the hard way!

A fallacy is a mathematical statement which leads to a wrong or a contradicting conclusion. In most cases it
is because of using a wrong mathematical technique. In all the proofs presented below there is a wrong step
in each one of them, and the reason why they have all lead to absurd conclusions. Try to identify them all.
Identifying such a step can present better understanding of the mathematical concepts, and critically evaluat-
ing each step as to if its right or wrong can strengthen your mathematical foundations.

4=0? A proof every triangle is isosceles. (An isosceles triangle is a

triangle with (at least) two equal sides)
(sin ) 2 + ( cos ) =
2
1 We will wish to show that First draw the bisector of the angle
Therefore clearly A (AO) and then draw the the perpendicular bisector of seg-
ment BC, which bisects BC at a point D
( cos ) = 1 (sin )2
2

Suppose these two lines meet at a point O.

Taking square roots Draw line OR perpendicular to AB, line OQ perpendicular to
AC
cos= 1 (sin ) 2 Draw lines OB and OC
Add 1 to each side
Thus, AR = AQ, RB = QC, and AB = AR + RB = AQ + QC =
1 + cos =+
1 1 (sin ) 2
AC
Now it is clear that the trangles RAO and QAO are congruent,
Now square both the sides similarly ROB and QOC are contgruent.
2 Thus, AR = AQ, RB = QC, and AB = AR + RB = AQ + QC =
(1 + cos )
2
=(1 + 1 (sin ) 2 )
AC
Now substitute

Then
0=4

1=0?
1
let I = dx
x ;
1 1 1 1
I = 1. dx = x x 2 dx = 1 + dx = 1 + I
Now integrate by parts x x x x

Therefore 1=0 ;
We will break the usual practice and explain the mistake in this particular fallacy, the usual method of inte-
grating by parts used in high school and elementary calculus is primarily for definite integral. In this case it
is the indefinite integral which is computed. It is areas such as these where care must be taken to understand
everything you learn, mathematics is NOT a bunch of techniques or formulas, the key is to understand the
concepts behind everything you learn then the chances of being wrong will come down drastically.

17
2015 April Edition
Fractals
Infiniteky complex yet extrodinarily
simple
A picture is worth a thousand words- a common
and famous proverb we all learned back in the ele-
mentary days of school. This statement emphasizes
the importance of visualization in our day to day
lives. Visualization has played a major role in many
areas of mathematics over the past few centuries
especially in Geometry. Visual intuition has also
been encouraged by many famous mathematicians
and physicists including Einstein. A very common
method we have been taught back in school by our
teachers and also by our professors at lectures to
solve certain problems is to draw a picture. Unfor-
tunately, not all problems can be solved using pic-
tures and figures and also at times figures can also be
very misleading, however, visualization is without a
doubt a very powerful tool in learning mathematics
which helps to reduce complexity of problems.
A fractal is a never ending pattern that repeats itself
at every scale. A fractal is called a self similar pat-
tern if repetitions are exactly the same at any given
scale. Some define fractals to be the mathematics that
18
by Rajinda Wickrama
explains nature. These amazingly interesting yet very
complex patterns bring together science, mathemat-
ics and art which elevate these patterns and processes
to a whole new level full of immense potential and
knowledge.
Before getting into the details and mathematics be-
hind fractals it is also interesting to ask the question
What is not a fractal? What is the difference be-
tween a geometric shape and a fractal? Take any con-
nected geometric shape and pick an arbitrary point
A on the shape. If we start to examine smaller and
smaller portions of the shape around A by enlarging
the shape it would start to reveal a smoother shape.
In fact, the shape around the point A will be locally
linear. This does not mean that it will have a shape
of a perfect straight line but, the deviation from a
straight line can be reduced arbitrarily by enlarging
the figure around the point A further.
 Omega plus One

Fractals can be found abundantly to understand how certain natural phenomena occur and change. This
in nature as well as mathematics. is where mathematics can contribute and some also say that fractals are
Fractal patterns appear in many the mathematics that explains nature.
natural systems such as blood ves-
sels, nerves systems, trees, leaves
river networks, weather patterns
and even in stars and galaxies!

An excel-
lent exam-
ple for nat-
ural fractals
existing in
the human
body is the
lungs. The
branching
patterns can
be seen to
repeat over
and over.
Also, it is
interesting
to notice
that the branching of the lungs is
quite similar to the branching pat-
Sierpinski Triangle
terns of trees. However, this is not
too surprising as both systems car-
Sierpinski triangle (or Sierpinski gasket) is one of the simplest classi-
ry out one of the most important
cal fractals which was invented by the famous mathematician Waclaw
functions; respiration. Our brains
Sierpinski in 1916.
too are full of fractals. The struc-
ture and the connecting patterns
of the neurons represent fractals.
Moreover the fractal patterns are
essential for our brain to function
the way it does! Fractals can also
be seen in fossilized objects such
as (e) where the same patterns
are repeated with the sizes of the
patterns scaling down propor-
tionately to give the structure the
Building of this fractal is an iterative process. First we start off with an
shape of a spiral. Spiral fractals can
equilateral triangle. Then connect the midpoints of this triangle. This
also be seen in weather phenome-
will result in four equilateral triangles. Thereafter remove the triangle in
na such as hurricanes and storms
the center. Now we are left with three triangles and continue the same
and also in the shapes of galaxies.
process on these triangles separately and remove the three middle trian-
It is important to note that fractals
gles of those triangles. This process can be repeated as many times, and
in natural systems do not repeat
this gives us the Sierpinski triangle. But why is this fractal so interest-
infinitely. However, the fractal pat-
ing? To answer that let us examine its area and perimeter of it. Let the
terns existing in nature is extreme-
area and the perimeter of the starting equilateral triangle be denoted by
ly important to the functioning of
and respectively. Let denote the area of the fractal after each respective
those the way they do and under-
iteration and the perimeters. Clearly after the first iteration the area of
standing fractals may be the key
the shape is reduced by a proportion of 0.75. So we have that

19
2015 April Edition

Mandelbrot Set
A1 = A0 ( 0.75 )
Mandelbrot set is possibly the most popular fractal
1 ( 0.75 ) A0 ( 0.75 )
2
=A2 A= which is known to be the most complex object which
is made visible. It leaves us no way to become bored,
because new things appear all the time, and no way
An 1 ( 0.75=
) = A0 ( 0.75)
n
A=
n become lost, because familiar things come back
time and time again-a brief description by Benoit
Now you may wonder what happens when is really Mandelbrot on the beauty and the complexity of the
large? Lets take the limit of the area of the nth trian- Mandelbrot set. Before exploring the beauty of the
gle. Mandelbrot set let us look at the steps required to
construct it which requires some basic knowledge on
complex numbers.

A0 ( 0.75 ) 0 lim ( 0.75 )

n n
lim An lim
= = A= 0 Mandelbrot set is the set of values of c in the complex
n n

n
=0 plane for which the orbit of 0 under iteration of the
complex quadratic polynomial

Therefore the area of the Sierpinski triangle for larger zn +=

1 zn + c
values of tends to 0. You may find it difficult to
believe since no matter how large is if you zoom in on remains bounded. The recursive formula
the picture you would always find triangles! What this zn += zn + c
1
simply means is that the area of the Sierpinski triangle
can be arbitrarily made closer to 0 by increasing the constructs different complex valued sequences for
number of iterations. different complex number c.

Now let us focus on the behavior of the perimeter.
After the first triangle is removed during the first
iteration the perimeter of the shape increases by a
proportion of 1.5. Similar to the area we get that
L1 = L0 (1.5 )
Some of you may find it difficult to understand
the above definition of the construction of the
Mandelbrot set therefore few examples are provided
below to help understand how elements are sorted to
determine whether belong to the set or not. Suppose
the initial condition is always set to be equal to 0.
Now let . Therefore we get that

1 (1.5 ) L0 (1.5 )
2
=L2 L=

Ln 1 (1.5=
) = L0 (1.5)
n
L=
n
z1 = 1
z2 = 12 + 1 = 2
L0 (1.5 ) L0 lim (1.5 )
n n
lim Ln lim
= = z3 = 22 + 1 = 5
n n n

Therefore when the number of iterations tends to
infinity the perimeter of the shape also tends to
infinity. Hence what we get is a shape with a zero area
and an infinite perimeter which can be made visible in
the boundaries of a piece of paper! Fascinating isnt it?
z4 = 52 + 1 = 26
That is for c = 1 the recursive formula results in a
diverging sequence 0,1,2,5,26, . Hence 1 is not an
element of the Mandelbrot set. If we take it would
result in the sequence 0,-1,0,-1,0, which alternates
between two numbers and is clearly bounded.
Therefore, -1 is an element of the Mandelbrot set.

20
 Omega plus One

To give a more formal definition, consider the family

of complex quadratic polynomials

Pc :
) z 2 + c c By iterating starting
given by Pc ( z=
from and by choosing any sets of sequences in the
form (0, Pc (0), Pc ( Pc (0)), Pc ( Pc ( Pc (0))),...) can be
constructed. The Mandelbrot set is the set of values
of such that the above sequence does not diverge to
infinity. If Pc n ( z ) denotes the nth iterate of Pc ( z )
or the nth composition of with Pc ( z ) itself. the
Mandelbrot set (say ) can be defined as follows;

{
M = c r such that n , |Pc n ( z )| r }

As you can see the above zooming in on the Mandel-

brot on a particular area reveals a self similar pattern
embedded within the Mandelbrot set. However the
Mandelbrot set is not perfectly self similar. The more
deeper you get enlarging on different points the more
interesting it gets as it would give various patterns,
some similar and some keep changing.

There are infinitely many patterns that could be

generated by enlarging the Mandelbrot set which
establishes the fact that it is one of the most complex
visual objects ever discovered.

(Continued)
(f) illustrates the Mandelbrot set in the complex plane.
In (g) the area coloured in black are the points that
belong to the Mandelbrot set. The rest of the colours are
used according to the speed of divergence to infinity.
You may wonder now as to why this set is considered to
be so complex. Let us pick a point on the set and zoom
in and explore.

21
2015 April Edition

Fractals similar to the ones exiting in natural systems

appear in the Mandelbrot set which makes it even
more interesting to explore. Using the high tech com-
puters it is possible to zoom in to places which are
much smaller than the size of an atom! If the original
picture grew at the same rate of zooming it can get
much bigger than even the universe as we know it!
However, the computers can only take us so far as its
capabilities are also limited, however, the mathematics
remain infinite. What does this set really mean? No
one really knows for now as the patterns and paths to
take are infinite. Can this set be
used to understand fascinating natural phenomena? It
may seem a bit far reaching for some of you out there
but nevertheless it is best to explore and enjoy the
beauty and the mysteries. Did you also notice that this
immensely complex object was created only by a very
simple iterative process? Infinitely complex yet simple!

22
 Omega plus One

Fun with Maths

Comics, jokes and quotes

As far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality,

they are not certain; and as far as they are certain,
they do not refer to reality..
Albert Einstein

The Universe is a grand book which cannot be read until one first learns which it is composed. It is written
in the language of mathematics...
Galilei Galileo

Biologists think they are biochemists,

Biochemists think they are Physical Chemists,
Physical Chemists think they are Physicists,
Physicists think they are Gods,
And God thinks he is a Mathematician.

When a statistician passes the airport security check, they

discover a bomb in his bag. He explains. Statistics shows
that the probability of a bomb being on an airplane is
1/1000. However, the chance that there are two bombs at
one plane is 1/1000000. So, I am much safer...

An chemist, a physicist, and a mathematician are stranded

on an island when a can of food rolls ashore. The chemist
and the physicist comes up with many ingenious ways to
open the can. Then suddenly the mathematician gets a
bright idea: Assume we have a can opener ...

23
2015 April Edition
Problem Solving
Strategies
The Pigeonhole Principle
Pigeonhole Principle simply states
that if n + 1 or more pigeons are
placed in n holes, then one hole
must contain two or more pi-
geons. This may seem quite trivial
and obvious but a lot of challeng-
ing problems even at competition
levels including Olympiad exams
have been made using this simple
logic.
Before moving on to some exam-
ples lets state a more general state-
ment of the Pigeonhole principle
If n pigeons are sitting in k pi-
geonholes, where n > k, then there
is at least one pigeonhole with at
least [n/k] pigeons.
Here [ ] denotes the greatest inte-
ger function. In other words for
any real number a, [a] is equal to
the largest integer not greater than
a.
Lets begin by looking at some easy
problems solved using the pigeon-
hole principle.
1) If Sri Lanka have scored
8 boundaries in the first 7
overs of a cricket match,
show that there has been
at least one over in which
at least 2 boundaries have
been scored.
This is a direct application of the
pigeonhole principle, the overs
are the holes and the boundaries
are the pigeons, there are more
pigeons than holes, so there must
be at least one hole (over) with 2
pigeons (boundaries).
2) There is a family of 12
children. If there are only
4 bedrooms, and each chil-
24
If there are more pigeons than holes, at least one hole must have at least two pigeons
dren sleeps in a bedroom.
Show that there is at least
one bedroom in which at
least 3 children sleeps in.
If no bedroom has at least 3
children sleeping, in each bed-
room can have a maximum
of 2 children in each of them.
This means that there are only
a maximum of 8 (4*2) children
in the family, which contra-
dicts that we have 12.
3) Show that among any 4
integers one can find 2
numbers so that their dif-
ference is divisible by 3.
Lets name the integers
n1 , n2 , n3, n4 . Lets divide each
by 3. Then the remainders can
only take 3 values, 0,1 and 2.
But we have 4 integers. There-
fore there should be at least
2 integers (suppose n1 , n2 )
such that both have the same
remainder, say r.
Then there are inte-
gers k1 , k2 . Such that
3k1 + r , and n2 =
n1 = 3k2 + r
. Then n1 n2 = 3 ( k1 k2 ) and
the result follows.
As an exercise prove the general-
ized pigeonhole principle.
Now we will look into a few
problems which are a bit more
challenging, then the reader can
try the ideas behind the problems
to gain an understanding on how
the pigeonhole principle is used to
solve problems.
1) Show that in any group
of people, there are two
who have an identical
number of friends within
the group (Assume that
friend is symmetric-if x
is a friend of y, then y is a
friend of x.)
Solution : The maximum num-
ber of friends one person in the
group can have is n-1, and the
minimum is 0. First assume that
all members have at least 1 friend.
If all of the members have at least
one friend, then each individual
can have somewhere between to
friends; as there are indi-
viduals, by pigeonhole there must
be at least two with the same num-
ber of friends.
If one individual has no friends,
then the remaining friends must
have from to friends for
the remaining friends not to also
have no friends. By pigeonhole
again, this leaves at least other
person with friends.
2) In a group of six people, there
will always be three people that
are mutual friends or mutual
strangers. (Assume that friend
is symmetric-if x is a friend of y,
thenyis a friend ofx.)
Think of this problem geometrical-
ly. Imagine the six people as points
and let an edge between points in-
dicate friendship. We have to show
that no matter how the graph is
drawn, there is a set of three points
that are all connected or a set of
three points that has no connect-
ing edges. (this approach can be
associated with the mathematics
branch graph theory)
 Omega plus One

Consider any single point. There are five other points

it could possibly connect to. By the pigeonhole prin- Lets name them rk and rl and k <l. Therefore
ciple, the point is either connected to at least three the two integers a1 + a2 + ak and a1 + a2 + al
other points or not connected to at least three other have the same remainder. This means that
points.
ak +1 + ak + 2 + al is a multiple of n.
Case 1: the point is connect-
ed to (at least) three other points
If any of these points are connected to each other, Now try the following exercises using the pigeon-
and then we have found a triangle of three mutual hole principle.
friends. (These two points are connected, plus they
are both connected to the original point). 1) Let n be a positive integer. If n + 2 integers
are selected from the set S = {1, 2, 3, . . . 2n +
Otherwise, that meansnoneof these three points are 1}, there are at least 2 whose sum is 2n + 2.
connected and hence they are mutual strangers. This
would be a set of three points without any edges. 2) Assume that in every group of 9 people,
there are 3 in the same height. Prove that in
Case 2: the point is not connect- a group of 25 people there are 7 in the same
ed to (at least) three other points height.
If any of these points are not connected to each other,
then we have found a triangle of three mutual strang- 3) (Putnam 1958) Let S be a subset of {1,
ers. (These two points are not connected, plus they 2,3, ,2n} with n+1 elements. Show that one
are both not connected to the original point). can choose distinct elements a,b 2 S such
that a divides b.
Otherwise, that meansallof these three points are con-
nected and hence they are mutual friends. This would
be a set of three points with all connecting edges.

3) Given n integers a1; a2; an, not necessarily dis- If there is a problem you cant solve, then there is
an easier problem you cant solve: find it.
tinct, there exist integers k and l with 0 k < l n
`-George Polya
such that the sum ak +1 + ak + 2 + al is a multiple of
n.
Solution: Consider the n integers
a1 , a1 + a2 , a1 + a2 + an , divide each of these
integers by n.

i 1, 2 n (by
Then we can have that for each=
divisor theorem)

ai nqi + ri where 0 ri < n . for each

a1 + a2 +=
i=1,2n and qi is an integer

If one of these remainders say rp is equal to 0. Then

a1 + a2 + a p is a multiple of n and by using k=1
and l=p we get the form we were looking for.
If none of them are zero, using the pigeonhole prin-
ciple two of them must be the same (because if none
of them are 0, there are only n-1 possible values
1,2.n-1 for the remainders and n such remain-
ders).

25
 Omega plus One

Chaos
does the flap of a butterflys wings in Brazil , set off a tornado in Texas ?
By M.A.Reza

C
haos is an intriguing branch on chaos theory, titled Predict- where the population is expressed
of science, which has been ability: Does the Flap of a But- as a fraction of the maximum
keenly researched on by terflys Wings in Brazil set off a population sustained by the
mathematicians as well as physi- Tornado in Texas? available resources and r is the
cists from the early 1900s till now. effective proportionality constant
Chaos , which literally means a What does topologically mix- . r is a measure of how much the
state of disorder was observed ing mean? future population depends on
in various physical phenomena , Well, this is a very interesting top- the current population and the
some which were not that critical ic in math which Ill leave alone resources.
to mankind and some which are for the time being but is surely When this population model is
directly related to mankind such as worth reading on. modeled using the mathematical
the population and the weather . software MATLAB it shows very
So why are both mathematicians chaotic results.
There is no defined mathematical as well as physicists intrigued by
definition for chaos , but generally chaos?
for a dynamical system to be classi- Well, just within the little space r=0.5
fied as a chaotic system , it has to be of this article, we have seen that
sensitive to initial conditions ,it has planetary motion, electronic
to be topologically mixing and it circuit behavior, weather patterns
should have dense periodic orbits . all are very sensitive to initial
conditions and are candidates
Whats a dynamical system ? for chaotic behavior. Nowadays
Well, the actual definition of a the applications of chaos theory
dynamical system involves a lot of spread even to the field of eco-
math, but for us to have a basic idea nomics. At the heart of this are
the change in the human popu- basic differential equations, topol-
lation over time can be modeled ogy, and nonlinear dynamics
using differential equations as a
dynamical system. Lets take the population model as
a simple example. r=3
What does sensitive to initial We all know that the population
conditions mean? of a country the next year will
Well, again to simply define it, it depend on the current population
is that some systems, for example as well as the amount of resources
even small circuits to the massive remaining.
orbits of planets around the sun, So expressing the population at
are very sensitive to their initial year n+1 in terms of the current
conditions and thus are candidates population n.
to be chaotic.
This is also popularly known as the We have
butterfly effect .the name comes
=xn +1 rxn (1 xn )
from the name of the research
paper submitted by Edward Lorenz

26
 Omega plus One

It can be seen that for r = 1, the population

drops down to zero rapidly, the population
stabilizes for r=2.3 and it oscillates harmonically
for r=3.0.
But when the dependence is 4.0, the popula-
tion model is in disorder, the population drops
rapidly, rises rapidly, and there is a high risk of
extinction of that species .We can see how such
small changes in the model give such different
and chaotic results.
So what can be seen from this is that if such a
scenario is to inflict the human population, it
can be studied well in advance through mathe-
matical analysis of the current human popula-
tion using chaos theory. Also the application of The Butterfly effect
chaos theory to the field of wildlife conservation
by studying animal populations is also very
helpful to nature conservationists. This is why
researchers from diverse fields are interested in
Edward Lorenz who was a meteorologist
chaos theory but at the heart of it lies simple yet
at MIT in 1961 while studying a computer
beautiful mathematical models.
model of the weather , which consisted of 12
differential equations , had got anomalous re-
sults just due to a round off error he had made
r=2.3 at the fourth decimal place . This is when
he realized that for certain types of systems
, a small change in initial conditions could
lead to a drastic change in the final outcome
.Hence the idea does the flap of a butterflys
wings in Brazil , set off a tornado in Texas ?
Could this actually lead to an explanation of
karma? Well we dont know anything for sure,
but some research on it would surely help.

By
M.A.Reza

r=4

27
2015 April Edition

Fun with Maths

Mathematical Games
Ever wondered to play a game to have fun which in the same time would test your analytical
skills. What more, most of these games will have a perfect strategy that will guarantee you
winning. You can use these games to enjoy or to derive similar games on your own and test
with your friends.

Add to 100. Fibonacci Nim

The game is pretty simple to understand. It starts
with 2 players Player A gives out a number from 1
to 10 (inclusive). The player B then adds a number
from 1-10 inclusive of the two numbers. This pro-
cess continues until 100 is reached by the player. The
player who reaches 100 wins the game. What number
should the first player start with? It Turns out that if
he starts with any other number than 1, player 2 will
be guaranteed the win provided he understands the
strategy.
Confused? We will explain. If the opponent reach-
es any number from 90 to 99, the player will win.
Therefore he needs to reach 89 first. Using the similar
logic he must reach 78 first. Continuing this way if a
player needs to win he must also read 67,56,45,34,23
and 12 first. If the player 1 starts with any other num-
ber than 1. Player 2 can easily reach 12.
A slight variation. Count out 40 matches. The two
players take turns, removing at least 2 and not more
than 5 at a time. The player removing the last match
is the winner. Can you figure out the strategy?
Can you generalize the earlier game? Now consider
there are n matches, and a set S such that S indicates
the number of possible take aways.
We have discussed Fibonacci numbers earlier in an
article. Lets use that fact to play a game that you can
always! Win.
The games goes like that, it is between two players.
They start with a pile of 100 (any non-Fibonacci
number would do). The 1st player takes away any
number of sticks as long as there is some left. Then
the second player can take away any number of
sticks, just that the number cant exceed the twice the
number of sticks taken out by the previous player
and must take out at least one. Assume that you are
the 1st player is there any strategy that would guar-
antee you a victory?
Turns would that there is. First write the number of
sticks in a pile as a sum of non-consecutive Fibonac-
ci numbers. (You can always do that, Ill leave veri-
fication to the reader, any natural number has that
property prove it !) Figure out the smallest Fibonacci
number occurring in the sum, and remove that many
sticks from the pile. Then whatever your opponents
move is simply continue the process with the num-
ber of sticks left! You will always win, experiment on
this.

Think of a Number

Think of a number is a pretty old trick and there are many variations of it. Lets explore few basic ones. Think
of number, and write it down. Multiply it by 10 and take away the number you first thought of. Add 36 and
cross out one of the figures in the final number (except the last one, if it is 0). Then you can ask for the figures
that make up the final number, in any order, and you can tell the figure which crossed out., by simply adding
up the digits you were given, and subtracting it from the nearest largest number more than 10 which is a mul-
tiple of 9. And the remainder is the number which was crossed out. Can you understand why?

28
 Omega plus One

Mathematics behind
Lissajous Figures by Rusiru Gambheera

F
ew months ago when I was learning about
simple harmonic motion (S.H.M) in a physics
lecture, I learnt about these beautiful curves,
called Lissajous figures. I was obsessed about their
mathematical properties and they raised so many
questions to me. Somehow I managed to answer one
of those questions. 1 31
=
2 113
I will introduce Lissajous figures in the context of
simple harmonic motion and will demonstrate some
unexpected mathematical property using them. Observe that in all of these graphs Ive chosen

When a particle undergoes a simple harmonic mo- 1

tion (S.H.M) in two mutually perpendicular direc- 1 and 2 such that is a rational number and
2
tions, its locus (L) can be characterized in the follow-
ing parametric form thereby the locus (L) is closed. The proof is easy and
I leave it to the reader.

1
So, what if irrational ?
2
(Corresponds to the S.H.M in x direction)
The following figure illustrates the case where

1
= 2
(Corresponds to the S.H.M in y direction) 2

When the time (t) varies from zero to infinity the

point ( x (t ) , y (t )) or the particle moves along L .

The following figures illustrate some of locus for

some values of 1 ,2 ,1 , 2 , a and b .

As you can see from the figure the point
P ( x ( t ) , y ( t ) ) runs all over the possible region R,
where

=R {( u, v ) ; u [ a, a ] , v [ b, b]}
1 3
= The very first natural question which comes to our
2 2 mind is does P go through each and every point in

29
2015 April Edition

the region R or does there exist points Q in R ; such

that Q does not lie on the locus of P . The previous But from set theory, it means that the set
figure urges us to say that the particle must reach
every and each point in R. But, surprisingly we can
prove that the answer is NO, using SET THEORY. 2 , 2
That means, even if the box seems jam packed there
has an equal or a lesser cardinality than the set
exist blank spots. So, lets go into details.

which is not the case. , has the
Suppose , for all A ( x0 , y0 ) in R there exist a real 2 2
number t such that ( x0 , y0 ) = ( x ( t ) , y ( t ) ) same cardinality as real number set while
This means has a cardinality equal to the natural number set ,
which is lesser. So, this is a contradiction. Therefore,
there should be blank spots. In a similar manner we
can prove that in any given disk or 2-cell (a rectan-
x
Let = sin 1 0 gle) inside R, there are blank spots.
a
There are so many questions which pop up when
Then from Trigonomtery we know that we look at those figures, but to answer them it may
require more mathematical machinery and would
be quite challenging. Some of these questions are;
For some integer n
Are there any 2-cells or disks inside R
Similarly from y0 we get that
where no point in the locus lies in the cell? If yes,
when? Where?
What is the probability for an arbitrarily
y chosen point in R to be on the locus of P?
where = sin 1 0 What about a generalization of the same
b
scenario to the 3D space ( or n-D space ) .
for some integer m. After equating the expressions Is there a generalization of above results for
any open unending curve which is inside a finite
1 region?
for t and setting = k , we get that,
2
Mathematics is all around us. As the people who
As stated in the assumption if for all A points in R, love it, our curiosity always urges us to explore its
the equation 1 should have integer solutions for m and beauty, its mysterious secrets. Although sometimes
n, for all . it may sound annoying, it gives us an immense plea-
sure. Its really funny. So, explore it and enjoy the
I fix Now for this and for all the real taste of mathematics.
equation should have integer solutions for m and n.
for all
From the equation 1 we get,

Therefore if we define the function

to be,

Then f should be an onto function.

30
 Omega plus One

Puzzles &
Brain teasers
Puzzles are a wonderful source to introduce yourself to mathematics and improve problem solving skills .The
following are a collection of mathematical puzzles, most require nothing more than high school mathemati-
cal knowledge. However the problems may require some problem solving skills and mathematical maturity.
Problem solving skills can only be developed by actually solving problems, so we encourage the readers to try
them all on their own, solutions will be provided in the next edition

1) Suppose youre in a hallway lined with 100 closed lockers. You begin by opening every locker. Then you
close every second locker. Then you go to every third locker and open it (if its closed) or close it (if its open).
Lets call this action toggling a locker. Continue toggling every nth locker on pass number n. After 100 passes,
where you toggle only locker #100, how many lockers are open?

2) 100 people are seated in a column. Devil puts a hat of either red or blue on everyones head. Everyone
can only see the hats of all the people sitting before him. Each one has to say the color of his own hat, start-
ing from the one sitting on the last seat who can see the hats of all 99 people before him, but not his own. He
would be killed if he guessed wrong. After the last one guessed, the 99th person would guess. All his infor-
mation is the hats on the 98 people before him and what the last one guessed, which he can hear. He would
also be killed if he guessed wrong. Each person guess in turn till the person sitting on the first seat. Each
ones information is the hats of people before him and what the people after him guessed. Those 100 people
can get together and devise a strategy before the Devil puts on the hats. Devil would know their strategy and
try to put on the hats so he can kill as many people as possible. Whats the best strategy those 100 people can
come up with to minimize the total number of people being killed? Assume everyone is unselfish and works
together for this common goal

3) 100 passengers are boarding an airplane with 100 seats. Everyone has a ticket with his seat number.
These 100 passengers boards the airplane in order. However, the first passenger lost his ticket so he just take
a random seat. For any subsequent passenger, he either sits on his own seat or, if the seat is taken, he takes a
random empty seat. Whats the probability that the last passenger would sit on his own seat? There is a very
simple explanation for the result.

4)There are n people, each with a unique number from 1 to n. There are n identical lockers, each of which
contains a paper with a unique number from 1 to n on it. However, you have no idea which locker contains
what number. The purpose is for everyone to find the locker with his own number. Each one can open at
most n/2 lockers and, once he looks at the number, he has to close the locker. If another person wants to see
the same locker, he has to open it again himself. They cant exchange information with each other. Prove that
there exists a certain constant that no matter how big n is, those people can always devise a strategy so all of
them can find their own numbers with probability larger than that constant.

5) For how many integers x, x 2

3 x 19 is divisible by 289?.

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Poetry Inspired by
Mathematics
Even as the finite encloses an infinite series
And in the unlimited limits appear,
So the soul of immensity dwells in minutia
And in narrowest limits no limits inhere.
What joy to discern the minute in infinity!
The vast to perceive in the small, what divinity!
from: Treatise on Infinite Series
by Jacob Bernoulli
Mathematics for Life
Mathematics is a Pure Science
It consists of full on entertainment
t has lots of things to study with encouragement
Benefits of a life time are added
Your failures will be subtracted
But in the end your knowledge will be multiplied
If you care enough get your possessions divided
Your happiness definitely will be exponentiated
- Hasika Kalani
References
J. Bernoulli, Treatise on Infinite Series (poem excerpt), translated by H.M. Walker, in: A Source Book in
Mathematics, by D.E. Smith, Dover Publications, 1959
S. Glaz, Calculus, Humanistic Mathematics Network Journal 26, p. 30, 2002
Omega plus One
I tell my students the story of Newton versus Leibniz,
the war of symbols, lasting five generations,
between The Continent and British Isles,
involving deeply hurt sensibilities,
and grievous blows to national pride;
on such weighty issues as publication priority
and working systems of logical notation:
whether the derivative must be denoted by a prime,
an apostrophe atop the right hand corner of a func-
tion,
evaluated by Newtons fluxions method, y/x;
or by a formal quotient of differentials dy/dx,
intimating future possibilities,
terminology that guides the mind.
The genius of both men lies in grasping simplicity
out of the swirl of ideas guarded by Chaos,
becoming channels, through which her light poured
clarity
on the relation binding slope of tangent line
to area of planar region lying below a curve,
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus,
basis of modern mathematics, claims nothing more.
While Leibnizsuave, debonair, philosopher and
politician,
published his proof to jubilant cheers of continental
followers,
the Isles seethed unnerved, they knew of Newtons
secret files,
locked in deep secret drawers
for fear of theft and stranger paranoid delusions,
hiding an earlier version of the same result.
from: Calculus
by Sarah Glaz
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