The human body is everything that makes up, well, you.

The basic parts of the human body

are the head, neck, torso, arms and legs.

Body systems
Our bodies consist of a number of biological systems that carry out specific functions
necessary for everyday living.

The job of the circulatory system is to move blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
hormones, around the body. It consists of the heart, blood, blood vessels,arteries and veins.

The digestive system consists of a series of connected organs that together, allow the body to
break down and absorb food, and remove waste. It includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. The liver and pancreas also play a role in
the digestive system because they produce digestive juices.

The endocrine system consists of eight major glands that secrete hormones into the blood.
These hormones, in turn, travel to different tissues and regulate various bodily functions, such
as metabolism, growth and sexual function.

The immune system is the body's defense against bacteria, viruses and other pathogens that
may be harmful. It includes lymph nodes, the spleen, bone marrow, lymphocytes (including
B-cells and T-cells), the thymus and leukocytes, which are white blood cells.

The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes, lymph ducts and lymph vessels, and also plays
a role in the body's defenses. Its main job is to make is to make and move lymph, a clear fluid

1
that contains white blood cells, which help the body fight infection. The lymphatic system
also removes excess lymph fluid from bodily tissues, and returns it to the blood.

The nervous system controls both voluntary action (like conscious movement) and
involuntary actions (like breathing), and sends signals to different parts of the body. The
central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system
consists of nerves that connect every other part of the body to the central nervous system.

The body's muscular system consists of about 650 muscles that aid in movement, blood flow
and other bodily functions. There are three types of muscle: skeletal muscle which is
connected to bone and helps with voluntary movement, smooth muscle which is found inside
organs and helps to move substances through organs, and cardiac muscle which is found in
the heart and helps pump blood.

The reproductive system allows humans to reproduce. The male reproductive system includes
the penis and the testes, which produce sperm. The female reproductive system consists of
the vagina, the uterus and the ovaries, which produce eggs. During conception, a sperm cell
fuses with an egg cell, which creates a fertilized egg that implants and grows in the uterus.

Our bodies are supported by the skeletal system, which consists of 206 bones that are
connected by tendons, ligaments and cartilage. The skeleton not only helps us move, but it's
also involved in the production of blood cells and the storage of calcium. The teeth are also
part of the skeletal system, but they aren't considered bones.

The respiratory system allows us to take in vital oxygen and expel carbon dioxide in a
process we call breathing. It consists mainly of the trachea, the diaphragm and the lungs.

The urinary system helps eliminate a waste product called urea from the body, which is
produced when certain foods are broken down. The whole system includes two kidneys, two
ureters, the bladder, two sphincter muscles and the urethra. Urine produced by the kidneys
travels down the ureters to the bladder, and exits the body through the urethra.

The skin, or integumentary system, is the body's largest organ. It protects us from the outside
world, and is our first defense against bacteria, viruses and other pathogens. Our skin also
helps regulate body temperature and eliminate waste through perspiration. In addition to skin,
the integumentary system includes hair and nails.

2
Vital organs

Humans have five vital organs that are essential for survival. These are the brain, heart,
kidneys, liver, and lungs.

The human brain is the body's control center, receiving and sending signals to other organs
through the nervous system and through secreted hormones. It is responsible for our thoughts,
feelings, memory storage and general perception of the world.

The human heart is a responsible for pumping blood throughout our body.

The job of the kidneys is to remove waste and extra fluid from the blood. The kidneys take
urea out of the blood and combine it with water and other substances to make urine.

The liver has many functions, including detoxifying of harmful chemicals, breakdown of
drugs, filtering of blood, secretion of bile and production of blood-clotting proteins.

The lungs are responsible for removing oxygen from the air we breathe and transferring it to
our blood where it can be sent to our cells. The lungs also remove carbon dioxide, which we
exhale.

3
TASK 1

Answer the questions below based on material!

1. What is the human body?

2. Mention the basic parts of human body!
3. What is the function of circulator system ?
4. How the human body can defends from harmful bacterial and viruses?
5. How many bones are there in an adult human being?

Task 2
Choose the best answer by marking a, b, c or d.

1. What is the circulatory system?

a. The bodys breathing system
b. The bodys system of nerves
c. The bodys food- processing system
d. The bodys blood-transporting system
2. The endocrine system consists of........ glands
a. Seven c. Eighteen
b. Eight d. Seventeen
3. What system removes waste products from the body?
a. Respiratory system
b. Digestive system
c. Urinary system
d. Circulatory system
4. What do we call a waste product from the body?
a. Urea c. ureter
b. Bacteria d. Snot
5. What is the opposite of receiving?
a. Accepting c. making
b. Rejecting d. admiting
6. What is the bodys largest organ?
a. Skin c. lungs
b. Brain d. Bones
7. The immune system is the body's defense against bacteria,....
The italic word in the text above has same meaning with.....
a. Harm c. betrayal
b. Injury d. Protection
8. It consists of the heart, blood, blood vessels,arteries and veins.
it in the line three refers to ......
a. circulatory system c. digestive system
b. Nutrients d. Hormones
9. The synonym of reproduce is......
a. Erase c. replace
b. Recreate d. Remark

4
 10. It protects us from the outside world, and is our first defense against bacteria,....
The word it refers to .....
a. Body c. skin
b. Organ d. World
Task 3

Match the words below with their meaning

Answe
Words Meanings
r
1. Bacteria a. A complex network of nerves and cells that carry
messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to
various pasts of the body
2. Nutrition b. Microscopic single- celled organism that thrive in
diverse environments
3. Immune c. the substances that you take into your body as food and
system the way that they influence your health
4. Nervous d. The largest organof the body that protect us from
system microbes and the elements.
5. Skin e. the cells and tissues in the body which make it able to
protect itself against infection

Task 4.
Write True (T), if the statments is true and write False (F), if it is false

1. The immune system is the body's defense against bacteria, viruses and other
pathogens that may be harmful.
2. The body's muscular system consists of about 206 muscles that aid in movement,
blood flow and other bodily functions.
3. The respiratory system allows us to take in vital carbon dioxide and expel oxygen
in a process we call breathing.
4. The urinary system helps eliminate a waste product called carbon dioxide from the
body, which is produced when certain foods are broken down.
5. The skin, or integumentary system, is the body's largest organ.

GRAMMAR CORNER

Simple Present tense

Have and Has

5
Humans have five vital organs that are essential for survival.

Singular : Has

Plural : Have

Task 5

Complete the sentences. With using have or has !

1. Toni and Tono ............... new t-shirt.

2. You ..................... some fruit in your bag.
3. Siska ..................... two habits at school, playing bascet ball and swimming
4. He................. many cows in a cage.
5. The boys ........much money in the bank

Key

Task 1.

1. The human body is everything that makes up, well, you.

2. The basic parts of human body are are the head, neck, torso, arms and legs.
3. The function of circulator system is to move blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
and hormones, around the body.
4. Because humans have immune systems.
5. 206 bones

Task 2

1. D 6. A
2. B 7. D
3. C 8. A
4. A 9. B
5. B 10. C

Task 3

1. B
2. C
3. E
4. A
5. D

6
Task 4 Task 5

1. T 1. Have
2. F 2. Have
3. F 3. Has
4. F 4. Has
5. T 5. Have

7
8
Digestive System

The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into energy and
basic nutrients to feed the entire body. Food passes through a long tube inside the body
known as the alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). The alimentary canal is
made up of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, and large
intestines. In addition to the alimentary canal, there are several important accessory organs
that help your body to digest food do not have food pass through them. Accessory organs of
the digestive system include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and
pancreas. To achieve the goal of providing energy and nutrients to the body, six major
functions take place in the digestive system:

Ingestion

Secretion

Mixing and movement

Digestion

Absorption

Excretion

Digestive System Anatomy

Mouth
Food begins its journey through the digestive system in the mouth, also known as the oral
cavity. Inside the mouth are many accessory organs that aid in the digestion of foodthe
tongue, teeth, and salivary glands. Teeth chop food into small pieces, which are moistened by

9
saliva before the tongue and other muscles push the food into the pharynx.

Teeth. The teeth are 32 small, hard organs found along the anterior and lateral edges
of the mouth. Each tooth is made of a bone-like substance called dentin and covered
in a layer of enamelthe hardest substance in the body. Teeth are living organs and
contain blood vessels and nerves under the dentin in a soft region known as the pulp.
The teeth are designed for cutting and grinding food into smaller pieces.

Tongue. The tongue is located on the inferior portion of the mouth just posterior and
medial to the teeth. It is a small organ made up of several pairs of muscles covered in
a thin, bumpy, skin-like layer. The outside of the tongue contains many rough papillae
for gripping food as it is moved by the tongues muscles. The taste buds on the
surface of the tongue detect taste molecules in food and connect to nerves in the
tongue to send taste information to the brain. The tongue also helps to push food
toward the posterior part of the mouth for swallowing.

Salivary Glands. Surrounding the mouth are 3 sets of salivary glands. The salivary
glands are accessory organs that produce a watery secretion known as saliva. Saliva
helps to moisten food and begins the digestion of carbohydrates. The body also uses
saliva to lubricate food as it passes through the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus.

Pharynx
The pharynx, or throat, is a funnel-shaped tube connected to the posterior end of the mouth.
The pharynx is responsible for the passing of masses of chewed food from the mouth to the
esophagus. The pharynx also plays an important role in the respiratory system, as air from the

10
nasal cavity passes through the pharynx on its way to the larynx and eventually the lungs.
Because the pharynx serves two different functions, it contains a flap of tissue known as the
epiglottis that acts as a switch to route food to the esophagus and air to the larynx.

Esophagus
The esophagus is a muscular tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach that is part of
the upper gastrointestinal tract. It carries swallowed masses of chewed food along its
length. At the inferior end of the esophagus is a muscular ring called the lower

esophageal sphincter or cardiac sphincter. The function of this

sphincter is to close of the end of the esophagus and trap food in the stomach.

Stomach
The stomach is a muscular sac that is located on the left side of the abdominal cavity, just
inferior to the diaphragm. In an average person, the stomach is about the size of their two
fists placed next to each other. This major organ acts as a storage tank for food so that the
body has time to digest large meals properly. The stomach also contains hydrochloric acid
and digestive enzymes that continue the digestion of food that began in the mouth.

Small Intestine
The small intestine is a long, thin tube about 1 inch in diameter and about 10 feet long that is
part of the lower gastrointestinal tract. It is located just inferior to the stomach and takes up
most of the space in the abdominal cavity. The entire small intestine is coiled like a hose and

11
the inside surface is full of many ridges and folds. These folds are used to maximize the
digestion of food and absorption of nutrients. By the time food leaves the small intestine,
around 90% of all nutrients have been extracted from the food that entered it.

Liver and Gallbladder

The liver is a roughly triangular accessory organ of the digestive system located to the right
of the stomach, just inferior to the diaphragm and superior to the small intestine. The liver
weighs about 3 pounds and is the second largest organ in the body. The liver has many
different functions in the body, but the main function of the liver in digestion is the
production of bile and its secretion into the small intestine. The gallbladder is a small, pear-
shaped organ located just posterior to the liver. The gallbladder is used to store and recycle
excess bile from the small intestine so that it can be reused for the digestion of subsequent
meals.

Pancreas
The pancreas is a large gland located just inferior and posterior to the stomach. It is about 6
inches long and shaped like short, lumpy snake with its head connected to the duodenum
and its tail pointing to the left wall of the abdominal cavity. The pancreas secretes digestive
enzymes into the small intestine to complete the chemical digestion of foods.

Large Intestine

12
The large intestine is a long, thick tube about 2 inches in diameter and about 5 feet long. It
is located just inferior to the stomach and wraps around the superior and lateral border of the
small intestine. The large intestine absorbs water and contains many symbiotic bacteria that
aid in the breaking down of wastes to extract some small amounts of nutrients. Feces in the
large intestine exit the body through the anal canal.

Digestive System Physiology

The digestive system is responsible for taking whole foods and turning them into energy and
nutrients to allow the body to function, grow, and repair itself. The six primary processes of
the digestive system include:

1. Ingestion of food

2. Secretion of fluids and digestive enzymes

3. Mixing and movement of food and wastes through the body

4. Digestion of food into smaller pieces

5. Absorption of nutrients

6. Excretion of wastes

Ingestion
The first function of the digestive system is ingestion, or the intake of food. The mouth is
responsible for this function, as it is the orifice through which all food enters the body. The
mouth and stomach are also responsible for the storage of food as it is waiting to be digested.
This storage capacity allows the body to eat only a few times each day and to ingest more
food than it can process at one time.

Secretion
In the course of a day, the digestive system secretes around 7 liters of fluids. These fluids
include saliva, mucus, hydrochloric acid, enzymes, and bile. Saliva moistens dry food and
contains salivary amylase, a digestive enzyme that begins the digestion of carbohydrates.

13
Mucus serves as a protective barrier and lubricant inside of the GI tract. Hydrochloric acid
helps to digest food chemically and protects the body by killing bacteria present in our food.
Enzymes are like tiny biochemical machines that disassemble large macromolecules like
proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids into their smaller components. Finally, bile is used to
emulsify large masses of lipids into tiny globules for easy digestion.

Mixing and Movement

The digestive system uses 3 main processes to move and mix food:

Swallowing. Swallowing is the process of using smooth and skeletal muscles in the
mouth, tongue, and pharynx to push food out of the mouth, through the pharynx, and
into the esophagus.

Peristalsis. Peristalsis is a muscular wave that travels the length of the GI tract,
moving partially digested food a short distance down the tract. It takes many waves of
peristalsis for food to travel from the esophagus, through the stomach and intestines,
and reach the end of the GI tract.

Segmentation. Segmentation occurs only in the small intestine as short segments of

intestine contract like hands squeezing a toothpaste tube. Segmentation helps to
increase the absorption of nutrients by mixing food and increasing its contact with the
walls of the intestine.

Digestion
Digestion is the process of turning large pieces of food into its component chemicals.
Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces.
This mode of digestion begins with the chewing of food by the teeth and is continued through
the muscular mixing of food by the stomach and intestines. Bile produced by the liver is also
used to mechanically break fats into smaller globules. While food is being mechanically
digested it is also being chemically digested as larger and more complex molecules are being
broken down into smaller molecules that are easier to absorb. Chemical digestion begins in
the mouth with salivary amylase in saliva splitting complex carbohydrates into simple
carbohydrates. The enzymes and acid in the stomach continue chemical digestion, but the
bulk of chemical digestion takes place in the small intestine thanks to the action of the
pancreas. The pancreas secretes an incredibly strong digestive cocktail known as pancreatic

14
juice, which is capable of digesting lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids. By the
time food has left the duodenum, it has been reduced to its chemical building blocksfatty
acids, amino acids, monosaccharides, and nucleotides.
Absorption
Once food has been reduced to its building blocks, it is ready for the body to absorb.
Absorption begins in the stomach with simple molecules like water and alcohol being
absorbed directly into the bloodstream. Most absorption takes place in the walls of the small
intestine, which are densely folded to maximize the surface area in contact with digested
food. Small blood and lymphatic vessels in the intestinal wall pick up the molecules and carry
them to the rest of the body. The large intestine is also involved in the absorption of water
and vitamins B and K before feces leave the body.
Excretion
The final function of the digestive system is the excretion of waste in a process known as
defecation. Defecation removes indigestible substances from the body so that they do not
accumulate inside the gut. The timing of defecation is controlled voluntarily by the conscious
part of the brain, but must be accomplished on a regular basis to prevent a backup of
indigestible materials.

Prepared by Tim Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor.

TASK 1

Answer the questions below based on material!

1. What is the digestive system?

2. Where does the digestion begin?
3. Why we need to eat?
4. What is the esophagus ?
5. How many the main processes to move and mix food in digestive system? Mention
its!

Task 2
Choose the best answer by marking a, b, c or d.

1. What is the digestive system?

e. The body's breathing system
f. The bodys system of nerves

15
 g. The bodys blood-transporting system
h. The bodys food- processing system
2. An organ that produces a bodily juice called bile is?
c. liver c. Gallbladder
d. pancreas d. Small Intestine
3. Which organ that produces a digestive juice that contains a wide array of enzymes to
break down fat, carbohydrate and protein in food?
a. liver c. Gallbladder
b. pancreas d. Small Intestine
4. Teeth are composed of a number of substances, the bulk of which is?
c. dentin c. pulp
d. enamel d. Snot
5. The dentin in the crown of a tooth is covered by:
c. cementum c. dentin
d. Enamel d. Pulp
6. Another term for the swallowing of food is?
c. deglutition c. ingestion
d. digestion d. peristalsis
7. The stomach also contains hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes that continue the
digestion of food that began in the mouth.
The Infinitive of vitalic word in the text above is.....
c. Harm c. betrayal
d. begun d. begin
8. The first function of the digestive system is ingestion, or the intake of food. The
mouth is responsible for this function, as it is the orifice ............
it in the line three refers to ......
c. mouth c. digestive system
d. ingestion d. Food
9. The synonym of esophagus is......
c. Mouth c. Pharynx
d. gullet d. Stomach
10. It carries swallowed masses of chewed food along its length.....
The word it refers to EXCEPT .....
c. Bring c. drop
d. Take d. bear

Task 3

Match the words below with their meaning

Answe
Words Meanings
r
1. Peristalsis a. the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules
into small water-soluble food molecules so that
they can be absorbed into the watery blood

16
 plasma.
2. Saliva b. a complex fluid, which influences oral health
through specific and nonspecific physical and
chemical properties.
3. carbohydrates. c. a muscular wave that travels the length of the GI
tract, moving partially digested food a short
distance down the tract.
4. Digestion d. biological molecules (typically proteins) that
significantly speed up the rate of virtually all of
the chemical reactions that take place within cells.
5. enzymes e. the compounds which provide energy to living
cells. They are compounds of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen with a ratio of two hydrogens for
every oxygen atom.

Task 4.
Write True (T), if the statments is true and write False (F), if it is false

1. The job of the digestive system is to break food down so that our bodies can use it
as fuel or energy.
2. Your stomach is located right behind your belly button.
3. The esophagus is a muscular tube that carries food from our mouth to our
stomach.
4. Everything we eat is completely digested and used by our bodies.
5. Each tooth is made of a bone-like substance called enamel and covered in a layer
of dentinthe hardest substance in the body.

17
GRAMMAR CORNER

Simple Present tense

Are, am, is

Humans have five vital organs that are essential for survival.

Singular : Am/ Is

Plural : are

Task 5

Complete the sentences. With using have or has !

1. They............... new t-shirt.

2. Dara and Agus ..................... married couple.
3. My friend and I .............. high school students. We aren't primary school students.
4. TheStatue of Liberty ............. in New York. It isn't in Washington
5. I ........American

18
Key

Task 1.

1. The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into
energy and basic nutrients to feed the entire body.
2. The digestion begin from the mouth
3. Because our body need energy and nutrition
4. The esophagus is a muscular tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach that is part
of the upper gastrointestinal tract.
5. There are three main processes : Swallowing, Peristalsis, Segmentation.

Task 2

1. D 6. A
2. A 7. D
3. B 8. A
4. A 9. B
5. B 10. C

Task 3

1. C
2. B
3. E
4. A
5. D

Task 4 Task 5

6. T 1. are
7. F 2. are
8. T 3. are
9. F 4. is
10. F 5. am

19
20
Cardiovascular System
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and the approximately 5 liters
of blood that the blood vessels transport. Responsible for transporting oxygen, nutrients,
hormones, and cellular waste products throughout the body, the cardiovascular system is
powered by the bodys hardest-working organ the heart, which is only about the size of a
closed fist. Even at rest, the average heart easily pumps over 5 liters of blood throughout the
body every minute.

The Heart
The heart is a muscular pumping organ located medial to the lungs along the bodys midline
in the thoracic region. The bottom tip of the heart, known as its apex, is turned to the left, so
that about 2/3 of the heart is located on the bodys left side with the other 1/3 on right. The
top of the heart, known as the hearts base, connects to the great blood vessels of the body:
the aorta, vena cava, pulmonary trunk, and pulmonary veins.

Circulatory Loops
There are 2 primary circulatory loops in the human body: the pulmonary circulation loop and
the systemic circulation loop.

1. Pulmonary circulation transports deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart
to the lungs, where the blood picks up oxygen and returns to the left side of the heart.

21
 The pumping chambers of the heart that support the pulmonary circulation loop are
the right atrium and right ventricle.

2. Systemic circulation carries highly oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart to
all of the tissues of the body (with the exception of the heart and lungs). Systemic
circulation removes wastes from body tissues and returns deoxygenated blood to the
right side of the heart. The left atrium and left ventricle of the heart are the pumping
chambers for the systemic circulation loop.

Blood Vessels
Blood vessels are the bodys highways that allow blood to flow quickly and efficiently from
the heart to every region of the body and back again. The size of blood vessels corresponds
with the amount of blood that passes through the vessel. All blood vessels contain a hollow
area called the lumen through which blood is able to flow. Around the lumen is the wall of
the vessel, which may be thin in the case of capillaries or very thick in the case of arteries.

All blood vessels are lined with a thin layer of simple squamous epithelium known as the
endothelium that keeps blood cells inside of the blood vessels and prevents clots from
forming. The endothelium lines the entire circulatory system, all the way to the interior of the
heart, where it is called the endocardium.

There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and veins. Blood vessels are
often named after either the region of the body through which they carry blood or for nearby
structures. For example, the brachiocephalic artery carries blood into the brachial (arm) and
cephalic (head) regions. One of its branches, the subclavian artery, runs under the clavicle;
hence the name subclavian. The subclavian artery runs into the axillary region where it
becomes known as the axillary artery.

1. Arteries and Arterioles: Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the
heart. Blood carried by arteries is usually highly oxygenated, having just left the lungs
on its way to the bodys tissues. The pulmonary trunk and arteries of the pulmonary
circulation loop provide an exception to this rule these arteries carry deoxygenated
blood from the heart to the lungs to be oxygenated.

Arteries face high levels of blood pressure as they carry blood being pushed from the

22
 heart under great force. To withstand this pressure, the walls of the arteries are thicker,
more elastic, and more muscular than those of other vessels. The largest arteries of the
body contain a high percentage of elastic tissue that allows them to stretch and
accommodate the pressure of the heart.

Smaller arteries are more muscular in the structure of their walls. The smooth muscles
of the arterial walls of these smaller arteries contract or expand to regulate the flow of
blood through their lumen. In this way, the body controls how much blood flows to
different parts of the body under varying circumstances. The regulation of blood flow
also affects blood pressure, as smaller arteries give blood less area to flow through
and therefore increases the pressure of the blood on arterial walls.

Arterioles are narrower arteries that branch off from the ends of arteries and carry
blood to capillaries. They face much lower blood pressures than arteries due to their
greater number, decreased blood volume, and distance from the direct pressure of the
heart. Thus arteriole walls are much thinner than those of arteries. Arterioles, like
arteries, are able to use smooth muscle to control their aperture and regulate blood
flow and blood pressure.

2. Capillaries: Capillaries are the smallest and thinnest of the blood vessels in the body
and also the most common. They can be found running throughout almost every tissue
of the body and border the edges of the bodys avascular tissues. Capillaries connect
to arterioles on one end and venules on the other.

Capillaries carry blood very close to the cells of the tissues of the body in order to
exchange gases, nutrients, and waste products. The walls of capillaries consist of only
a thin layer of endothelium so that there is the minimum amount of structure possible
between the blood and the tissues. The endothelium acts as a filter to keep blood cells
inside of the vessels while allowing liquids, dissolved gases, and other chemicals to
diffuse along their concentration gradients into or out of tissues.

Precapillary sphincters are bands of smooth muscle found at the arteriole ends of
capillaries. These sphincters regulate blood flow into the capillaries. Since there is a
limited supply of blood, and not all tissues have the same energy and oxygen

23
 requirements, the precapillary sphincters reduce blood flow to inactive tissues and
allow free flow into active tissues.

3. Veins and Venules: Veins are the large return vessels of the body and act as the blood
return counterparts of arteries. Because the arteries, arterioles, and capillaries absorb
most of the force of the hearts contractions, veins and venules are subjected to very
low blood pressures. This lack of pressure allows the walls of veins to be much
thinner, less elastic, and less muscular than the walls of arteries.

Veins rely on gravity, inertia, and the force of skeletal muscle contractions to help
push blood back to the heart. To facilitate the movement of blood, some veins contain
many one-way valves that prevent blood from flowing away from the heart. As
skeletal muscles in the body contract, they squeeze nearby veins and push blood
through valves closer to the heart.

When the muscle relaxes, the valve traps the blood until another contraction pushes
the blood closer to the heart. Venules are similar to arterioles as they are small vessels
that connect capillaries, but unlike arterioles, venules connect to veins instead of
arteries. Venules pick up blood from many capillaries and deposit it into larger veins
for transport back to the heart.

Coronary Circulation
The heart has its own set of blood vessels that provide the myocardium with the oxygen and
nutrients necessary to pump blood throughout the body. The left and right coronary arteries
branch off from the aorta and provide blood to the left and right sides of the heart. The
coronary sinus is a vein on the posterior side of the heart that returns deoxygenated blood
from the myocardium to the vena cava.

Hepatic Portal Circulation

The veins of the stomach and intestines perform a unique function: instead of carrying blood
directly back to the heart, they carry blood to the liver through the hepatic portal vein.
Blood leaving the digestive organs is rich in nutrients and other chemicals absorbed from
food. The liver removes toxins, stores sugars, and processes the products of digestion before
they reach the other body tissues. Blood from the liver then returns to the heart through the
inferior vena cava.

24
Blood
The average human body contains about 4 to 5 liters of blood. As a liquid connective tissue, it
transports many substances through the body and helps to maintain homeostasis of nutrients,
wastes, and gases. Blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and liquid
plasma.

1. Red Blood Cells: Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, are by far the most
common type of blood cell and make up about 45% of blood volume. Erythrocytes
are produced inside of red bone marrow from stem cells at the astonishing rate of
about 2 million cells every second. The shape of erythrocytes is biconcavedisks
with a concave curve on both sides of the disk so that the center of an erythrocyte is
its thinnest part. The unique shape of erythrocytes gives these cells a high surface area
to volume ratio and allows them to fold to fit into thin capillaries. Immature
erythrocytes have a nucleus that is ejected from the cell when it reaches maturity to
provide it with its unique shape and flexibility. The lack of a nucleus means that red
blood cells contain no DNA and are not able to repair themselves once damaged.

Erythrocytes transport oxygen in the blood through the red pigment hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin contains iron and proteins joined to greatly increase the oxygen carrying
capacity of erythrocytes. The high surface area to volume ratio of erythrocytes allows
oxygen to be easily transferred into the cell in the lungs and out of the cell in the
capillaries of the systemic tissues.

2. White Blood Cells: White blood cells, also known as leukocytes, make up a very small
percentage of the total number of cells in the bloodstream, but have important
functions in the bodys immune system. There are two major classes of white blood
cells: granular leukocytes and agranular leukocytes.

1. Granular Leukocytes: The three types of granular leukocytes are neutrophils,

eosinophils, and basophils. Each type of granular leukocyte is classified by the
presence of chemical-filled vesicles in their cytoplasm that give them their
function. Neutrophils contain digestive enzymes that neutralize bacteria that
invade the body. Eosinophils contain digestive enzymes specialized for
digesting viruses that have been bound to by antibodies in the blood.

25
 Basophils release histamine to intensify allergic reactions and help protect the
body from parasites.

2. Agranular Leukocytes: The two major classes of agranular leukocytes are

lymphocytes and monocytes. Lymphocytes include T cells and natural killer
cells that fight off viral infections and B cells that produce antibodies against
infections by pathogens. Monocytes develop into cells called macrophages
that engulf and ingest pathogens and the dead cells from wounds or infections.

3. Platelets : Also known as thrombocytes, platelets are small cell fragments responsible
for the clotting of blood and the formation of scabs. Platelets form in the red bone
marrow from large megakaryocyte cells that periodically rupture and release
thousands of pieces of membrane that become the platelets. Platelets do not contain a
nucleus and only survive in the body for up to a week before macrophages capture
and digest them.

4. Plasma: Plasma is the non-cellular or liquid portion of the blood that makes up about
55% of the bloods volume. Plasma is a mixture of water, proteins, and dissolved
substances. Around 90% of plasma is made of water, although the exact percentage
varies depending upon the hydration levels of the individual. The proteins within
plasma include antibodies and albumins. Antibodies are part of the immune system
and bind to antigens on the surface of pathogens that infect the body. Albumins help
maintain the bodys osmotic balance by providing an isotonic solution for the cells of
the body. Many different substances can be found dissolved in the plasma, including
glucose, oxygen, carbon dioxide, electrolytes, nutrients, and cellular waste products.
The plasma functions as a transportation medium for these substances as they move
throughout the body.

Cardiovascular System Physiology

Functions of the Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system has three major functions: transportation of materials, protection
from pathogens, and regulation of the bodys homeostasis.

26
 Transportation: The cardiovascular system transports blood to almost all of the bodys
tissues. The blood delivers essential nutrients and oxygen and removes wastes and
carbon dioxide to be processed or removed from the body. Hormones are transported
throughout the body via the bloods liquid plasma.

Protection: The cardiovascular system protects the body through its white blood cells.
White blood cells clean up cellular debris and fight pathogens that have entered the
body. Platelets and red blood cells form scabs to seal wounds and prevent pathogens
from entering the body and liquids from leaking out. Blood also carries antibodies that
provide specific immunity to pathogens that the body has previously been exposed to
or has been vaccinated against.

Regulation: The cardiovascular system is instrumental in the bodys ability to

maintain homeostatic control of several internal conditions. Blood vessels help
maintain a stable body temperature by controlling the blood flow to the surface of the
skin. Blood vessels near the skins surface open during times of overheating to allow
hot blood to dump its heat into the bodys surroundings. In the case of hypothermia,
these blood vessels constrict to keep blood flowing only to vital organs in the bodys
core. Blood also helps balance the bodys pH due to the presence of bicarbonate ions,
which act as a buffer solution. Finally, the albumins in blood plasma help to balance
the osmotic concentration of the bodys cells by maintaining an isotonic environment.

The Circulatory Pump

The heart is a four-chambered double pump, where each side (left and right) operates as a
separate pump. The left and right sides of the heart are separated by a muscular wall of tissue
known as the septum of the heart. The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood
from the systemic veins and pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation. The left side of the heart
receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it through the systemic arteries to the
tissues of the body. Each heartbeat results in the simultaneous pumping of both sides of the
heart, making the heart a very efficient pump.

Regulation of Blood Pressure

Several functions of the cardiovascular system can control blood pressure. Certain hormones
along with autonomic nerve signals from the brain affect the rate and strength of heart
contractions. Greater contractile force and heart rate lead to an increase in blood pressure.

27
Blood vessels can also affect blood pressure. Vasoconstriction decreases the diameter of an
artery by contracting the smooth muscle in the arterial wall. The sympathetic (fight or flight)
division of the autonomic nervous system causes vasoconstriction, which leads to increases in
blood pressure and decreases in blood flow in the constricted region. Vasodilation is the
expansion of an artery as the smooth muscle in the arterial wall relaxes after the fight-or-
flight response wears off or under the effect of certain hormones or chemicals in the blood.
The volume of blood in the body also affects blood pressure. A higher volume of blood in the
body raises blood pressure by increasing the amount of blood pumped by each heartbeat.
Thicker, more viscous blood from clotting disorders can also raise blood pressure.

Hemostasis
Hemostasis, or the clotting of blood and formation of scabs, is managed by the platelets of the
blood. Platelets normally remain inactive in the blood until they reach damaged tissue or leak
out of the blood vessels through a wound. Once active, platelets change into a spiny ball
shape and become very sticky in order to latch on to damaged tissues. Platelets next release
chemical clotting factors and begin to produce the protein fibrin to act as structure for the
blood clot. Platelets also begin sticking together to form a platelet plug. The platelet plug will
serve as a temporary seal to keep blood in the vessel and foreign material out of the vessel
until the cells of the blood vessel can repair the damage to the vessel wall.

Prepared by Tim Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor

28
TASK 1

Answer the questions below based on material!

1. what are the functions of the cardiovascular system?

2. What are the 3 (major/main) components of the cardiovascular system?
3. Why blood vessels are lined by endothelium?
4. What is the primary function of Hemoglobin?
5. What is Plasma?

Task 2
Choose the best answer by marking a, b, c or d.

1. How much of plasma is water?

a. 90% c. 60%
b. 100 d.70%
2. Which tunic of an artery contains endothelium?
a. tunica interna/intima
b. tunica media
c. tunica externa
d. tunica adventitia
3. Which of the following statements best describes arteries?
a. all arteries carry oxygenated blood towards the heart
b. all arteries contain valves to prevent the back-flow of blood
c. all arteries carry blood away from the heart
d. only large arteries are lined with endothelium
4. The exchange of gases and nutrients between blood and tissues is a major function of:
a. arterioles
b. arteries
c. capillaries
d. veins
5. Red blood cells, also known as ...........
a. Leukocytes c. Eosinophils
b. erythrocytes d. Basophils

6. Another term for the pumping?

a. inflating c. drawing
b. bumping d. setting
7. Precapillary sphincters are bands of smooth muscle found at the arteriole ends of
capillaries.

29
 The Infinitive of vitalic word in the text above is.....
a. finish c. stand
b. hold d. Find
8. Capillaries: Capillaries are the smallest and thinnest of the blood vessels in the body
and also the most common. They can be found running throughout almost every
tissue of the body ............
They in the text above refers to ......
a. Capillaries c. Capillary
b. Body d. blood
9. Precapillary sphincters are bands of smooth muscle found at the arteriole ends of
capillaries.
The synonym of smooth is......
a. hard c. harsh
b. gentle d. strong
10. Thicker, more viscous blood from clotting disorders can also raise blood pressure.
The opposite for clotting is......
a. freez c. melting
b. ice d. agglomerating

Task 3

Match the words below with their meaning

Answe
Words Meanings
r
1. cardiovascular a. is the portion of the cardiovascular system
system which carries deoxygenated blood away
from the heart, to the lungs, and returns
oxygenated (oxygen-rich) blood back to the
heart. The term pulmonary circulation is
readily paired and contrasted with the
systemic circulation..
2. Pulmonary b. an organ system that permits blood to

30
 circulation circulate and transport nutrients (such as
amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen,
carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells
to and from the cells in the body to provide
nourishment and help in fighting diseases,
stabilize temperature and pH, and maintain
homeostasis.
3. Platelets c. a muscular wave that travels the length of the GI
tract, moving partially digested food a short
distance down the tract.
4. Digestion d. the cells that circulate within our blood and
bind together when they recognize
damaged blood vessels
5. lymphocyte e. a type of white blood cell involved in the
human body's immune system.

Task 4.
Write True (T), if the statments is true and write False (F), if it is false

1. The average human body contains about 4 to 5 liters of blood.

2. Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes.
3. Capillaries carry blood very close to the cells of the tissues of the body in order to
exchange gases, nutrients, and waste products.
4. The smallest heart vessels in the body are known as "venules.
5. The aorta, the largest artery of the body, receives blood from the "right" ventricle.

GRAMMAR CORNER

Simple Present tense

Verbal Sentences

Make into negative sentences

31
(+) Systemic circulation carries highly oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart to all
of the tissues of the body.

( -) Systemic circulation does not carry highly oxygenated blood from the left side of the
heart to all of the tissues of the body.

Singular : does not (doesnt)

Plural : do not (dont)

Task 5

Make into negative Sentences !

1. (+) Alexa needs much time to do it.

(-) _______________________
2. (+) She writes a letter to her sometimes.
(-) _______________________
3. (+) Mia and they go to campus by a van.
(-) _______________________
4. (+) Maira eats many vegetables everyday
(-) _______________________
5. (+) You go nowhere today.
(-) _______________________

32
Key

Task 1.

1. the functions of the cardiovascular system are transportation system: gases-

hormones, nutrients, wastes, temperature regulation, pH regulation of the blood,
Immune function.
2. the 3 major are the cardiovascular system blood, heart, and Vessels
3. Because endothelium keeps blood cells inside of the blood vessels and prevents clots
from forming.
4. The primary function of Hemoglobin is to carry oxygen to peripheral tissues.
5. Plasma is the non-cellular or liquid portion of the blood that makes up about 55% of
the bloods volume. Plasma is a mixture of water, proteins, and dissolved substances.

Task 2

1. A 6. A
2. A 7. D
3. C 8. A
4. C 9. B
5. B 10. C

Task 3

33
 1. B
2. A
3. D
4. C
5. E

Task 4 Task 5

1. T 1. Alexa doesnt need much time to do it.

2. T 2. She doesnt write a letter to her
sometimes.
3. T 3. Mia and they dont go to campus by a
van.
4. F 4. Maira doesnt eat many vegetables
everyday.
5. F 5. You dont go nowhere today.

34