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Abstract Many real dynamic systems are better controller tuning has reached to a matured state of practical
characterized using a non-integer order dynamic model based use. Since (integer order) PID control dominates the
on fractional calculus or, differentiation or integration of non- industry, we believe FO-PID will gain increasing impact and
integer order. Traditional calculus is based on integer order
wide acceptance. Furthermore, we also believe that based on
differentiation and integration. The concept of fractional
calculus has tremendous potential to change the way we see, some real world examples, fractional order control is
model, and control the nature around us. Denying fractional ubiquitous when the dynamic system is of distributed
derivatives is like saying that zero, fractional, or irrational parameter nature.
numbers do not exist. In this paper, we offer a tutorial on A comprehensive review of fractional order control and its
fractional calculus in controls. Basic definitions of fractional applications can be found in the coming monograph. For
calculus, fractional order dynamic systems and controls are computational methods in fractional calculus, we refer to the
presented first. Then, fractional order PID controllers are
book. Note that, the textbook is the first control textbook
introduced which may make fractional order controllers
ubiquitous in industry. Additionally, several typical known containing a dedicated chapter on fractional order control.
fractional order controllers are introduced and commented. In this paper, we offer a tutorial on fractional calculus in
Numerical methods for simulating fractional order systems are controls. Basic definitions of fractional calculus, fractional
given in detail so that a beginner can get started quickly. order dynamic systems and controls are presented first in
Discretization techniques for fractional order operators are Sec. II. Then, fractional order PID controllers are introduced
introduced in some details too. Both digital and analog in Sec. III which may make fractional order controllers
realization methods of fractional order operators are
ubiquitous in industry. Additionally, several typical known
introduced. Finally, remarks on future research efforts in
fractional order control are given.
fractional order controllers are introduced and commented in
Sec. IV. Numerical methods for simulating fractional order
systems are given in detail in Sec. V so that a beginner can
I. INTRODUCTION get started quickly. Discretization techniques for fractional
Fractional calculus is a more than 300 years old topic. The order operators are introduced in some details in Sec. VI and
number of applications where fractional calculus has been implementation in Sec. VII Finally, in Sec. VIII remarks on
used rapidly grows. These mathematical phenomena allow to future research effort in fractional order control are given.
describe a real object more accurately than the classical II. FRACTIONAL CALCULUS AND FRACTIONAL
integer-order methods. The real objects are generally ORDER DYNAMIC SYSTEMS
fractional however, for many of them the fractionality is very
low. A typical example of a non-integer (fractional) order The idea of fractional calculus has been known since the
system is the voltage-current relation of a semi-infinite lossy development of the regular (integer-order) calculus, with the
transmission line or diffusion of the heat through a semi- first reference probably being associated with Leibniz and
infinite solid, where heat flow is equal to the half-derivative LHospital in 1695 where half-order derivative was
of the temperature. mentioned.
The main reason for using the integer-order models was Fractional calculus is a generalization of integration and
the absence of solution methods for fractional differential differentiation to non-integer order fundamental operator
r
equations. At present time there are lots of methods for aDt , where a and t are the limits of the operation. The
approximation of fractional derivative and integral and continuous integro-differential operator is defined as
fractional calculus can be easily used in wide areas of
applications (e.g.: control theory - new fractional controllers
and system models, electrical circuits theory - fractances,
capacitor theory, etc.).
As pointed in clearly, for closed-loop control systems,
there are four situations. They are 1) IO (integer order) plant where r is the order of the operation, generally r R but r
with IO controller; 2) IO plant with FO (fractional order) could also be a complex number [62].
controller; 3) FO plant with IO controller and 4) FO plant
A. Definition of Fractional Differintegral
with FO controller. From control engineering point of view,
doing something better is the major concern. Existing Two definitions used for the general
evidences have confirmed that the best fractional order fractional differintegral are the
controller can outperform the best integer order controller. It Grunwald-Letnikov (GL) definition
has also been answered in the literature why to consider and the Riemann-Liouville (RL) definition [58], [76]. The
fractional order control even when integer (high) order GL is given here
control works comparatively well. Fractional order PID t
aDt
r
f r
f( jh), (1) j=0 j
where [.] means the integer part. The RL definition is given
dt
as
under the condition t = a we have f(k)(a) = 0, (k =
aDtr f(t) = (n1 0,1,2 ,...,n1). The relationship above says the
f()) d, (2) operators dtn and aDtr commute. (see [76, Chapter 2] for
n
st r
n 1
y(t)++a0D0y(t) (4)
0Dt f
)+
= bmDmu(t)+bm1Dm1u(t +b0D0u(t),
for (n 1 < r n), where s j denotes the Laplace
where D ; ak (k = 0, n), bk (k = 0, m) are
transform variable.
constants; and k (k = 0, n), k (k = 0, m) are arbitrary
A geometric and physical interpretation of fractional
real numbers.
integration and fractional differentiation can be found in
Podlubnys work [79]. Without loss of generality we can assume that n >n1
The main properties of fractional derivatives and integrals For obtaining a discrete model of the fractional-order
are the following: system (4), we have to use discrete approximations of the
fractional-order integro-differential operators and then we
1) If f(t) is an analytical function of t, its fractional
obtain a general expression for the discrete transfer function
derivative 0Dt f(t) is an analytical function of z and .
of the controlled system [91]
2) For =n, where n is an integer, the operation 0Dt f(t)
gives the same result as classical differentiation of bm w z w z
integer order n. G(z) = an (w(z ))n
3) For = 0 the operation 0Dt f(t) is the identity 1))0 , (5)
operator: 1 +...+a0(w(z
.
where ((z1)) denotes the discrete equivalent of the
4) Fractional differentiation and fractional integration are Laplace operator s, expressed as a function of the complex
linear operations: variable z or the shift operator z1.
. The fractional-order linear time-invariant system can also
5) The additive index law (semigroup property) be represented by the following state-space model
2 i=0 hi
s0 .6
3+4 Now let us consider the full equation in (4), where the
G(s) = right-hand-side is not u(t) but u(t) where u(t) = bmDmu(t)
2s3.501+3.8s2.42+2.6s1.798+2.5s1.31+1.5
The following statements can be given +bm1Dm1u(t)++b0D0u(t). (23)
>> b=[-2,4]; na=[3.501,2.42,1.798,1.31,0];
nb=[0.63,0]; a=[2 3.8 2.6 2.5 1.5]; Thus u(t) should be evaluated first using the algorithm in
[K,q,err,apol]=isstable(G)
(16), then from the closed-form solution in (22) the time
Using the isstable function, the denominator is response under input signal u(t) can be obtained. A
truncated automatically by 2s3.50+3.8s2.42+2.6s1.80+2.5s1.31+ MATLAB function lsim() is implemented below
1.5, with a least common divisor of 0.01. Thus it is found function y=lsim(G,u,t) a=G.a;
eta=G.na; b=G.b; gamma=G.nb;
that K = 1, indicating the system is stable, with q = 0.01. nA=length(a); h=t(2)-t(1); D=sum(a./
The pole position plot is also obtained as shown in Fig. 2, [h.eta]); W=[]; nT=length(t);
vec=[eta gamma]; D1=b(:)./h.gamma(:);
and from the zoomed plot, it is immediately found that all y1=zeros(nT,1);
the poles of the s0.01 polynomial are located in the stable area, W=ones(nT,length(vec));
which means that the system is stable. for j=2:nT,
W(j,:)=W(j-1,:).*(1-(vec+1)/(j-1));
2) Time-Domain Analysis: Time domain responses of end
fractional-order systems can be evaluated with different for i=2:nT, A=[y1(i-1:-1:1)]*W(2:i,1:nA);
y1(i)=(u(i)-sum(A.*a./[h.eta]))/D;
methods. For instance, the impulse and step responses of end for
commensurate-order systems can be obtained by the use of i=2:nT,
y(i)=(W(1:i,nA+1:end)*D1)*[y1(i:-1:1)];
the well-established Mittag-Leffler functions[76]. However
end
the solution method is time consuming and tedious.
In the function call, the vector u of input samples at time
vector t must be given, and the time response vector y can be
obtained.
Step response of a fractional-order system is also very
important, and since the step signal equal to one at all time t,
an overload function step() can be implemented as
function y=step(G,t)
u=ones(size(t));
y=lsim(G,u,t); if nargout==0,
plot(t,y); end
If no returned argument is specified in the function call,
Fig. 2. Pole positions with zoomed area
the unit step response curves can be drawn automatically.
Still consider the stable system model
A closed-form solutions presented in [106] is useful in 2
evaluating time-domain responses of linear fractional-order s0 .6
systems. Let us first consider a simple case. Suppose that the 3+4
right hand side of (4) is u(t) such that anDny(t) G(s) =
2s3.501+3.8s2.42+2.6s1.798+2.5s1.31+1.5
+an1Dn1y(t)++a0D0y(t) = u(t). (21)
Selecting a step-size h = 0.01 and an interested time
interval of t [0,30], the step response of the system can be
obtained as shown in Fig. 3 (a), with the following
statements
" #
1 ai (i ) >> b=[-2,4];
ut w yt jh na=[3.501,2.42,1.798,1.31,0];
nb=[0.63,0]; a=[2 3.8 2.6 2.5 1.5];
G=fotf(a,na,b,nb); t=0:0.01:30; With the above overload functions, the Bode plot and
step(G,t);
Nyquist plot of the previous FOTF object can easily be
drawn as shown in Fig. 4.
>> b=[-2,4]; na=[3.501,2.42,1.798,1.31,0];
nb=[0.63,0]; a=[2 3.8 2.6 2.5 1.5];
G=fotf(a,na,b,nb); w=logspace(-1,2);
bode(G,w), figure; nyquist(G,w)
result may depend upon the step-size used. Thus a crucial (a) Bode plot (b) Nyquist plot
procedure in the computation should not be neglected the
validation of the results. Due to the lack of analytical Fig. 4. Bode and Nyquist plots
solution method, the only plausible way to validate the
results is that, select different step-sizes and see whether they
yield the same results. To validate the results, the step-sizes VI. APPROXIMATE REALIZATION TECHNIQUES
of 0.1 and 0.001 are selected, and with a new set of In general, if a function f(t) is approximated by a grid
commands, the results are obtained as shown in Fig. 3 (b). function, f(nh), where h the grid size, the approximation for
>> hold on t=0:0.1:30; its fractional derivative of order can be expressed as
step(G,t); t=0:0.001:30; [25]:
step(G,t);
yh (24)
It can be observed from the results that, the step-size 0.1
where is the shift operator, and
1
is a generating
yields the least computation effort, and there are slight
differences between the solutions with other step-sizes. The function, where s . This generating function and its
step responses under the other two step-sizes are almost expansion determine both the form of the approximation and
identical, and cannot be distinguished from each other, its coefficients [37]. List of some generating fucntions is
which means that the step response obtained under h = 0.01 presented in Table VI-D.
is accurate. It is worth mentioning that, in general, the case of
3) Frequency-Domain Analysis: For FOTF models, the controller realization is not equivalent to the cases of
variable s can be replaced by j such that the simulation or numerical evaluation of the fractional integral
frequencydomain response data can be obtained directly. and differential operators. In the case of controller
Based on this fact, an overload function bode() can be realization it is necessary to take into account some
important considerations. First of all, the value of h, the step
written as
when dealing with numerical evaluation, is the value of the
function H=bode(G,w) a=G.a; na=G.na;
b=G.b; nb=G.nb; j=sqrt(-1); if nargin==1, sample period T, and it is limited by the characteristics of the
w=logspace(-4,4); end for i=1:length(w) microprocessorbased system, used for the controller
P=b*((j*w(i)).nb.);
Q=a*((j*w(i)).na.); H1(i)=P/Q; implementation, in two ways: (i) each microprocessor-based
end system has its own minimum value for the sample period,
H1=frd(H1,w); if nargout==0, bode(H1); and (ii) it is necessary to perform all the computations
else, H=H1; end
required by the control law between two samples. Due to this
Also, overload Nyquist and Nichols plots functions can last reason, it is very important to obtain good
also be written approximations with a minimal set of parameters. On the
function nyquist(G,w) if nargin==1, other hand, when the number of parameters in the
w=logspace(-4,4); end; H=bode(G,w); approximation increases, it increases the amount of the
nyquist(H);
required memory and speed too.
function nichols(G,w) if nargin==1, It is also important to have discrete equivalents or
w=logspace(-4,4); end; H=bode(G,w); approximations with poles and zeros, that is, in a rational
nichols(H);
form.
In the following, the notation normally used in control
=T fkj,
theory is adopted, that is: T, the sample period, is used
j=v
instead of h, and z, the complex variable resulting from the
where v = 0 for k < (L/T) or v = k(L/T) for k > (L/T) in
application of the Z transform to the functions y(nT), f(nT)
considered as sequences, is used instead of . the relation (28).
A. Discrete Approximations Using PSE
Obviously, for this simplification we pay a penalty in the
The simplest and most straightforward method is the form of some inaccuracy. If f(t)M, we can easily establish
direct discretization using finite memory length expansion the following estimate for determining the memory length L,
from GL definition (1). In general, the discretization of providing the required accuracy :
fractionalorder differentiator/integrator sr, (r R) can be
expressed by the generating function s =(z1).
L . (29)
Using the generating function corresponding to the
An evaluation of the short memory effect and convergence
relation of the error between short and long memory were
backward fractional difference rule, , clearly described and also proved in [76].
and performing the power series expansion (PSE) of 1z
Performing the PSE of the function leads to
, the GrunwaldLetnikov formula (1) for the fractional the formula given by Lubich for the fractional
derivative of order is obtained. integral/derivative of order [37]:
In any case, the resulting transfer function, approximating
the fractional-order operators, can be obtained by applying Tf f((nk)T). (30)
the following relationship:
Another possibility for the approximation is the use of the
Y (25) trapezoidal rule, that is, the use of the generating function
where T is the sample period, Y(z) is the Z transform of the and then the PSE
output sequence y(nT), F(z) is the Z transform of the input
sequence f(nT), and PSE{u} denotes the expression, which
) = 2 11+zz11
1
(31)
results from the power series expansion of the function u. (z
Doing so gives: It is known that the forward difference rule is not suitable
for applications to causal problems [25], [37].
It should be mentioned that, at least for control purposes,
D PSE
it is not very important to have a closed-form formula for the
where D (z) denotes the discrete equivalent of the coefficients, because they are usually pre-computed and
fractional-order operator, considered as processes. stored in the memory of the microprocessor. In such a case,
By using the short memory principle [76], the discrete the most important is to have a limited number of
equivalent of the fractional-order integro-differential coefficients because of the limited available memory of the
operator, ((z1)), is given by microprocessor system.
It is very important to note that the PSE scheme leads to
approximations in the form of polynomials, that is, the
D z[L/T]j
discretized fractional order derivative is in the form of FIR
(27)
filters. Taking into account that our aim is to obtain discrete
where T is the sampling period, L is the memory length and
equivalents to the fractional integrodifferential operators in
the Laplace domain, s, the following considerations have
(1)j
are the binomial coefficients w to be made:
j
1) s, (0 < < 1), viewed as an operator, has a branch
computed according to relation (17). cut along the negative real axis for arguments of s on
(,) but is free of poles and zeros.
For practical numerical calculation or simulation of the
fractional derivative and integral we can derive from the GL 2) A dense interlacing of simple poles and zeros along a
definition (1) and (27) the following formula line in the s plane is, in some way, equivalent to a
branch cut.
3) It is well known that, for interpolation or evaluation
(kL/T)D kT () j purposes, rational functions are sometimes superior to
fkj polynomials, roughly speaking, because of their ability
k (28) to model functions with zeros and poles. In other
words, for evaluation purposes, rational
approximations frequently converge much more a1(z)+
rapidly than PSE and have a wider domain of
a2(z)+
convergence in the complex plane.
4) The trapezoidal rule maps adequately the stability a3(bz )+(z)
3
D 5
7
(z) = (1 z11) =
Tj zj QTq(z1),
(1) j
j=0
z
9
(35)
where Qq(z ) is polynomial of order q in variable z .
1 1
z
C. Discretization by Muirs Recursion
One of the key points of Tustin discretization of
fractionalorder differentiator is how to get a recursive
formula similar to (17) in the preceding subsection. Here we
introduce the so-called Muir-recursion originally used in Remark 6.1: To examine the correctness of the
geophysical data processing with applications to petroleum Muirrecursion used for the recursive discretization of the
prospecting [16]. The Muir-recursion motivated in fractional-order derivative operator, one can compare the
computing the vertical plane wave reflection response via symbolic Taylor expansion of (VI-B). It has been verified
the impedance of a stack of n-layered earth can be used in that the proposed recursive formula is as correct as Taylor
recursive discretization of fractional-order differentiator of series expansion till the order of approximation.
Tustin generating function. In the following, without loss of D. Other Direct Discretization Methods
generality, assume that [1,1]. Moreover, in order to Besides the above methods described we can also use an
simplify the presentation, we only give the recursive formula approach proposed by Machado [40]. Instead binomial series
for positive (see e.g. [14], [96]). for expansion of generating functions may be used a Taylor
T series. The fractional order conversion scheme leads to
nonrational formula, where final algorithm corresponds to a
nterm truncated series.
Approximations, listed in Table 5.5, and their properties
where were analyzed and implemented to control system in
Machados papers (see e.g. [40], [41]).
Similar approach was described by Duarte in [24], where
z z z
A0( ,) = 1, An(
1
,) = An1(
1
1
,)cnznAn instead of a Tylor series,a MacLaurin series truncated after
TABLE II DISCRETE
and TIME CONVERSION RULES
; n is odd; Methods s z conversion
; n is even. (38)
cn Euler
s
For any given order of approximation n, we can use
MATLAB Symbolic Toolbox to generate an expression for Al-Alaoui
s
An(z1,). Therefore,
Tustin
s
s Simpson
s
An(z 1,,)).
1 n-th order term was used. The general expressions were
described as well.
T An(z Both mentioned approaches lead to non-rational
approximation in the form of a FIR filter.
For a ready reference, we listed An(z1,) in Table I up to n There are many other suggestions to discretize fractional
= 9, which should be sufficient in many applications [14]. calculus and numerical solution of fractional differential
equations. We should mention Diethelms work [20], where
TABLE I
discretization algorithm was based on the quadrature formula
approach. Another method is proposed by Leszczynski. In Fig. 5. Block diagram of the canonical representation of IIR filter form
his proposal the algorithm for numerical solution is obtained
by using a decomposition of the fractional differential
equation into a system of ordinary differential equation of (* initialization code *) scale := 32752; %
input and output order := 5; % order of
integer order and inverse form of Abels integral equation approximation U_FOC := 10; % input and output
[35]. Last but not least we should mention the approach voltage range: % 5[V], 10[V], ...
proposed by Hwang, which is based on B-splines function a[0] := ...; a[1] := ...; a[2] := ...;
[29] and Podlubnys matrix approach [78], [81]. a[3] := ...; a[4] := ...; a[5] := ...;
b[0] := ...; b[1] := ...; b[2] := ...;
VII. HOW TO IMPLEMENT? PROPOSED REALIZATIONS b[3] := ...; b[4] := ...; b[5] := ...;
Basically, there are two methods for realization of the loop i := 0 to order do
s[i] := 0;
FOC. One is a digital realization based on microprocessor endloop
devices and appropriate control algorithm and the second
one is an analogue realization based on analogue circuits so- (* loop code *)
in := (REAL(input)/scale) * U_FOC; feedback :=
called fractance. This section describe both of the 0; feedforward := 0; loop i:=1 to order do
realizations. feedback := feedback - a[i] * s[i];
feedforward := feedforward + b[i] * s[i];
A. Digital realization: Control algorithm endloop s[0] := in + a[0] *
feedback; out := b[0] * s[1] +
This realization can be based on implementation of the feedforward; loop i := order
control algorithm in the microprocessor devices, e.g.: PLC downto 1 do
controller [71], processor C51 or PIC [69], PCL I/O card s[i] := s[i-1];
endloop output :=
[95], etc. Some experimental measurements with processor INT(out*scale)/U_FOC;
and PCL card were already done in [69], [95].
Generally, the control algorithm may be based on The disadvantage with this solution is that the complete
canonical form of IIR filter, which can be expressed as controller is calculated using floating point arithmetic.
follow All discrete techniques described in Sec.VI allow us use a
fractional operator in discrete form but we have to realize the
capacity and speed limitation of real devices as for example
F(z1) = U
PIC microprocessor.
E((zz11)) = ba00++ba11zz11++ba22zz22+
+......++baMNzzMN , B. Analogue Realization: Fractance Circuits
A circuit exhibiting fractional-order behavior is called a
(39) fractance [76]. The fractance devices have the following
where a0 = 1 for compatible with the definitions used in characteristics [56], [59], [30]. First, the phase angle is
MATLAB. Normally, we choose M = N. constant independent of the frequency within a wide
The FOC in form of IIR filter can be directly implemented frequency band. Second, it is possible to construct a filter
to any microprocessor based devices as for instance PLC or which has moderated characteristics which can not be
PIC. A direct form of such implementation using canonical realized by using the conventional devices.
form shown in Fig. 5, with input e(k) and output u(k) range Generally speaking, there are three basic fractance
mapping to the interval 0UFOC [V] divided into two devices. The most popular is a domino ladder circuit
sections: initialization code and loop code. The pseudo-code network. Very often used is a tree structure of electrical
has the following form: elements and finally, we can find out also some transmission
line circuit. Here we must mention that all basic electrical
elements (resistor, capacitor and coil) are not ideal [11], [99].
Design of fractances can be done easily using any of the
rational approximations [72] or a truncated CFE, which also
gives a rational approximation.
Truncated CFE does not require any further
transformation; a rational approximation based on other
methods must be transformed to the form of a continued
fraction. The values of the electric elements, which are
necessary for building a fractance, are then determined from
the obtained finite continued fraction. If all coefficients of
the obtained finite continued fraction are positive, then the
fractance can be made of classical passive elements
(resistors and capacitors). If some of the coefficients are
negative, then the fractance can be made with the help of Z (42)
negative impedance converters [72]. If we consider that Z2k1 Rk1 and Y2k Ck1 for k =
Domino ladder lattice networks can approximate
1,...,n in Fig. 6, then the values of the resistors and
fractional operator more effectively than the lumped
networks [23]. capacitors of the network are specified by
Z1 Z3 Z2n -3 Z2n -1
Rk hko
P()(k+1+)
Fig. 6. Finite ladder circuit
P , (43)
Let us consider the circuit depicted in Fig. 6, where where 0 << 1, h is an arbitrary small number, ko is the
Z2k1(s) and Y2k(s), k = 1,...,n, are given impedances of the Kronecker delta, and k is an integer, k [0,).
circuit elements. The resulting impedance Z(s) of the entire Rd