Module 1

EASA PART 66 CAT B1.
1
MODULE 1 MATHEMATICS
TRAINEE NOTES
MODULE 1 : MATHEMATICS
(EASA PART 66 CATEGORY B1.1)
WARNING
This document is intended for the purposes of training only. The information contained herein is as
accurate as possible at the time of issue, and is subject to ongoing amendments where necessary
according to any regulatory journals and documents. Where the information contained in this
document is in variation with other official journals and/or documents, the latter must be taken as the
overriding document. The contents herein shall not be reproduced in any form without the expressed
permission of METC.
For Training Purposes Only B1.1M01 Trainee Notes V0.2 dated 31.05.08
EASA PART 66 CAT B1.1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 ARITHMETIC ..........................................................................................................................................................................1

1.1.1 Arithmetic Term and Signs...............................................................................................................................................1
1.1.1.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................1
1.1.1.2 Whole Numbers............................................................................................................................................................1
1.1.1.3 Addition of Whole Numbers (+) ....................................................................................................................................1
1.1.1.4 Subtraction of Whole Numbers (-) ................................................................................................................................2
1.1.2 Methods of Multiplication and Division .............................................................................................................................4
1.1.2.1 Multiplication of Whole Number () ..............................................................................................................................4
1.1.2.2 Division of Whole Number ().......................................................................................................................................5
1.1.2.3 Positive and Negative Numbers ...................................................................................................................................7
1.1.2.4 Adding Signed Numbers...............................................................................................................................................7
1.1.2.5 Subtracting Signed Numbers........................................................................................................................................8
1.1.2.6 Multiplying Signed Numbers.........................................................................................................................................8
1.1.2.7 Dividing Signed Numbers .............................................................................................................................................9
1.1.2.8 BODMAS....................................................................................................................................................................11
1.1.3 Fractions and Decimals .................................................................................................................................................13
1.1.3.1 FRACTIONS...............................................................................................................................................................13
1.1.3.1.1 Lowest Terms .........................................................................................................................................................14
1.1.3.1.2 Finding the Least Common Denominator (LCD).....................................................................................................14
1.1.3.1.3 Addition of Fractions ...............................................................................................................................................15
Page i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1.3.1.4 Subtraction of Fractions ..........................................................................................................................................16

1.1.3.1.5 Multiplication of Fractions .......................................................................................................................................18
1.1.3.1.6 Division of Fractions................................................................................................................................................19
1.1.3.2 DECIMALS .................................................................................................................................................................20
1.1.3.2.1 Decimals are Fraction .............................................................................................................................................20
1.1.3.2.2 Add Decimals..........................................................................................................................................................21
1.1.3.2.3 Subtract Decimals...................................................................................................................................................21
1.1.3.2.4 Multiply Decimals ....................................................................................................................................................22
1.1.3.2.5 Divide Decimals ......................................................................................................................................................22
1.1.3.2.6 Rounding Off Decimals ...........................................................................................................................................23
1.1.3.2.7 Converting Decimals to Fractions ...........................................................................................................................24
1.1.3.2.8 Converting Fractions to Decimals ...........................................................................................................................24
1.1.4 Factors and Multiples.....................................................................................................................................................32
1.1.4.1 Factors .......................................................................................................................................................................32
1.1.4.2 Multiples .....................................................................................................................................................................32
1.1.5 Weights ..........................................................................................................................................................................34
1.1.5.1 Significant Figures......................................................................................................................................................34
1.1.5.2 Convert Number to Significant Figure ........................................................................................................................35
1.1.6 Measures and Conversion Factors ................................................................................................................................37
1.1.6.1 Systems of Units of Measurement..............................................................................................................................37
Page ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1.6.1.1 Length.....................................................................................................................................................................37
1.1.6.1.2 Mass .......................................................................................................................................................................37
1.1.6.1.3 Time........................................................................................................................................................................38
1.1.6.2 CONVERSIONS.........................................................................................................................................................39
1.1.7 Ratio and Proportion ......................................................................................................................................................42
1.1.7.1 Ratio ...........................................................................................................................................................................42
1.1.7.2 Proportion...................................................................................................................................................................42
1.1.8 Averages and Percentages............................................................................................................................................46
1.1.8.1 Average ......................................................................................................................................................................46
1.1.8.2 Percentage .................................................................................................................................................................47
1.1.8.2.1 Expressing one Quantity as a Percentage..............................................................................................................47
1.1.8.2.2 Converting Fractions to Percentages......................................................................................................................47
1.1.8.2.3 Converting Percentages to Fractions......................................................................................................................48
1.1.8.2.4 Converting Percentages to Decimals......................................................................................................................48
1.1.8.2.5 Convert a Decimal to a Percentage ........................................................................................................................48
1.1.8.2.6 Values of a Percentage of a Quantity .....................................................................................................................49
1.1.9 Areas and Volumes........................................................................................................................................................53
1.1.9.1 Computing Area .........................................................................................................................................................53
1.1.9.1.1 THE RECTANGLE..................................................................................................................................................53
1.1.9.1.2 THE SQUARE ........................................................................................................................................................54
Page iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1.9.1.3 THE TRIANGLE......................................................................................................................................................54

1.1.9.1.4 THE PARALLELOGRAM ........................................................................................................................................55
1.1.9.1.5 THE RHOMBUS .....................................................................................................................................................56
1.1.9.1.6 THE TRAPEZOID ...................................................................................................................................................56
1.1.9.1.7 THE CIRCLE ..........................................................................................................................................................57
1.1.9.2.1 VOLUME OF A RECTANGLE ................................................................................................................................58
1.1.9.2.2 VOLUME OF A CUBE ............................................................................................................................................58
1.1.9.2.3 VOLUME OF A CYLINDER ....................................................................................................................................59
1.1.9.2.4 VOLUME OF A SPHERE........................................................................................................................................59
1.1.10 Squares, Cubes, Square and Cube Roots ....................................................................................................................77
1.1.10.1 Power of Numbers ..................................................................................................................................................77
1.1.10.2 Root of a Number ...................................................................................................................................................77
1.1.10.3 Square Root............................................................................................................................................................77
1.1.10.4 Cube Root...............................................................................................................................................................78
1.2 ALGEBRA .............................................................................................................................................................................80
1.2.1 Equations .......................................................................................................................................................................80
1.2.1.1 Transposition of Formulae..........................................................................................................................................80
1.2.1.2 Substitution.................................................................................................................................................................81
1.2.2 Evaluating Simple Algebraic Expressions......................................................................................................................86
1.2.2.1 Addition ......................................................................................................................................................................86
Page iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.2.2.2 Subtraction .................................................................................................................................................................88

1.2.2.3 Multiplication and Division ..........................................................................................................................................90
1.2.2.3.1 Multiplication ...........................................................................................................................................................90
1.2.2.3.2 Multiplication Involving Algebraic Sums ..................................................................................................................90
1.2.2.3.3 Division ...................................................................................................................................................................91
1.2.2.3.3 Division of an Algebraic Sum by a Number.............................................................................................................92
1.2.2.4 Use of Brackets ..........................................................................................................................................................95
1.2.2.4.1 To Remove Brackets ..............................................................................................................................................95
1.2.2.4.2 System of Brackets .................................................................................................................................................95
1.2.2.5 Simple Algebraic Fractions.........................................................................................................................................99
1.2.2.5.1 Adding & Subtracting Algebraic Fractions...............................................................................................................99
1.2.2.5.2 Multiplication & Division of Algebraic Fractions.....................................................................................................100
1.2.2.6 Linear Function and Their Solutions.........................................................................................................................102
1.2.2.6.1 Linear Equation.....................................................................................................................................................102
1.2.2.6.2 Equations..............................................................................................................................................................102
1.2.2.6.3 Solving Linear Equations ......................................................................................................................................102
1.2.2.6.4 Equations Requiring Addition & Subtraction .........................................................................................................103
1.2.2.6.5 Equations Requiring Multiplication & Division .......................................................................................................104
1.2.3 Indices and Power, Negative and Fractional Indices................................................................................................108
1.2.3.1 Power .......................................................................................................................................................................108
Page v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.2.3.2 Roots ........................................................................................................................................................................108

1.2.3.3 Indices ......................................................................................................................................................................109
1.2.3.3.1 Base, Index & Power ............................................................................................................................................109
1.2.3.4 Laws of Indices.........................................................................................................................................................110
1.2.3.5 Negative Indices.......................................................................................................................................................111
1.2.3.6 Fractional Indices .....................................................................................................................................................111
1.2.4 Scientific Notation.....................................................................................................................................................115
1.2.4.1 Multiplying by Scientific Notation ..............................................................................................................................116
1.2.4.2 Division by Scientific Notation ..................................................................................................................................116
1.2.4.3 Metric Prefixes..........................................................................................................................................................117
1.2.5 Binary and Other Applicable Numbering System .....................................................................................................120
1.2.5.1 Numbering Systems .................................................................................................................................................120
1.2.5.2 Positional Notation ...................................................................................................................................................120
1.2.5.3 Base .........................................................................................................................................................................120
1.2.5.4 Decimal Number System..........................................................................................................................................120
1.2.5.5 Positional Notation for Decimal Number...................................................................................................................122
1.2.5.6 Binary Number System.............................................................................................................................................122
1.2.5.7 Hexadecimal Number System ..................................................................................................................................123
1.2.5.8 Octal Number System ..............................................................................................................................................124
1.2.5.9 Convert Decimal to Binary........................................................................................................................................124
Page vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.2.5.10 Convert Binary to Decimal ....................................................................................................................................125

1.2.5.11 Convert Decimal to Octal ......................................................................................................................................126
1.2.5.12 Convert Octal to Decimal ......................................................................................................................................126
1.2.5.13 Convert Binary to Octal.........................................................................................................................................127
1.2.5.14 Convert Octal to Binary.........................................................................................................................................127
1.2.5.15 Convert Decimal to Hexadecimal..........................................................................................................................128
1.2.5.16 Convert Binary to Hexadecimal ............................................................................................................................128
1.2.5.17 Convert Hexadecimal to Binary ............................................................................................................................129
1.2.5.18 Convert Decimal to BCD (binary code decimal)....................................................................................................129
1.2.5.19 Convert BCD to Decimal.......................................................................................................................................130
1.2.6 Simultaneous Equations and Second Degree Equations with One Unknown ..........................................................133
1.2.6.1 Linear Systems of Equations of Two Variables ........................................................................................................133
1.2.6.2 Solving Systems of Equations by the Substitution Method.......................................................................................133
1.2.6.3 Solving Systems of Equations by the Elimination Method........................................................................................135
1.2.6.4 Solving Quadratic Equations ....................................................................................................................................136
1.2.6.5 Logarithms................................................................................................................................................................142
1.3.1 SIMPLE GEOMETRY CONSTRUCTION ....................................................................................................................151
1.3.1.1 To Bisect a Line Segment ........................................................................................................................................151
1.3.1.2 To Bisect an Angle ...................................................................................................................................................152
1.3.1.3 To Divide a Given Line into Equal Parts...................................................................................................................152
Page vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.3.1.4 Construction of Triangles..........................................................................................................................................153

1.3.1.5 Construction of Regular Polygons ............................................................................................................................154
1.3.2 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION ..............................................................................................................................157
1.3.2.1 Coordinates ..............................................................................................................................................................157
1.3.2.2 Nature and Uses of Graph........................................................................................................................................159
1.3.2.3 Graph of Equations / Functions ................................................................................................................................160
1.3.2.3.1 Graph of Functions ...............................................................................................................................................160
1.3.3 SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRY..........................................................................................................................................168
1.3.3.1 Trigonometrical Relationship ....................................................................................................................................169
1.3.3.1.1 Anticlockwise Rotation ..........................................................................................................................................169
1.3.3.1.2 Clockwise Rotation ...............................................................................................................................................171
1.3.3.2 Solving Simple Trigonometric Equations ..................................................................................................................173
1.3.3.3 Use of Tables and Rectangular and Polar Coordinates ...........................................................................................180
1.3.3.3.1 Rectangular Coordinates ......................................................................................................................................180
1.3.3.3.2 Polar Coordinates .................................................................................................................................................183
Page viii
ARITHMETIC (EASA 1.1 L2)
1.1 ARITHMETIC
1.1.1 Arithmetic Term and Signs
1.1.1.1 Introduction
The science of mathematics is so important to the modern age of technology. It had its beginnings in the dim ages of the past.
The use of mathematics is so woven into every area of everyday life that we seldom realise how helpless we would be in the
performance of most of our daily work without the knowledge of even the simplest form of mathematics.
A person entering the aviation field will be required to perform with accuracy. The aviation mechanic is often involved in tasks that
require mathematical computations of some sort. Mathematics may be thought of as a kit of tools, each mathematical operation
being compared to the use of one of the tools in the solving of a problem. The basic operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division are the tools available to aid us in solving a particular problem.
1.1.1.2 Whole Numbers
The ten single-number characters or numerals 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and 0 are called digits. A whole number can be written in
word and figure.
1.1.1.3 Addition of Whole Numbers (+)
The process of finding the combined amount of two or more numbers is called addition. The answer is called the sum. The sign
for addition is the plus sign (+). This sign placed between numbers indicates that they are to be added. Numbers to be added
may be arranged horizontally or vertically in columns, as shown here:
Page 1
NUMBER 324
NUMBER 25
Number + Number = Sum 324 + 25 + 78 = 427
SUM 78
427
To check addition either add the figures again in the same order or add them in a reverse order.
1.1.1.4 Subtraction of Whole Numbers (-)
Subtraction is the process of finding the difference between two numbers by taking the smaller from the larger of the two
numbers. The number which is subtracted is called the subtrahend, the other number is the minuend, and the difference is called
the remainder. The sign for addition is the plus sign (). This sign placed between numbers indicates that they are to be
subtracted. Numbers to be subtracted may be arranged horizontally or vertically in columns, as shown here:
324
Minuend - Subtrahend = Remainder 324 25 = 299 25
299
To check subtraction, add the remainder and the subtrahend together. The sum of the two should equal the minuend
Page 2
Question: Arithmetic term & sign
1. 324 + 25 + 78 =
a) 427
b) 437
c) 417
2. 675 - 342 =
a) 333
b) 343
c) 323
3. The sum of an odd and even number is

a) always odd
b) always even
c) sometimes odd, sometimes even
Page 3
1.1.2 Methods of Multiplication and Division
1.1.2.1 Multiplication of Whole Number ()
The act of multiplication may be considered multiple additions. If we add 2 + 2 to obtain 4, we have multiplied 2 by 2, because we
have taken 2 two times. Likewise, if we add 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 to obtain 8, we have multiplied 2 by 4, because we have taken 2 four
times. In multiplication the number to be multiplied is called the multiplicand, and the number of times the multiplicand is to be
taken is called the multiplier. The answer obtained from a multiplication is the product. The following example illustrates these
terms:
325 multiplicand
Multiply : 325 18 = 5850 18 multiplier
2600
325
5850 product
When multiplying a series of number together, the final product will be the same regardless of the order in which the number are
arranged.
7 21 105
3 5 2
Multiply : 7 3 5 2 = 210
21 105 210
Accurate multiplication requires great care. First, it is important to know the multiplication tables. Second, care must be taken to
record products in the correct column. Third, the addition must be made carefully and accurately. In order to acquire proficiency in
multiplication, practice is essential. In any mathematical problem it is smart to check the answer for accuracy. There are a number
of methods for checking multiplication, and the most obvious is to divide the product by either the multiplicand or the multiplier. If
Page 4
the product is divided by the multiplicand, the quotient (answer) should be the multiplier. Another method for checking
multiplication is to repeat the problem, reversing the multiplicand and multiplier. If the product is the same in each case, the
answer is probably correct.
1.1.2.2 Division of Whole Number ()
The act of division may be considered the reverse of multiplication; that is, division is the separating or dividing of a number into a
certain number of equal parts. The symbol for division is the division sign (), and it is read "divided by." For example, 98 4 is
read "98 divided by 4." In arithmetic, there are two commonly used methods for the division of whole numbers. These are short
division and long division. The terms used to describe the elements of a division problem are dividend, which is the number to be
divided; divisor, the number of times the dividend is to be divided; and quotient, the number of times the divisor goes into the divi-
dend. In the problem 235 5 = 47, the number 235 is the dividend, 5 is the divisor, and 47 is the quotient. The process of short
division is often used to divide a number by a divisor having only one digit. This is accomplished as follows:
551
7 3857
3857
0
Long division is employed most often when the dividend and the divisor both contain more than one digit. The process is
somewhat more complex than that of short division, but with a little practice, long division may be accomplished easily and
accurately. 647
28 18116
To solve the problem 18 116 28, we arrange the terms of the problem as shown here:
168
131
112
196
196
0
Page 5
Question: Methods of multiplication and division
1. 328 x 6 =
a) 1968
b) 1978
c) 1998
2. 3857 7
a) 551
b) 451
c) 455
Page 6
1.1.2.3 Positive and Negative Numbers
Positive and negative numbers are that have directional value from a given starting point or from zero. Number above or to one
side, usually right, of zero are designated as positive (+). Those below or to the opposite side, usually left, of zero are designated
as negative (). Representative of signed numbers on a horizontal scale is shown below:
5 4 3 2 1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5
The sum of positive number is positive

The sum of negative number is negative
Brackets can be used to distinguish between the positive plus number and operation add. It is similar, with the negative number
minus and the operation subtract.
Example : (+5) + (+6) (4) = 15
1.1.2.4 Adding Signed Numbers
When adding two or more numbers with the same sign, ignore the sign and find the sum of the values and then place the common
sign in front of the answer. In other words, adding two or more positive numbers always results in a positive sum, whereas adding
two or more negative numbers results in a negative sum. When adding a positive and a negative number, find the difference
between the two numbers and apply (+ or ) of the larger number. In other words, adding a negative number is the same as
subtracting a positive number. The result of adding or subtracting signed numbers is called algebraic sum of those numbers.
Page 7
- a + (+b) = a + b
- a + (b) = a b
Example :
+ (+4) = 2 + 4 = 6
+ (4) = 2 4 = 2
1.1.2.5 Subtracting Signed Numbers
When subtracting numbers with different signs, change the operation sign to plus and change the sign of the subtrahend. Once
this is done, proceed as you do in addition. For example +3 4 is the same as +3 + +4. There is no difference if the subtrahend
is larger than the minuend, since the operation is done as though the two quantities are added.
- a (+b) = a b
- a (b) = a + b
Example:
(+5) = 3 5 = 2
3 (5) = 3 + 5 = 8
1.1.2.6 Multiplying Signed Numbers
Multiplication of signed numbers is accomplished in the same manner as multiplication of any other number. However, after
multiplying, the product must be given a sign. There are three rules to follow when determining a products sign.
Page 8
1. The product of two positive numbers is always positive. (+) x (+) = (+)
2. The product of two negative numbers is always positive. () x () = (+)
3. The product of a positive and a negative number is always negative. (+) x () = ()
() x (+) = ()
Example :
12 x 4 = 48
(3) x (7) = 21
5 x (6) = 30
(2) x 13 = 26
1.1.2.7 Dividing Signed Numbers
Like multiplying signed numbers, division of signed numbers is accomplished in the same manner as dividing any other number.
The sign of the quotient is determined using the rules identical to those used in multiplication.
- (+) (+) = (+)

- () () = (+)
- (+) () = ()
- () (+) = ()
Example :
a) 10 5 = 2
b) (36) (9) = 4
c) 27 (3) = 9
d) (25) 5 = (5)
Page 9
Questions : Positive and Negative Numbers
1. Work out the following sum:

42(5 1) 3 8
a) 37
b) 28
c) 54
2. 4(4(4 - 1) - 1) 1 =
a) 15
b) 31
c) 43
3. Calculate (+3) (4)

a) 1
b) +7
c) 7
4. Find (4(4(4-1)-1)-1)
a) 28
b) 43
c) 27
Page 10
1.1.2.8 BODMAS
A simple mnemonic helps us to remember the order in which to simplify expressions
B Brackets ( )
O Of of
D Divide
M Multiply x
A Add +
S Subtract
This rule does not alter the method used for addition and subtraction; however these must be left until all multiplications and
divisions have been carried out unless Brackets indicate otherwise.
Example using BODMAS.
( 1 1 ) of 1 = ( 3 4 ) of 1 = 7 1 = 7
4 3 4 12 12 4 12 4 48
Page 11
QUESTIONS: BODMAS
1. Simplify each of the following:
(a) (2 4/5 1 ) 2/3

(b) 3 1/3 (1 5/6 5/9)
(c) 3 3/4 5 + 1/6
(d) 1/4 + 5/6 3/10
2. Evaluate the following:
(a) 4 + (6) 2 9
(b) 14 + (8 24) (4)
(c) 8 [2 + (4)] 12

18. 8 4 5 2 5 9
3

a) Eighty Eight
b) Forty Eight
c) Twelve
Page 12
1.1.3 Fractions and Decimals
1.1.3.1 FRACTIONS
A fraction is an indicated division that expresses one or more of the equal parts into which a unit is divided. For example, the
fraction 2 3 indicates that the whole has been divided into 3 equal parts and that 2 of these parts are being used or considered.
The number above the line is the numerator and the number below the line is the denominator.
If the numerator of a fraction is equal to or larger than the denominator, the fraction is known as an improper fraction. In the
fraction 158 , if the indicated division is performed, the improper fraction is changed to a mixed number, which is a whole number
and a fraction: 15 1 7
8 8
A decimal fraction is obtained by diving the numerator of a fraction by the denominator and showing the quotient as a decimal.
The fraction 58 equals 5 8 = 0.625.
A fraction does not change its value if both numerator and denominator are multiplied or divided by the same number.
1 3 3 1
4 3 12 4
The same fundamental operations performed with whole numbers can also be performed with fractions. These are addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.
Page 13
1.1.3.1.1 Lowest Terms
A fraction is said to be in its lowest terms when it is impossible to find a number which will divide exactly into both its numerator
and denominator. The fractions 15 7 and 1119 are both in their lowest terms but the fraction 610 is not in its lowest terms because it
can be reduced to 3 5 by dividing top and bottom numbers by 2.
Example:
Reduce 2135 to its lowest terms

21 is equivalent to 217 and 357 = 3
35 5
1.1.3.1.2 Finding the Least Common Denominator (LCD)
When the denominators of fractions to be added or subtracted are such that a common denominator cannot be determined
readily, The LCD can be found by the continued division method.
To find the LCD of group of fractions, write the denominators in a horizontal row. Next, divide the denominators in this row by the
smallest integer that will exactly divide two or more of the denominators. Bring down to a new row all the quotients and numbers
that were not divisible. Continue this process until there are no two numbers in the resulting row that are divisible by any integer
other than one. Multiply together all the divisors and the remaining terms in the last row to obtain the least common denominator.
Example
Find LCD for 7 8 , 1120 , 836 , 2145
Page 14
FIRST : Write the denominators in a horizontal row and divide this row by the smallest integer that will exactly divide two or more
of the numbers.
2 8 20 36 45
4 10 18 45
NEXT : Continue this process until there are no two numbers in the resulting row that are divisible by any integer other than one.
2 8 20 36 45
2 4 10 18 45
3 2 5 9 45
3 2 5 3 15
5 2 5 1 5
2 1 1 1
THEN : Multiply together all the divisors and remaining terms in the last row to obtain the LCD
LCD = 2 2 3 3 5 2 = 360
1.1.3.1.3 Addition of Fractions
Two fractions which have the same denominator can be added together by adding their numerators. Thus
3 5 (35) 8 . When two fractions have different denominators they cannot be added together directly. However, if we
11 11 11 11
express the fractions with the same denominator, they can be added.
Page 15
Example:
Add 2 5 and 37
The lowest common denominator of 5 and 7 is 35
2 3 14 15 (1415) 29
5 7 35 35 35 35
When mixed numbers are to be added together, the whole numbers and the fractions are added separately.
Example:
Add 4 2 3 and 2 35
4 2 3 2 35 6 2 3 35 6 1015 915 6 1915 6 1 415 7 415
1.1.3.1.4 Subtraction of Fractions
If the fractions to be subtracted have the same denominator, then one numerator can be subtracted from the other.
Example:
9 5 4 1
16 16 16 4
If the two fractions have different denominators, then a method similar to that for addition is used.
Page 16
Example:
Subtract 3 4 from 5 6
The lowest common denominator is 12
5 3 10 9 (109) 1
6 4 12 12 12 12
When mixed numbers are involved first subtract the whole numbers and then deal with the fractional parts.
Example:
Subtract 6 3 4 4 13
6 3 4 4 13 2 3 4 13 2 (94)12 2 512 2 512
Alternatively the numbers can be converted into improper fractions and then the subtraction is carried out as before.
Example:
Subtract 3 516 1 18
53 9 53 18 35 2 3
16 8 16 16 16 16
Page 17
1.1.3.1.5 Multiplication of Fractions
Multiplication of fractions is performed by multiplication the numerators of each fraction to form the product numerators, and
multiplying the individual denominators to form the product denominator. The resulting fraction is then reduced to its lowest terms.
Example:
Multiply 38 by 5 7
3 5 (35)
(87) 56
15
8 7
If any factors are common to a numerator and a denominator, they should be cancelled before multiplying.
Example:
Find the value of 2 3 5 7 2132
2 5 21 (151)
(1116) 16
5
3 7 32
Mixed numbers must be converted into improper fractions before multiplying.
Page 18
Example:
Multiply 1 38 2 13
1 38 2 13 118 7 3 (117) (83) 77 24 3 5 24
In problems with fractions, the word of is frequently used. It should always be taken as meaning multiply.
1.1.3.1.6 Division of Fractions
Division of common fractions is accomplished by inverting, or turning over, the divisor and then multiplying. However, it is
important that you invert the divisor only and not the dividend. Once the divisor is inverted, multiply the numerators to obtain a
new numerator multiply the denominators to obtain a new denominator, and reduce the quotient to its lowest terms.
Example:
Divide 35 by 7 8
3 7 3 8 (38)
(57) 35
24
5 8 5 7
Mixed numbers must be converted into improper fractions before multiplying.
Page 19
1.1.3.2 DECIMALS
Decimals are a very important and particular set of fractions. They are fractions which denominators are powers of 10, ie.10, 100,
1000, 10,000 etc. Decimals are not written in the usual fraction form, but in shorthand using a decimal point.
For example: -
1/10 = 0.1
1/100 = 0.01
1/1000 = 0.001
5 7/10 = 5.7
63 7/100 = 63.07
1.1.3.2.1 Decimals are Fraction
To understand the subject, look at the table below:
Thousand Hundred Tens Unit Tenth Hundredth Thousandth

1000 100 10 1/10 1/100 1/1000
5 3 4 6 . 7 9 2
The number in the table is 5346.792. It consists of 5 thousands, 3 hundreds, 4 ten, 6 units, 7 tenths, 9 hundredths and 2
thousandths.
The number of digits after the decimal point is called decimal places.
For example:
a. 27.6 has one decimal place.

b. 27.16 has two decimal places.
Page 20
c. 27.026 has three decimal places.

d. 101.2032 has four decimal places.
1.1.3.2.2 Add Decimals
In addition of decimals, particular care must be taken in ensuring that decimal points are in line.
Evaluate 3.76 + 0.021 + 68.3 = 72.081
3.76
0.021
+ 68.3__
72.081
1.1.3.2.3 Subtract Decimals
Similarly in subtraction, ensure that decimal points are in line.
Evaluate 27.3 4.36 = 22.94
Note: 27.3 can be taken as 27.30.
27.30
- 4.36
22.94
Page 21
1.1.3.2.4 Multiply Decimals
When multiplying decimals, ignore the decimal point until the final answer is obtained. Then count the number of decimal places
in both numbers being multiplied.
Evaluate: 27.3 x 9.31

(Note : Total of 3 decimal places)
273
x 931
273
8190
45700
254163
1.1.3.2.5 Divide Decimals
In division, it is easier to divide by a whole number than by a decimal. To make the divisor (the number you are dividing by) into a
whole number, move the decimal point a specific number of places to the right. You must then also move the decimal point in the
dividend (the number you are dividing into) to the right by the same number of decimal places.
For example:
24.024 / 4.62
= 2402.4 / 462
= 5.2
Page 22
1.1.3.2.6 Rounding Off Decimals
There is a general tendency to think of all numbers as being precise. Actually the whole realm of measurement involves numbers
that are only approximations of precise numbers. For example, measurements of length, area and volume are at best
approximations. The degree of accuracy of these measurements depends on the refinement of the measuring instruments
Occasionally it is necessary to round a number to some value that is practical to use. For example, a measurement is completed
to be 29.4948 inches. It is impractical, if not impossible, to measure this accurately with a steel rule which is accurate only to 1 64 of
an inch.
To use this measurement we can use the process of rounding. A decimal expression is rounded off by retaining the digits for a
certain number of places and discarding the rest. The retained number is an approximation of the computed or exact number. The
degree of accuracy desired determines the number of digits to be retained. When the digit immediately to the right of the last
retained digit is a 5 or greater than 5, increase the last digit by 1. When the digit immediately to the right of the last retained digit is
less than 5, leave the last retained digit unchanged.
Example:
Round 29.4948 to the nearest tenth.
FIRST : Determine the number of digits to retain. In this case one tenth being the first places to the right the decimal point.
29.4948
NEXT : Change the value of the last retained digit, if required. In this case, since 9 is greater than 5, the final decimal is
expressed thus:
29.4948 becomes 29.5 inches
Page 23
1.1.3.2.7 Converting Decimals to Fractions
Although decimals are typically easier to work with, there are times when the use of a fraction is more practical. For example,
when measuring something, most scales are fractional increments. For this reason it is important that you know how to convert a
decimal number into a fraction. For example, 0.125 is read as 125 thousandths, which is written as 125/1000. This fraction is then
reduced to its lowest terms.
Examples:
0.800 = 800/1000 = 4/5

6.250 = 6+ 250/1000 = 6 1/4
0.037 = 37/1000
1.1.3.2.8 Converting Fractions to Decimals
To convert a fraction into a decimal, we divide the denominator into the numerator.
Convert 27/32 to decimals
27/32 = 27 32 = 0.84375
When we have mixed numbers to convert into decimals, we need only deal with the fractional part. Thus to convert 2 9/16 into
decimals, we only have to deal with 9/16
9/16 = 9 16 = 0.5625
The division shows that 9/16 = 0.5625 and hence 2 9/16 = 2.5625. Sometimes a fraction will not divide out exactly. If the number
is recurring, the answer can be given to 1 or 2 decimal places or that specified by the equation.
Page 24
QUESTIONS: Fractions and decimals
1. Evaluate 6.22 + 4.79 + 3.06 =

a) 14.07
b) 15.08
c) 13.01
2. 4 3 2 1 1
8 4 8
a) 2 1
8
b) 2 1
2
c) 2 1
4
3. 11 5
16 8
a) 55
128
b) 21
16
c) 10
11
4. 3 multiplied by 0.82 is equal to

4
a) 1.23
b) 0.615
c) 2.46
Page 25
5. 7 can be expressed as
6
a) 2.6
b) 1.6
c) 1.166
6. A dial gauge is calibrated to an accuracy of 0.001 inch, when using the dial gauge, you should
a) round off the answer to calibrated value
b) read the true value to 4 decimals
c) read five significant figures
7. A copper pipe has a radius of 7 inch

32
a) 0.15625
b) 0.21875
c) 0.28125
8. The fraction 17 is classed as

11
a) an improper fraction
b) a mixed fraction
c) a proper fraction
9. In the common fraction 2 the number 5 is known as

5
a) the denominator
b) the quotient
c) the numerator
Page 26
10. Convert into decimal fraction 5 of 60

8
a) 40
b) 37.5
c) 37
11. Evaluate 15.4 2(4.6 15.7)

2
a) 29.9
b) 26.5
c) -14.5
12. 1 in decimal is
7
a) 0.1428
b) 0.1489
c) 0.1485
13. 5 ths of 60 is
8
a) 0.01
b) 37 1
2
c) 96
14. Solve 15.2 2(6.2 15.6)

2
a) 26.5
b) 4.5
c) 11.1
Page 27
15. What is the fraction 1 in decimal

7
a) 0.14295
b) 1.429
c) 0.14286
16. 11 5
16 8
a) 10
11
b) 55
128
c) 11
10
17. Which number is the lowest common factor of 36, 66, and 126
a) 23
b) 6
c) 12
18. 4 3 2 1 1
8 4 5
a) 213
40
b) 3 3
10
c) 2 1
4
Page 28
19. 3 1 1 1
8 5
a) 1 37
40
b) 1 3
40
c) 2 3
40
20. Solve the following

11 5
16 8
a) 55
128
b) 1 5
16
c) 1 1
10
21. Solve the following

9 5 13
4 12 8
a) 4 1
24
b) 2 25
24
c) 4 1
12
Page 29
22. Express the fraction 7 as a decimal

8
a) 0.875
b) 0.785
c) 0.878
23. Solve 0.75 x 0.003

a) 0.225
b) 0.0225
c) 0.00225
24. 3 x 82 =
4
a) 123
b) 61.5
c) 81.5
25. Add together; 3 , 5 , 7 and 0.375

4 16 8
a) 2 1
8
b) 2 1
4
c) 2 5
16
26. 5 3
8 4
a) 11
4
b) 11
8
c) 8
8
Page 30
27. The LCD for the problem 1 1 1 1 is

6 5 17 2
a) 1020
b) 17
c) 510
28. Find the lowest common denominator of 6; 7; 8

a) 84
b) 168
c) 336
Page 31
1.1.4 Factors and Multiples
1.1.4.1 Factors
The factors of a given whole number are the numbers that can divide the given whole number exactly.
Example :
16 1 = 16
16 2 = 8
16 4 = 4
16 8 = 2
16 16 = 1
16 can be divided exactly by 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16. Therefore, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 are the factors of 16.
1.1.4.2 Multiples
A multiple of a given whole number is the product of itself and another nonzero whole number.
Example :
Multiples of 4.
4 x 1, 4 x 2, 4 x 3, 4 x 4, 4 x 5, 4 x 6, 4 x 7,
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28
Therefore, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28,.. are multiples of 4.
Page 32
QUESTIONS: Factors and multiples
1. What is the highest factor of 153?

a) 3
b) 6
c) 9
Page 33
1.1.5 Weights
1.1.5.1 Significant Figures
These three numbers all have 4 significant figures :
a. 3 0 9 7
1st 4th
b. 3 0. 9 7
1st 4th
c. 0. 0 0 0 0 3 0 9 7
1st 4th
Note : Do not confuse with decimal places, c has 8 decimal places.
Further examples :
a. 14384 (5 sig fig)

b. 0.0890 (3 sig fig)
c. 29.08604 (7 sig fig)
d. 72 (2 sig fig)
e. 1.005 (4 sig fig)
f. 72300 (3 sig fig)
g. 1000 000 (1 sig fig)
h. 630100 (4 sig fig)
Page 34
1.1.5.2 Convert Number to Significant Figure
Example :
1. 187340 is 187000 to 3 sig fig,

190000 to 2 sig fig
2. 0.001239 is 0.00124 to 3 sig fig,

0.0012 to 2 sig fig
3. 35.603 is 35.6 to 3 sig fig,

36 to 2 sig fig
4. 0.081778 is 0.08178 to 4 sig fig,

0.0818 to 3 sig fig
5. 1.006 is 1 to 1 sig fig
Page 35
QUESTIONS: Weights
1. What is 12.75 x 26.1 to two significant figures

a) 332.78
b) 332.775
c) 330
Page 36
1.1.6 Measures and Conversion Factors
1.1.6.1 Systems of Units of Measurement
When the size of a quantity is determined using a defined unit, it is known as a measurement. To make accurate, reliable
measurements, we need units of measurement that do not change and that can be duplicated. The system of units used by most
countries is called The Metric System, but now it is known as the System International DUnites or SI Units.
Other systems of units are the English System of Units and the United States Customary System Units (USCS).
1.1.6.1.1 Length
Length is a measurement of distance between two points. It measures how far two points are apart. Other than meter, the
Metric System units for length are millimeter (mm), centimeter (cm) and kilometer (km).
1 km = 1 000 m
1 m = 100 cm
1 cm = 10 mm
The standard SI unit of length is meter (m). The standard English System of unit for length is foot (ft).
1 m = 3.281 ft
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1ft = 12 in
1.1.6.1.2 Mass
Mass is the measurement of the amount of matter in an object. The greater the amount of matter contained in an object, the
greater will be the mass and hence the heavier it will be. The standard SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).
Page 37
Other than kilogram, the Metric System of units for mass are milligram(mg), gram (g) and metric tonne (t).
1 tonne = 1 000 kg
1 kg = 1000 g
1 g = 1 000 mg
The standard English System of unit for mass is slug.
1 slug = 14.59 kg
Another unit of mass is pound-mass (lbm).
1 lbm = 0.45359 kg
1 kg = 2.2 lbm
1 slug = 32 lbm
1.1.6.1.3 Time
Time is a measurement of interval between two events. It measures how long a duration of time is. The units of time are second,
minute, hour, day, week, month, year, century and millennium. The standard SI units of time is second (s).
1 millennium = 1 000 years

1 century = 100 years
1 year = 12 months = 52 weeks = 365 days
1 week = 7 days
1 day = 24 hours
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds
Page 38
1.1.6.2 CONVERSIONS
Length 1in. = 2.54cm

1m = 39.37in. or 3.281ft.
1ft. = 0.3048m
Volume 1 imp gal = 4,546 litres

1 US gal = 3.785 litres
Force & Weight 1N = 0.2248lb1lb
Power 1 HP = 550 ft.lb/sec

1 HP = 746 W
1 W = 1 J/sec
1 W = 0.738 ft.lb/sec
1 Btu/hr = 0.293 W
Temperature 1 0F = ((9/5)x 0C) + 32

1 0C = 0F - 32 x (5/9)
0C = K + 273.15
Pressure 1 atm = 760 mmHg

1 atm = 29.92 inHg
1 atm = 14.7 lb/in2
1 Pa = 0.000145 lb/in2
1 bar = 14.5 lb/in2
1 bar = 100,000 Pa
Fundamental Constant g = 9.8 N/kg
Other Useful Data; 1 litre water = 1kg
Page 39
QUESTIONS : Measures and conversion factors
1. Millibar is a unit of
a) pressure
b) density
c) temperature
2. To convert 1 inch to centimetres

a) divide by 25.4
b) multiply by 2.54
c) divide by 2.54
3. 1660 46 47 + 130 13 13 =
a) 1800
b) 1790 60 60
c) 1790 1 1
4. 17 degrees 49 minutes and 10 seconds added to degrees 22 minutes and 59 seconds, equal
a) 40 degrees 11 minutes and 69 seconds
b) 39 degrees 11 minutes and 9 seconds
c) 40 degrees 12 minutes and 9 seconds
5. Weight is equal to
a) volume x gravity
b) mass x acceleration
c) mass x gravity
6. To convert gallons to litres

a) multiply by 0.567
b) multiply by 4.55
c) multiply by 0.00455
Page 40
7. 6 mm is equal to
a) 0.625
b) 0.375
c) 0.236
8. To convert pound of fuel into kilograms, it is necessary to

a) multiply by 4536
b) multiply by 0.4536
c) divide by 0.4536
9. Convert 162 knots to mph

a) 186 mph
b) 176 mph
c) 196 mph
10. To convert inches to millimetres, it is necessary to

a) multiply by 25.4
b) divide by 25.4
c) multiply by 2.54
11. To convert imperial gallons to litres, multiply by

a) 4.5
b) 5.4
c) 4.7
12. How much centimetres is in an inch

a) 25.4
b) 0.254
c) 2.54
Page 41
1.1.7 Ratio and Proportion
1.1.7.1 Ratio
A ratio is the numerical relation between two quantities. If one man has two airplanes and another has three airplanes, the ratio of
their airplane ownership is 2 to 3. This may also be expressed as 2/3 or 2:3. Thus we see that a ratio is actually a fraction, and it
may also be used mathematically as a fraction.
A ratio may be reduced to lowest terms in the same manner as a fraction. For example, the ratio 24:36 may be reduced to 2:3 by
dividing each term of the ratio by 12. If a certain store has 60 customers on Friday and 80 on Saturday, the ratio is 60:80, or 3:4.
1.1.7.2 Proportion
A proportion expresses equality between two ratios. For example, 4:5 :: 12:15. This may also be expressed 4:5 = 12:15 or
4 12

5 15
In a proportion problem, the outer numbers (such as 4 and 15 in the example just given) are called the extremes, and the two
inside numbers (5 and 12) are called the means. In a proportion, the product of the means is equal to the product of the extremes.
We may demonstrate this rule by using the preceding example.
5 12 = 4 15 = 60
We may use the rule to find an unknown term in a proportion.
6 : 16 = 9 : ?
Page 42
Using x to denote the unknown quantity, we can say
6 x = 16 9 or 6x = 144
Then,
6 x 144
or x = 24
6 6
We can prove the foregoing answer by using it in the original proportion.
6 9
6: 16 = 9 : 24 or
16 24
Page 43
QUESTIONS : Ratio and proportion
1. The ratio of 6:5 can be expressed as

a) 20 : 25
b) 24 : 20
c) 10 :16
2. A piece of wire has a resistance of 160 ohms. Its resistance is increased with a ratio of 5 to 8. What is its new resistance?
a) 100 ohm
b) 256 ohm
c) 260 ohm
3. An input gear of 20 teeth drives an output gear of 120 teeth, if the input rotates one revolution, how much does the output turn?
a) 600
b) 300
c) 450
4.Two gear wheels one with 20 teeth and one with 120 teeth meshed together. The small gear turns one revolution. How far does
the large gear move?
a) 400
b) 600
c) 900
5.The comparison of the power input to the power output of an inverter is expressed as a
a) ratio
b) loss
c) gain
Page 44
6. Two gears are in mesh, one has twice the number of teeth as the other
a) the gear with fewer teeth rotates slower than the other
b) the gear with fewer teeth rotates faster than the other
c) the two gears rotates at the same speed
7. Two gears are in mesh, one is larger than the other, the smaller gear rotates
a) at the same speed
b) at a lower speed
c) at a faster speed
8. If resin to hardener is used in the ratio of 100 : 45, how much hardener is used with 60 grams of resin
a) 47 grams
b) 2.7 grams
c) 145 grams
Page 45
1.1.8 Averages and Percentages
1.1.8.1 Average
Total of the values

Average
Total number of values
Example 1 :
An airman makes the following scores at cricket 8, 20, 3, 0, 5, 9, 15 and 12. What is his average score?
Average Score
8 20 3 0 5 9 15 12 72
9
8 8
Example 2:
Find the average age of a team of men given that 4 of them are each 25 years 3 months old and the other 3 are 21 years 9 month
old.
Total age of 4 men at 25 years 3 months = (25 years 3 months) 4

= 101 years
Total age of 3 men at 21 years 9 months = (21 years 9 months) 3
= 65 years 3 months
Total age of 7 men = 166 years 3 months
166 years 3 months
=
7
= 23 years 9 months.
Page 46
1.1.8.2 Percentage
Percentage is a fraction with 100 as the denominator.
Example 1:
9% = 9 17% = 17 258% = 258
100 100 100
1.1.8.2.1 Expressing one Quantity as a Percentage
To express one quantity as a percentage of another, make a fraction of the two quantities and multiply by 100.
Example:
12 as a percentage of 50 = 12 100 24%
50
4 as a percentage of 60 = 4 100 6.67%
60
3.2 as a percentage of 2.4 = 3.2 100 13.333%
2.5
1.1.8.2.2 Converting Fractions to Percentages
To change a fraction to a percentage you must multiply by 100.
Example:
3 as a percentage = 3 100% (3 100) 60%

5 5 5
43 as a percentage = 19 100% 1900 475%
4 4 4
Page 47
1.1.8.2.3 Converting Percentages to Fractions
To change a percentage to a fraction, divide by 100%.
Examples:
8% as a fraction = 8% 8 2
100% 100 25
12 1 % as a fraction = 12.5% 25 1 25 1
2 100% 2 100 200 8
1.1.8.2.4 Converting Percentages to Decimals
To convert a percentage to a decimal, firstly, convert the percentage to a fraction, then the fraction to a decimal.
Examples:
65% as a fraction = 65 , as a decimal = 0.65

100
32 1 % as a fraction = 32.5 , as a decimal = 0.325

2 100
1.1.8.2.5 Convert a Decimal to a Percentage
To convert a decimal to a percentage, firstly, convert the decimal to a fraction, then convert the fraction to a percentage.
Page 48
Example:
0.021 as a fraction = 21 = 2.1 , as a decimal = 2.1%

1000 100
0.037 as a fraction = 37 = 3.7 , as a decimal = 3.7%
1000 100
0.43 as a fraction = 430 = 43 , as a decimal = 43%
1000 100
1.1.8.2.6 Values of a Percentage of a Quantity
To find the value of a percentage of a quantity, firstly, express the percentage as a fraction and multiply by the quantity.
Examples:
4% of 60 = 4 60 240 12 2 2
100 100 5 5
3 1 % of 1500 = 3.5 1500 5250 525 105 52 1

2 100 100 10 2 2
Page 49
QUESTIONS : Averages and percentages
1. You have made 20% profit. Your balance is now 900. What was your pre profit balance?
a) 700
b) 750
c) 800
2. In a flight control system, the control cable is allowed an elongation of 3% due to wear. The length from the manufacturer is
78cm, what is its maximum used length?
a) 2.34 cm
b) 80.34 cm
c) 78.34 cm
3. The mode of the following 28, 17, 34, 28, 34, 35, 28, 40 is
a) 31.0
b) 28.0
c) 30.5
4. The median of the values 20, 28, 17, 34, 40, 11, 34, 26 is
a) 34.0
b) 26.25
c) 27.0
Page 50
5. If 42% = 15000, what does 100% =
a) 6300
b) 35714
c) 21300
6. An aeroplane has 1800 gallons of fuel on board; 35% in the left wing, 42.5% in the right wing. How much fuel does the centre
tank have?
a) 405 gallons
b) 183 gallons
c) 545 gallons
7. What is 30% of 0.01
a) 0.03
b) 0.0003
c) 0.003
8. An aircraft flies 1350nm in 2 hrs 15 minutes. What is the average speed?
a) 650kts
b) 600kts
c) 850kts
9. An aircraft uses 1680 gallons of fuels, the left tank uses 45%, the right tank uses 32.5%, how much was used by the centre
tank?
a) 21 gallons
b) 210 gallons
c) 378 gallons
Page 51
10. What is 3% of 0.001
a) 0.3
b) 0.003
c) 0.00003
11. The ratio of 6 : 4 can also be expressed as
a) 64%
b) 66%
c) 150%
12. Express 9 as a percentage

20
a) 45%
b) 40%
c) 47%
Page 52
1.1.9 Areas and Volumes
1.1.9.1 Computing Area
The area of a surface is two dimensional and is expressed in square units. An area that is square and measures one inch on each
side is called a square inch. This same relationship holds true for other units of measure such as square feet, square yards,
square miles, and square meters. The area of a figure is equal to the number of square units the figure contains,
1.1.9.1.1 THE RECTANGLE
As you know, a rectangle is a four-sided plane. It is distinguished by having opposite sides of equal length, and four angles each
equal to 90 degrees. The area (A) of a rectangle is found by multiplying its length (L) by its width (W), or A = L x W. However,
before the mathematical operation can be carried out, both measurements must reflect the same unit of measure. For example,
given a sheet of aluminum that is 48 inches wide by 12 feet long, you must convert either the width to feet or the length to inches.
By converting the width of 48 inches to feet, the area of the sheet of aluminum is calculated to be 48 square feet (12 ft. x 4 ft. = 48
sq. ft.). If you later find that you need the area in square inches rather than square feet, multiply 48 square feet by 144 which is the
number of square inches in a square foot. The result is 6,912 square inches.
A= LW
= 12 ft. X4 ft L=48 in.
= 48 sq. ft.
L=12 ft
Page 53
1.1.9.1.2 THE SQUARE
A square is a symmetrical plane in which all four sides are of equal length. The same formula used for a rectangle is used to find
the area of a square. However, since all sides of a square are of equal length, the formula is sometimes expressed as the square
of the sides or:
A = s2
s
s
1.1.9.1.3 THE TRIANGLE
The triangle is a three-sided figure consisting of three angles whose

combined measurement equals 180 degrees. Three basic types of
triangles you should be familiar with are: the scalene triangle, which
consists of three unequal angles and sides, the equilateral triangle, which
has equal sides and equal angles, and the isosceles triangle, which has
two equal angles.
Page 54
Triangles are further classified by the measurement of one angle. For example, a right triangle is one that has one angle
measuring 90 degrees. In an obtuse triangle, one angle is greater than 90 degrees, while in an acute triangle all angles are less
than go degrees.
There are several terms associated with triangles. For instance, the base of a triangle is the side the triangle rests or stands on.
Depending on a triangle's orientation, any side may be the base. The vertex is a common endpoint, or the point where the sides
of the triangle meet. The altitude of a triangle is the height of the vertex above the base.
If a triangle is set in a rectangle and the triangle's base and height are equal to two of the rectangle's sides, the area of the triangle
is exactly one-half that of the rectangle. Therefore, the formula for calculating the area of a triangle is one-half the base times the
height, or bh.
Find the area of a triangle whose base is 6 inches height is 15 inches.

Step 1: Insert given values into the formula.
1
A 6 15
2
Step 2: Perform multiplication.
A = 45 square inches
1.1.9.1.4 THE PARALLELOGRAM
The parallelogram, like the rectangle, has opposite sides that are parallel and equal
in length. However, the corner angles of a parallelogram are some measurement
other than 90 degrees. The area of a parallelogram is calculated by multiplying the
length by the height (A = I x h). The height is measured perpendicular to the length,
similar to the way the altitude of a triangle is determined.
Page 55
1.1.9.1.5 THE RHOMBUS

D1
A rhombus is actually just a special type of parallelogram. Recall that in a
parallelogram each pair of opposite sides are equal in length. With a
rhombus, all four sides are the same length. Its a bit like a square that can
'lean over' and the interior angles need not be 90. It is sometimes called a
'diamond' or 'lozenge' shape. The area of any rhombus is one half the
products of the lengths of its diagonals:
D D2
A 1
2 D2
1.1.9.1.6 THE TRAPEZOID
A trapezoid is a four-sided figure that has one set of parallel sides. If you lay two
trapezoids side by side so the top and bottom sides form straight lines, a
parallelogram is formed with a base that is equal to the combined length of the
trapezoid's parallel sides. As discussed earlier, the area of a parallelogram is
found by multiplying the length, which in this case equals the sum of the parallel
sides, by the height. However, because the area of a single trapezoid is
one-half that of the parallelogram, the trapezoid's area is equal to one-half the
product of the base times the height. This is expressed with the formula:
Page 56
1.1.9.1.7 THE CIRCLE
The circumference is the perimeter of a circle. Radius r of a circle is the distance from the centre of
the circle to any part on its circumference. Diameter d of a circle is a straight line that passes
through the centre of the circle. The diameter d = 2 r where r is the radius of the circle.
The area of a circle = x r2
d2
=x
4
22
where = 7
7
Area of a ring or annulus
Example 3:
If = 22/7
R = 4,
rho = 3
Area = (4 + 3) (4 - 3)
= 22/7 7 1
= 22
Page 57
1.1.9.2.1 VOLUME OF A RECTANGLE
The volume of a rectangular solid is found by multiplying the dimensions of length, width,
and when calculating volume, it is important measurements are in terms. The formula for
calculating the volume of a rectangular solid is:
V=LxWxH
Where: V = volume
L = length
H = Height
1.1.9.2.2 VOLUME OF A CUBE
A cube is a solid with equal sides. Since all dimensions of a cube are identical, its area
is calculated by multiplying one dimension by itself three times.
Page 58
1.1.9.2.3 VOLUME OF A CYLINDER
A cylinder is a solid with circular ends and parallel sides. Its volume is found by multiplying the
area of one end by the cylinder's height. The formula is expressed as:
Volume = r 2 H
1.1.9.2.4 VOLUME OF A SPHERE
A sphere is any round body having a surface on which all points are an equal distance
from the center of the sphere. A sphere has the greatest volume for its surface area, and
is used in aircraft systems for hydraulic accumulators and liquid oxygen converters. The
volume of a sphere is determined by multiplying the cube of the diameter by a factor
which is 1/6 pi, or 0.5236. If you want to find the volume of a sphere that is 6 inches in
diameter, you must first cube the diameter and multiply the resulting value by 0.5236. For
example, calculate the volume of a sphere with a diameter of 6 inches.
Page 59
QUESTIONS : Areas and volumes
1. A cuboid has dimensions of 4 cm, 6 cm and 12 cm. What is its volume?

a) 2.88 m3
b) 0.028 m3
c) 0.000288 m3
2. Two angles of a triangle are 680 and 320. Therefore the third angle must be
a) 63
b) 114
c) 80
3. A rectangle 11cm x 120cm. What is its area in m2

a) 1320
b) 13.2
c) 0.132
4. If a wheel of radius R revolves 1 a turn, how many radians does it turn through?
2
a) 2 radians
b) radians
c) 2R2 radians
5. If there are two similar angles in a right triangle, these angles are
a) complementary
b) supplementary
c) subordinate
Page 60
6. The surface area of a cone whose flat is 10cm and diameter is 8cm is
a) 80
b) 40
c) 120
7. An equilateral triangle has

a) 2 equal sides
b) no equal sides
c) 3 equal sides
8. Find the curved surface area of a cylinder diameter 20 cm and length 10 cm

a) 400 cm2
b) 1256 cm2
c) 2512 cm2
9. A cylinder has a radius of 20 cm and a length of 40 cm. What is its volume/

a) 50270 cm3
b) 800 cm3
c) 49600 cm3
10. Suppose the earth to be a real sphere with the radius R. The arc distance from HK(N23) to the North pole is:
a) 2.2R
b) 1.2R
c) 0.9R
11. The sum of the angles of a polygon with n sides is

a) 60 x n
b) 180 x (n-2)
c) ( n ) x 180
4
Page 61
12. A sphere with a radius of 2cm has a surface area of

a) 16cm2
b) 64cm2
c) 8cm2
13. A triangle has angles 670 and 480. Third angle is

a) 115
b) 75
c) 65
14. The sum of the internal angles of a triangle is

a) 3600
b) 2 radians
c) 1800
15. In a right angled triangle the longest side is 20cm long, the shortest side is 12cm. What length is the last side?
a) 18cm
b) 16cm
c) 13.6cm
16. A shape with 4 equal sides and one 900 angle is a

a) parallelogram
b) rhombus
c) square
17. How far does a wheel of 7m radius travel in one revolution?

a) 44m
b) 22m
c) 14m
Page 62
18. A line to create a segment from the centre of a circle is a

a) chord
b) diameter
c) radius
19. For a scalene triangle, which is true?

a) No 2 sides are equal
b) One angle is acute
c) 2 sides are equal
20. How far does a wheel of 7m radius travel in one revolution?

a) 44m
b) 22m
c) 14m
21. In an oblique triangle, the axis is

a) at a slant to the base
b) parallel to the base
c) perpendicular to the base
22. An isosceles triangle has the following properties

a) Two sides parallel
b) Two sides the same length
c) Three sides the same length
23. In a rhombus,
a) all sides are equal length with no angles 900
b) adjacent sides are different lengths with no angles 900
c) all sides are different length with no angles 900
Page 63
24. In a parallelogram, if all the sides are of equal length and 1 angle is 900, it is a
a) rhomboid
b) quadrilateral
c) square
25. How many pairs of parallel sides has a trapezium?

a) 0 pair of parallel sides
b) 1 pair of parallel sides
c) 2 pairs of parallel sides
26. What is the area of the shape below?

12
3
28
20
a) 220 square inches

b) 200 square inches
c) 196 square inches
Page 64
27. A mound of soil is piled up into a cone of base diameter 1.8m and height 0.6m. What is the volume of soil?
a) 0.5m3
b) 1.5m3
c) 1.0m3
28. Calculate the area

4
4
5
1
3
a) 12sq ins
b) 14 sq ins
c) 16 sq ins
Page 65
29. What is angle X
a) 1200
b) 600
c) 300
30. The straight line from the centre to a circle is known as the
a) chord
b) radius
c) diameter
Page 66
31. Calculate the area
3 dia. 6 dia.
a) 42.41
b) 6.75
c) 17.5
Page 67
32. How many degrees are there in one smaller of the segments, where AB is one sixth of AC
A 900
B
a) 14.50
b) 150
c) 100
33. The properties of a scalene triangle are

a) all sides are equal
b) acute angle
c) all sides different lengths
34. What is the area of a ring with an outer diameter of 90 inches and an inner diameter of 80 inches?
a) 325
b) 425
c) 435
Page 68
35. What is the height of an oblique pyramid?

a) The height is perpendicular to the base
b) The height is angled to the base
c) The height is parallel
36. What is the area of the shape below in centimetres?

12
28 3
20
a) 1130
b) 1000
c) 1225
37. What is the area of rectangle with base 160cm and height 12cm
a) 0.00192 m2
b) 0.0192 m2
c) 0.192 m2
38. On a right angle triangle, the longest side is 20 cm and the shortest is 12 cm. What is the other side?
a) 13 cm
b) 16 cm
c) 18 cm
Page 69
39. Which shape has no parallel sides?

a) Rhombus
b) Kite
c) Trapezoid
40. A congruent triangle has

a) same size different shape
b) same shape different size
c) same shape and size
41. What is an obtuse angle?

a) an angle less than 900
b) an angle between 900 and 1800
c) an angle greater than 1800
42. What is the area of a rectangle when its height is 11cm and the width 120cm?
a) 1320m2
b) 0.132 m2
c) 1.32 m2
43. What is the surface area of a cone if the base is 8cm diameter and the length is 10cm?
a) 40
b) 80
c) 120
44. What is obtuse angle?

a) one greater than 900, but less than 1800
b) one less than 900
c) one greater than 1800
Page 70
45. In an equilateral triangle, all of the angles are equal to

a) divided by 3
b) divided by 2
c) divided by 4
46. The diameter of a cylinder is 200cm and the height is 20cm, what is the volume.
a) 628000cm3
b) 8000cm3
c) 62800cm3
47. Give the name of a triangle, which has two sides equal in length and two angles
a) Equilateral
b) Isosceles
c) Obtuse
48. What is the area of cuboid?

a) height x length x width
b) height x 1 base x height
2
c) height x 1 base length
2
49. The area of the curved surface area of a cone is

(where r = radius; h = vertical height and l = slant height)
a) 1
3r 2 h
b) r2h
c) rl
Page 71
50. A triangle with equal sides is

a) Isosceles
b) Acute
c) Equilateral
51. The area of the shape is calculated by
a) 1 height x base
2
b) 1 base x 1 height
2 2
c) 1 height + twice base.
2
52. the surface area of a cylinder of diameter 10 cm and height 10 cm is

a) 100
b) 50
c) 80
53. A parallelogram has a base 120cm and height 11cm. What is the area?
a) 1.32m2
b) 0.132m2
c) 0.0132m2
Page 72
54. The name given to this shape is
a) Parallelogram
b) Trapezoid
c) Rhombus
55. The area of this shape is calculated by
a) Base x Height
b) 1 base x Height
2
c) Perimeter squared
Page 73
56. The name of this shape is
a) Parallelogram
b) Trapezium
c) Rhombus
57. An equilateral triangle has

a) two equal sides
b) no equal sides
c) three equal sides
58. A quadrilateral with only two parallel sides is a

a) Trapezoid
b) Trapezium
c) Rhombus
59. A cylinder has a diameter of 20 cm and a length of 20 cm, what is its volume?
a) 400 cm3
b) 1240 cm3
c) 6200 cm3
60. What is the formula for calculating the curved area of a cone
a) x radius2 x height
b) x radius x height
c) 2 x x radius x height
3
Page 74
61. A triangle with equal angles is called

a) isosceles
b) equilateral
c) right angled
62. To work out the circumference of a circle

a) D x 3.142
b) D x 0.3142
c) D 3.142
63. The circumference of a circle is found by

a) dividing the diameter by 3.142
b) multiplying the diameter by 3.142
c) multiplying the radius by 3.142
64. Calculate the height of an obtuse triangle whose base is X cm and the area is Y square cm
a) Y x 2 x X
YX
b)
2
Y 2
c)
X
65. How is the area of a circle calculated?

a) r2 x 3.142
b) d2 x 3.142
c) 2 x 3.142 x r
Page 75
66. A right-angled triangle has sides of 3 inches and 4 inches, what will the third side be?
a) 6 inches
b) 5 inches
c) 5.5 inches
67. The formulae for calculating the area of a right angled triangle is
a) 1 height + base
2
b) 1 base / height
2
c) 1 (base x height)
2
68. The area of a circle whose circumference is given as 12cm is approximately

a) 11.3 sq. cm
b) 3.8 sq.cm
c) 38 sq. cm
69. Area of a right circular cone is

a) x r x l
b) ( x r x l) + 2 ( x r l)
c) 2 ( x r x l)
3
70. The three angles of a triangle summed together equal
a) 900
b) 1800
c) 3600
71. To find the area of a circle, multiply

a) the square of the radius by
b) the square of the circumference by the radius
c) twice the radius by
Page 76
1.1.10 Squares, Cubes, Square and Cube Roots
1.1.10.1 Power of Numbers
The square of a number is called the Second Power of the number. The square of a number is the product you get when a
number multiplied by itself. Likewise the cube of a number is called the Third Power and so on. The cube of a number is the
number multiplied by itself twice.
Example 1:
Second Power ( Square )

32 = 3 x 3 = 9
122 = 12 x 12 = 144
0.92 = 0.9 x 0.9 = 0.81
Third Power ( Cube )

33 = 3 x 3 x 3 = 27
123 = 12 x 12 x 12 = 1728
0.93 = 0.9 x 0.9 x 0.9 = 0.729
1.1.10.2 Root of a Number
A root of a number is of two or more equal numbers that, when multiplied together will produce the number. Such a number
is called an equal factor. Thus, two equal factors that will produce 9 when multiplied together are 3 and 3.
1.1.10.3 Square Root
The square root of a number is the number when multiplied by itself, equals to the given number. We have seen that 9 is the
square of 3. Then 3 is the square root of 9. 144 is the square of 12, so 12 is the square root of 144.
Page 77
The square root is indicated by the sign:

Example :
9 3
144 12
0.81 0.9
1.1.10.4 Cube Root
The cube root of a number is the number when multiplied by itself twice, equals to the given number.
Example :
2x2x2=8 23 = 8 (2 is a cube root of 8)
4 x 4 x 4 = 64 43 = 64 (4 is a cube root of 64)
The symbol for cube root is 3
Page 78
QUESTIONS : Squares, cubes, square and cube roots
1. (6+2)2 x 2 (2 x 45)
a) 38
b) 218
c) 128
2. 143 can be expressed as

a) 14 x 3
b) 14 x 14 x 14
c)14 + 14 + 14
Page 79
ALGEBRA (EASA 1.2 (a) L2)
1.2 ALGEBRA
Algebra is a form of arithmetic that uses letters or symbols to represent numbers in equations and formulas. For example, if an
airplane cruises at 200 knots, how long will it take to fly 600 nautical miles? To solve this problem, an equation is set up with the
unknown variable of time represented by the letter "T." The equation is 200 kts. x T = 600 n.m. Through algebra, you calculate the
time (T) required of 3 hours. While some forms of algebra are extremely complex, others are fairly simple and straightforward.
This section introduces you to the basic algebra you need to know to perform your duties as an aviation maintenance technician.
1.2.1 Equations
One way to express a math problem is to write it out in words. For example, "What is 24 divided by 3?" This is written in an
algebraic sentence in the form 24 3 = x. In this example, "x" represents the unknown quantity, or variable, you are solving for.
The expression 24 3 = x is called an equation. The purpose of the equation is to identify two equal quantities. Typically, once
you get a math problem set up in an equation, the problem is fairly easy to solve. For example, if asked to determine what
quantity, when added to 23, results in 48, your first step should be to set up an equation. The equation used to solve this problem
is 23 + x = 48. To find the value of "x," subtract 23 from both sides of the equation. The equation now reads x = 48 - 23. Once sim-
plified, the equation reads x = 25.
1.2.1.1 Transposition of Formulae
The formula y = ax + b has y as its subject. By rearranging this formula we could make x the subject. We are then said to have
transposed the formula to make x the subject.
The rules for transforming a formula are:
1. Remove square roots or other roots.
2. Get rid of fractions.
3. Clear brackets.
4. Collect together the terms containing the required subject.
5. Factorise if necessary.
6. Isolate the required subject.
These steps should be performed in the order given.
Page 80
Examples:
i. Transpose the formula F = ma to make a the subject.
Step 1. Divide both sides by m. then,

F m = ma m
or F m = a or a = F m
ii. Transpose x = y b to make b the subject
Step 1. Multiply both sides by b then,
x b = yb b
bx = y or y = bx
1.2.1.2 Substitution
The process of finding the numerical value of an algebraic expression for given values of the symbols that appear in it is called
substitution.
Example:
If x = 3, y = 4 and z = 5 find the value of:
(3 y 2 z ) (34)(25)
( x z ) = (35)
= (12+10) / 8
= 228 = 2.75 or 2.
Page 81
QUESTIONS : Algebra
1. Find L in the following expression

1 L
Q
R C
2
a) Q C 2
R
2 2
b) Q C 2
R
c) Q2R2C
2. If x in an equation equals Ly + 7cb, define the formula for finding the subject y
x 7cb
a)
L
7cb
b) x
L
xL
c)
7cb
3. The heat of resistor is given by the equation h I 2 RT . Find the current I.

h
a)
RT
h
b)
RT
c) h RT
Page 82
4. y = mx + c can also be written

a) x = y c
m
b) x c)
( y
m
c) x y
( m c)
5. Make m the subject of the formulae y=mx+c

yc
a)
x
yc
b)
x
c) y c
x
6. Given that A = X + BY, what is Y equal to?

a) A X minus B
b) A X add B
c) A X divided by B
X B
7. Given that a = , what is y equal to
y
a X
a)
B
X B
b)
a
X B
c)
a
Page 83
8. Make L the subject of the formulae 2fL = x

a) L = 2f
2f
b) L =
x
x
c) L =
2f
9. Make x the subject of the formulae y = mx + c
yc
a)
m
ym
b)
c
c) y c
m
10. Make c the subject of the formulae y = mx + c

a) y + mx
b) y mx
c) mx y
11. What torque loading would you apply to a nut if the force is 50 ibs, exerted 2 feet from it axis?
a) 100 lbs. ft
b) 251 lbs. ft
c) 600 lbs. ft
12. The formulae for calculating the torque loading on a nut or bolt is
a) Force used x diameter of the bolt
b) Force used x lever length of the spanner
Lever length of the spanner
c)
Threads per inch
Page 84
13. The specific torque loading for a bolt is 50 lbs. in. But an extension of 2 is needed to reach the bolt in addition to the 8 torque
wrench. What is the actual reading?
a) 54 lbs.in.
b) 40 lb.in.
c) 60 lb.in.
14. A ball rolls down a hill initially at 60 ft/s. It slows down at a rate of 5 ft/s2 for 7 seconds. What will its final speed be?
a) 25 ft/s
b) 35 ft/s
c) 15 ft/s
Page 85
1.2.2 Evaluating Simple Algebraic Expressions
1.2.2.1 Addition
Only the like terms or equal summands can be added together in order to get the sum. Like terms are the terms having exactly
similar letters or symbols to the same power. A summand or a term comprises a letter (or more than 1 letter) and a real number.
The letter is also called literal and the real number is called coefficient. In the process of adding, the like terms are usually
grouped together. Then the coefficients are added and the literal(s) is (are) retained.
For examples:
a. 2x + 3y + 4x = 2x + 4x + 3y
= 6x + 3y
b. 6x + 3ax + 2x + ax = 6x + 2x + 3ax + ax
= 8x + 4ax
Page 86
QUESTIONS : Addition
1. 3x + 5x = ______
2. 2ax + 5x + 7ax
9ax + 5x
7x + 7ax
14ax
3. 6x + 3ax + 2x
8x + 3ax
9x + 3ax
6x + 5ax
Page 87
1.2.2.2 Subtraction
1. Positive Numbers:
- When the minuend and subtrahend are both positive, the rules are similar to addition:
Group the like terms (if different terms exist)
Subtract the coefficient of subtrahend from the coefficient of minuend and retain the literal.
2. Negative Number:
- The rules for the subtraction with negative numbers are as follows:
a. a (b) = a + b (subtrahend is negative)
b. a (b) = a + b
= b a (minuend and subtrahend are negative)
Examples:
a. 6x (2x) = 6x + 2x
= 8x
b. 6x (2x) = 6x + 2x
= 4x
Page 88
QUESTIONS: Subtraction
1. 15x 3x = ____
2. 7x 3x y = _____
3. 5x (3x) = ______
4. 9ax 3x 2ax = _____
5. 6x (3x) = ____
Page 89
1.2.2.3 Multiplication and Division
1.2.2.3.1 Multiplication
Products of literal numbers are multiplied by multiplying first the coefficients and then literals.
Example 1:
4m x 3n
=4x3xmxn
= 12mn
Notes: 4m = First literal number

3n = Second literal number
4 and 3 = coefficients
m and n = literals
Example 2:
2ab x 7yz
= 2 x 7 x ab x yz
= 14abyz
1.2.2.3.2 Multiplication Involving Algebraic Sums
1) Multiplication of a number by an algebraic sum.
Method: Multiply the number by each of the terms of the sum.
Page 90
Example:
3 multiplied by a + b + c
Solution: = 3 (a + b + c)
= 3a + 3b + 3c
2) Multiplication of an algebraic sum by another algebraic sum.
Method: Multiply each term of the first sum by each term of another.
Example:
Multiply (3a + b) by (2c + d)
Solution: = (3a + b)(2c + d)

= 3a (2c + d) + b (2c + d)
= 6ac + 3ad + 2bc + bd
1.2.2.3.3 Division
The rules for division in general are similar to the ones for real numbers. The result of division i.e. quotient can be reduced by
cancellation.
For examples:
1. 4a 6ax = 4a
6ax
= 2
3x
Page 91
2 2
2. 12m n 6n = 12m n
6n
2
= 2m
1.2.2.3.3 Division of an Algebraic Sum by a Number
An algebraic sum is divided by a number by dividing each element of the sum by the number and adding the resulting quotients.
Examples:
1. Divide (12xyz + 3xz 24) by 6z

Solution: (12xyz + 3xz 24) 6z = (12 xyz 3xz 24)
6z
= 12 xyz 3xz 24
6z 6z 6z
= 2 xy x 4
2 z
2. Divide (54mn 72mx 25) by 9m

Solution: (54mn 72mx 25) 9m = (54mn 72mx 25)
9m
= 54mn 72mx 25
9m 9m 9m
= 6n 8 x 25
9m
Page 92
QUESTIONS : Multiplication and division
1. 3a x 6m
18am
19ax
24am
2. 3a + b)(2x + 5y)
a. 6ax + 15ay + 2bx + 5by
b. 7a + 14ay + 2bx + 4by
c. 9ax + 15ay + 2bx + 7by
3. 4(M + 3N) = _______
4. 7ab 2ac
a) 7b / 2c
b) 7bc / 2
c) 2b / 7c
5. 3ab 5ax
a. 3b / 5x
b. 3 / 5bx
c. 3b / 5
6. -8xy 2x
a. -4y
b. -4x
c. 4y
Page 93
7. (30xyz + 5x) 10x

a. 3yz +
b. 30xyz + 1/2x
c. 3yz + 5x
8. (6mn - 8mnz - 9) 3mn

a. 2 - 8z/3 - 3/mn
b. 2 - 8z/3 - 3mn
c. 8z/3 - 3/mn
Page 94
1.2.2.4 Use of Brackets
1.2.2.4.1 To Remove Brackets
a) When performing mathematical operations with brackets, the following rules must be observed.
b) If a + symbol is set in front of a bracket, the bracket can be removed without changing the value of the sum.
Example: (x + 2y 3z) = x + 2y 3z
c) In line with the first rule, a bracket can be introduced without changing the value of the sum of the expression.
Example: a + 2b 3c = a + (2b 3c)
d) If a - symbol is set in front of a bracket, the bracket can be removed by inverting all signs within the bracket.
Example: -(x + 2y 3z) = -x 2y + 3z
1.2.2.4.2 System of Brackets
More difficult expressions may use many brackets where within these brackets, there are some parts which are also set in
brackets.
Such problems are solved by first solving the most inner one and then step by step from the inner to the outer ones.
Example: Simplify 3x {2y + [5z - (x + y)] }
Solution : 3x { 2y + [ 5z ( x + y ) ] } Remove most inner bracket ( )

= 3x { 2y + [ 5z x y ] } Remove second inner bracket [ ]
= 3x { 2y + 5z x y } Remove outer bracket { }
= 3x 2y 5z + x + y Combine like terms.
= 4x y 5z
Page 95
QUESTIONS: Use of brackets
1. 3x - 9 = 3(x - 3)
Answer: True / False
2. 4a + 8b = 4a (1 + 2b)
3. ab + abc - abd = ab (1 + c - d)
Answer: True
4. Evaluate 6(x- y) + 4, when x = 5, y = 2

a. 22
b. 32
c. 30
5. 3a - {b + [3c - (2d + 4e)] }

a. 3a - b - 3c + 2d + 4e
b. 3a + b + 3c - 2d - 4e
c. 3a - b + 3c - 2d - 4e
6. ( x + y + z)( x + y + z) =
a) 2( x + y + z)
b) ( x + y + z)2
c) 2x + 2y + 2z
7. Expand (a+b)(a-b)
a) a2 b2
b) a + ab +b
c) ab
Page 96
8. Expand (a + b)(a - b)
a) a2 b2
b) a2 + 2ab b2
c) a2 + b2
9. 2x2z2(3x z2)
a) 6x3z2 2x2z4
b) 6x2z2 2x2z2
c) 6x2z2 + 3x z2
10. ( a + b )( a b ) =
a) a2 b2
b) a2 + 2ab b2
c) a2 + b2
11. Simplify the following

( x z )( x y )( y w)
( y x)( w y )( w z )
a) +1
b) -1
c) 0
12. 2x2z2(3x z2)=

a) 6x3z2 2x2z4
b) 6x2z2 2x2z2
c) 6x2z2 + 3x z2
Page 97
13. (x-3)(x+5) =
a) x2 -15
b) x2 + 2x -15
c) x2 + 2x
14. 2x2z2(2x2-22)=
a) 2x2z2 22
b) 4x2z2 44x2z2
c) 4x4z2 - 44x2z2
15. V = (a+b)r2
a) V r2 b
b) (V b) 2
r
c) V b
r2
16. V = (a + b) r2
a) V r2 b
b) (V b) 2
r
c) V 2 b
r
Page 98
1.2.2.5 Simple Algebraic Fractions
Since algebraic expressions contain symbols (or letters) which represent numbers, all the rule of operations with numbers also
apply to algebraic terms, including fractions. Thus
( 11 ) 1 a a
a 1 1
And
a c a d ad
b d b c bc
And
(x y) (x - y) (x y) (x - y) (x y) (x - y) (x y)(x - y)
1 1 1 1
You should note in the last example how we put brackets round x+y and xy to remind us that they must be treated as single
expressions, otherwise we may have been tempted to handle the terms x and y on their own.
1.2.2.5.1 Adding & Subtracting Algebraic Fractions
Consider the expression a c which is the addition of two fractional terms. If we wish to express the sum of these fractions as
b d
one single fraction, then we use the same technique as for number fractions. First, find the lowest common denominator. This is
the LCM of b and d which is bd. Each fraction is then expressed with bd as the denominator.
Page 99
Example:
a (a d ) ad
b (b d ) bd
and
c ( c b) cb
d ( d b) bd
and adding these new fractions we have:
a c ad cb (ad cb)
b d bd bd bd
1.2.2.5.2 Multiplication & Division of Algebraic Fractions
As with ordinary arithmetic fractions, numerators can be multiplied together, as can denominators, in order to form a single
fraction.
Example;
a c ( a c) ac
b d (b d ) bd
or
(3x p r )
2 2
p 3 xpr
2
3x r
2y 4q s 2 y 4q s 8 yqs
Page 100
Factors which are common to both numerator and denominator may be cancelled. It is important to realise that this cancelling
means dividing the numerator and denominator by the same quantity.
Example:
(8 a b 9 n n m)
2
8ab 9mn 6n
8ab 4ab 2 (3 m n 4 a b b) b
5x2y 10xy (5x2y) (5 x x y 4a a b)

2
4a b ax
8ab 3 2
4a b 8ab 3
10xy (8 a b b b 10 x y) 4b 2
Page 101
ALGEBRA (EASA 1.2 (b) L1)
1.2.2.6 Linear Function and Their Solutions
1.2.2.6.1 Linear Equation
An arithmetical quantity has a definite value, such as 93, 3.73 or 34. An algebraic quantity, however, given by algebraic
expressions such as x (3) or x2, represents many amounts depending on the value given to x.
1.2.2.6.2 Equations
A statement of the type x 3 = 5 is called an equation. This means that the quantity on the left-hand side of the equation is equal
to the quantity on the right-hand side. We can see that, unlike an identity, there is only one value of x that will satisfy the equation,
or make the left-hand side equal to the right-hand side. The process of finding x = 8 is called solving the equation, and the value 8
is known as the solution or root of the equation.
1.2.2.6.3 Solving Linear Equations
Linear equations contain only the first power of the unknown quantity.
7t 5 = 4t + 7
and
5 x (2 x 5)
3 2
are both examples of linear equations.
Page 102
In the process of solving an equation the appearances of the equation may be considerable altered but the values on both sides
must remain the same. We must maintain this equality, and hence whatever we do to one side of the equation we must do exactly
the same to the other side. After an equation is solved, the solution should be checked by substituting the result on each side of
the equation separately. If each side of the equation then has the same value, the solution is correct. In the detail which follows,
LHS means left-hand side and RHS means right-hand side.
1.2.2.6.4 Equations Requiring Addition & Subtraction
Example:
Solve the equation x 4 = 8

If we add 4 to each side, we get
X4+4=8+4
x = 12
The operation of adding 4 to each side is the same as transferring -4 to the RHS but in so doing the sign is changed from a minus
to a plus.
x4=8
x=8+4
x = 12
Check: when x = 12, LHS = 12 - 4 = 8, RHS = 8
Page 103
1.2.2.6.5 Equations Requiring Multiplication & Division
Example:
Solve the equation x/6 = 3

Multiply each side by 6, we get
(x/6)6 = 36
x = 18
Check: when x = 18, LHS = 18/6, RHS = 3
Page 104
QUESTIONS : Linear function and their solutions
1. In the equation 64y = 64, what is y equal to

a) 0
b) 1
c) -1
2. 64y = 64 what is y =
a) 0
b) 1
c) 0.5
3. 27y = 3 so y equals to:

a) 1
9
b) 1
3
c) 9
1
4. 2x = 4(x-3) evaluate x
a) 0.5
b) 2
c) 6
5. Solve x in the equation 3(x+2) = 30 + 2(x-4)

a) 15
b) 8
c) 16
Page 105
2
(9) 4
6. Calculate X, X 81 2
8 12
a) 9.029
b) 8.971
c) 9.570
7. Given 43 x = 21, find the value of x

a) 43 21
b) 43 + 21
c) 43
21
8. 2x 3 = 4; x =
a) 3.50
b) -3
c) 7
9. In 21 = 43 X, X is equal to
a) 43 21
b) 43 + 21
c) 21 43
Page 106
10. What is the value of X
4X
3X
800
X
a) 300
b) 350
c) 400
Page 107
1.2.3 Indices and Power, Negative and Fractional Indices
1.2.3.1 Power
When a number is multiplied by itself, it is said to be raised to a given power. For example, 6 x 6 is expressed as 62, 6 x 6 x 6 is
expressed as 63 etc. In this example the number 6 is referred to as the base number and the small numbers 2 an 3 are referred to
as the exponents. If the exponent is a positive number then the base is multiplied by itself as shown above.
Example:
32 is read 3 squared or 3 to the power of 2.

23 is read 2 cubed or 2 to the power of three.
If the exponent is a negative number then the reciprocal of the number is multiplied by itself.
Example:
2-3 is read 2 to the power of minus 3. This means that the reciprocal of two is multiplied as below.
2-3 = = 1/8
If the exponent has no sign then it is assumed to be positive.
1.2.3.2 Roots
The root of a number is the value which, when multiplied by itself a certain number of times, produces that number. For example,
4 is a root of 16 because when multiplied by itself, the product is 16. However, 4 is also a root of 64 because 4 x 4 x 4 = 64. The
symbol used to indicate a root is the radical sign ( x ) placed over the number. If the radical sign appears over a number, it
indicates that you have to extract the square root or second root of the number under the sign. If the radical sign appears with an
Page 108
3
index number next to it, this indicates the root which is to be taken. For example 64 indicates that the cube root or third root is to
be taken.
So 3 64 = 4 because 4 x 4 x 4 = 64
and 16 = 4 because 4 x 4 = 16
Note that the 2 is generally not used so if the radical sign appears with no number, then it is assumed to be 2 (square root).
1.2.3.3 Indices
1.2.3.3.1 Base, Index & Power
The quantity 2222 may be written as 24. Now 24 is called the fourth power of the base 2. The number 4, which gives the
number of 2s to be multiplied together is called the index (plural: Indices). Similarly aaa = a3. Here, a3 is the third power of the
base a, and the index is 3. Thus in this expression,
xn is called the nth power of x

x is called the base, and
n is called the index.
Remember that, in algebra, letters such as a in the above expression merely represent numbers. Hence the laws of arithmetic
apply strictly to algebraic terms as well as numbers. The expression is called the reciprocal of 2. Similarly the expression 1/p is
called the reciprocal of p likewise the expression 1/xn is called the reciprocal of xn
Page 109
1.2.3.4 Laws of Indices
1. Multiplication
If powers are multiplied together then we can see the following.
2324 is equal to (2 x 2 x 2) x (2 x 2 x 2 x 2)
so 2324 = 23+4 = 27
Multiplication of powers which have the same base can be simplified by adding the powers together.
2. Division
If powers are to be divided, it can be seen that 25 /23 is equal to (2x2x2x2x2)/(2x2x2)
This fraction can be reduced to 2 x 2 which is equal to 22

so 25/23 = 253 = 22
Division of powers which have the same base can be carried out by subtracting one index from the other.
3. Powers of Powers
If a power is to be itself raised to a power, then we have the following.
(23)4 is equal to 23 x 23 x 23 x 23
or ( 2 x 2 x 2) x ( 2 x 2 x 2) x ( 2 x 2 x 2) x ( 2 x 2 x 2)
or 23x4 or 212
Raising a power to a power can be achieved by multiplying the indices together
Page 110
4. Numbers raised to the power of zero or one.
The most difficult indices to visualize are x0 and x1.

If we consider (x x x x)/(x x x x) we have a value of 1 as any number divided by itself is 1.
This fraction can also be expressed as x4/x4 or x0. So:
Any number raised to the power of zero equals one.
If we consider
(x x x x)/(x x x) we have a value which is x1 or x. So,
Any number raised to the power of one is equal to itself.
1.2.3.5 Negative Indices
If we consider (x x x)/(x x x x x), we have a value of 1/x2

which can be expressed as x35 or x2
If a base is raised to a negative power, the value is equal to the reciprocal of the base raised to a positive power.
1.2.3.6 Fractional Indices
3
The cube root of 5 (written as 5 ) is the number which, when multiplied by itself three times, gives 5.
3 3 3
5 5 5= 5
but we also know that 51/351/351/3 = 51/3+1/3+1/3 = 5
Page 111
Comparing these expressions 3 5 = 51/3

Similarly the fourth root of base d (written as 4 d ) is the number which, when multiplied by itself four times, gives d.
4 4 4 4
d d d d=d
But we also know that d1/4d1/4d1/4d1/4 = d1/4+1/4+1/4+1/4 = d
Comparing these expressions 4

d = d1/4
The law is: A fractional index represents a root, the denominator of the index denotes the root to be taken.
Page 112
QUESTIONS : Indices and power, negative and fractional indices
( A B) 4
1. is
( A B) 2
a) (A+B)2
b) A+B
c) (A+B)6
( x y) 2
2. has a base and exponent of
( x y) 8
a) (x+y)-6
b) (x+y)1/4
c) (x+y)10
3. ( 52 x 53)2 is
a) 512
b) 510
c) 57
4. What is (X2 x X3)3

a) X15
b) X36
c) X10
5.Rewrite the following with a positive index: Z-2 and X-3

a) 1 2 and 1 2
Z Z
b) (ZX2)2 ; and X3
c) Z 2 ; and 1
2 X
Page 113
6. 67 divided by 127 is equal to

1
a)
20
1
b)
128
1
c)
2
7. Calculate 10 x 23 + 10 x 25
a) 32,008,000
b) 520
c) 400
Page 114
1.2.4 Scientific Notation
Many engineering and scientific calculations involve very large or very small numbers. To ease manipulation and decrease the
possibility for error, scientific notation is used. Scientific notation is based on multiplying a number by a power of ten. Therefore,
you must understand how to use exponents.
Positive Powers Negative Powers

of Ten of Ten
100 = 1 10-1 = 0.1

101 = 10 10-2 = 0.01
102 = 100 10-3 = 0.001
103 = 1,000 10-4 = 0.0001
104 = 10,000 10-5 = 0.00001
105 = 100,000 10-6 = 0.000001
106 = 1,000,000
When using scientific notation, multiply the number you want to change by a power of ten equal to the number of places you want
to move the decimal point. The net result does not change the value of the number, only the way it is written.
Example:
2,540,000 = 2.54 x 106
As you can see, the decimal point was moved six places; therefore, the resulting number must be multiplied by a power of ten
equal to 1,000,000, which is 106.
If the number you are working with is smaller than 1, and you want to move the decimal point to get a number between 1 and 10,
count the number of places you want to move the decimal point and multiply the number by a power of ten. For example,
0.000004 is equal to 4.0 x 10-6. Since the decimal point has been moved 6 places to the right, you must multiply the number
by 0.000001, which is 10-6.
0.000004 = 4.0 x 10-6
Page 115
1.2.4.1 Multiplying by Scientific Notation
Multiplication of very large or very small numbers is often made easier when using scientific notation. To begin, convert each of
the numbers being multiplied to scientific notation. Once this is done, the product is found by multiplying the numbers and finding
the algebraic sum of the exponents.
Example: Multiply 0.275 x 30,000.0 using scientific notation.
Step 1: Convert to scientific notation.
0.275 = 2.75 X 10-1
30,000 = 3.0 x 10 -4
Step 2: Multiply the numbers and add the exponents.
(2.75 x 101) x (3.0 x 104) = 8.25 x 103
1.2.4.2 Division by Scientific Notation
Division using scientific notation is performed in a manner similar to multiplication. Begin by converting the numbers to their
scientific notation equivalents. Perform the division operation as you normally would, and find the power of ten by subtracting the
exponents.
Page 116
Example:
Divide 5,280 by 0.25 using scientific notation.
Step 1: Convert to scientific notation.
5,280 = 5.28 X 103
0.25 = 2.5 X 10 -1
Step 2: Divide the numbers and subtract the exponents.
(5.28 X 103) (2.5 x 10 -1) = 2.112 X 10 4
Remember, when multiplying or dividing using scientific notation, you must calculate the algebraic sum of the exponents. Pay
attention to the signs of the exponents, and observe the rules for adding and subtracting signed numbers.
1.2.4.3 Metric Prefixes
Metric is based on the decimal system. Multiples and submultiples of any given unit are always related by powers of 10. For
instance, there are 10 millimetres in one centimetre; 100 centimetres in one meter; and 1000 meters in one kilometre. This greatly
simplifies converting larger to smaller measurements. For example, in order to calculate the numbers of metres in 3.794
kilometres, multiply by 1000 (move the decimal point three places to the right), and the answer is 3794. For comparison, in order
to find the number of inches in 3.794 miles, it is necessary to multiply first by 5280 and then by 12.
Moreover, multiples and submultiples of all the International Metric units follow a consistent naming scheme, which consist of
attaching a prefix to the unit, whatever it may be. For example, kilo stands for 1000: one kilometre equals 1000 meters, and 1
kilogram equal 1000 grams. Micro is the prefix for one millionth: one metre equals one million micrometers and one gram equals
one million micrograms.
Page 117
PREFIX MEANS
tera ( 1012 ) One trillion times
giga (109 ) One billion times
mega ( 106 ) One million times
kilo ( 103 ) One thousand times
hector ( 102 ) One hundred times
deca ( 101 ) Ten times
deci ( 10-1 ) One tenth of

centi ( 10-2 ) One hundredth of
mili ( 10-3 ) One thousandth of
micro ( 10-6 ) One millionth of
nano (10-9 ) One billionth of
pico ( 10-12) One trillionth of
Page 118
QUESTIONS : SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
1. 0.000006 volts can be written as

a) 60 nanovolts
b) 6 millivolts
c) 6 microvolts
2. 0.004 amperes can be written as

a) 4kA
b) 4mA
c) 0.4mA
3. 200 kilo volts can be expressed as

a) 2 x 103 volts
b) 2 x 10-4 volts
c) 2 x 105 volts
4. 0.0000413 can be written as

a) 413 x 10-7
b) 0.413 x 10-7
c) 4.13 x 10-7
Page 119
1.2.5 Binary and Other Applicable Numbering System
1.2.5.1 Numbering Systems
Knowledge of numbering systems is fundamental to understand computers and their operation. All numbering systems are
used to count objects or perform mathematical calculations, and each is a set of symbols and characters, commonly referred to as
digits.
1.2.5.2 Positional Notation
The standard shorthand form of writing numbers is known as positional notation. The value of a particular digit depends not
only on the digit value, but also on the position of the digit within the number. For example, the decimal number 3721 is standard
shorthand form for the quantity three thousand seven hundred twenty-one. Each position has a "value" or "weight". Starting at
the right is the units position, next the tens, then hundreds, and at the left is the thousands position. The digit at the far right is
called the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the digit at the far left is called the Most Significant Digit (MSD).
1.2.5.3 Base
Every numbering system has a base which is equal to the number of digits
1.2.5.4 Decimal Number System
The decimal number system is a base 10 number system (deci means ten). The base of a number system indicates how many
symbols are used in it. For example:
3 represents a quantity of three
5 represents a quantity of five
Page 120
The decimal number system is also a positional number system. This means that in a number such as 3721, each position in the
number has a value associated with it. The decimal number 3721:
a. The 1 is in the ones, or units, position and represents one ones or (1 x 1);
b. The 2 is in the tens position and represents two tens or (2 x 10);
c. The 7 is in the hundreds position and represents seven hundred or (7 x 100);
d. The 3 is in the thousand position and represents three thousand or (3 x 1000).
e. The number 3721 is the sum of the values in each position of the number
(3000 + 700 + 20 + 1 = 3721)
103 102 101 100

3 7 2 1
THOUSANDS HUNDREDS TENS UNITS
(3 X 103) + (7 X 102) + (2 X 101) + (1X 100)

= 3000 + 700 + 20 + 1
= 3721
The decimal number system uses 10 symbols

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Each of the symbols in the number system has a value associated with it.
Page 121
1.2.5.5 Positional Notation for Decimal Number
Weighted
105 104 103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2
Value
Number 6 5 8 9 1 2 3 3
600000 + 50000 + 8000 + 900 + 10 + 2 + 3/10 + 3/100

= 658912.3310
1.2.5.6 Binary Number System
The purpose of binary number system is to represent the electronic status of the bits in memory and to address the memory
locations. Binary is a base 2 number system (bi means two). The binary number system uses 2 symbols (0 and 1). Each of the
symbols in the number system has a value associated with it.
Positional Notation for Binary Number

Weighted Value 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Base 10 Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary Number To Be Converted 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
Equivalent Base 10 Number 0 0 0 16 0 4 2 1
16 + 4 + 2 + 1
= 2310
Page 122
1.2.5.7 Hexadecimal Number System
It is difficult for the programmer to understand the 0s and

1s of binary code. So the computer uses the hexadecimal
system to communicate with a programmer when a problem
with a program exists. The hexadecimal number system
uses 16 symbols to represent values (hex means six, deci
means ten).
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
The primary reason why the hexadecimal number system is

used with computers is because:
- It can represent binary values in a more compact
and readable form.
- The conversion between the binary and the
hexadecimal number systems is very efficient.
An eight-digit binary number (a byte), can be represented

by a two-digit hexadecimal number.
Conversion table
Page 123
0100 11012 = 4D16
Binary 0100 1101

Positional Value 8421 8421
Decimal 4 13
Hexadecimal 4 D
1.2.5.8 Octal Number System
Base 8 number systems.
The octal number system uses 8 symbols

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
3 bit binary count from 000 to 111
1.2.5.9 Convert Decimal to Binary
2 23 Remainder 1 (LSD)
2 11 Remainder 1
2 5 Remainder 1
2 2 Remainder 0
2 1 Remainder 1 (MSD)
2310 = 101112
0
Page 124
1.2.5.10 Convert Binary to Decimal
Weighted
24 23 22 21 20
Value
Base 10
16 8 4 2 1
Value
Binary
Number
1 0 1 1 1
To Be
Converted
Equivalent
Base 10 16 0 4 2 1
Number
101112= (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (1 x 21) + (1 x 20)

= (1 x 16) + (0 x 8) + (1 x 4) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 1)
= 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 1
= 2310
Page 125
1.2.5.11 Convert Decimal to Octal
8 298 Remainder 2
8 37 Remainder 5
8 4 Remainder 4 (MSD)
238610 = 45228
1.2.5.12 Convert Octal to Decimal
Weighted Value 84 83 82 81 80
Base 10 Value 4096 512 64 8 1
Octal Number To Be Converted 0 4 5 2 2
Equivalent Base 10 Number 0 2048 320 16 2
4522 = (0 x 84) + (4 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (2 x 81) + (2 x 80)

= (0 x 4096) + (1 x 512) + (1 x 64) + (1 x 8) + (1 x 1)
= 2048 + 320 + 16 + 2
= 238610
Page 126
1.2.5.13 Convert Binary to Octal
0111000012
0111000012 = 3418
011 001
100
3 4 1
3418
1.2.5.14 Convert Octal to Binary
2258 = 0100101012 2258
2 5
2
010 010 101
0100101018
Page 127
1.2.5.15 Convert Decimal to Hexadecimal
4325310 = A8F516
16 2703 Remainder 15 (F)
16 168 Remainder 8
16 10 Remainder 10 (A) (MSD)
10101000111101012
1.2.5.16 Convert Binary to Hexadecimal
10101000111101012 = A8F516
1010 1000 1111 0101
A 8 F 5
A8F516
Page 128
1.2.5.17 Convert Hexadecimal to Binary
F13A16 = 1111 0001 0011 10102
F13A16
F 1 3 A
1111 0001 0011 1010
11110001001110102
1.2.5.18 Convert Decimal to BCD (binary code decimal)
73810 = 0111 0011 10002
7 3 8
0111 0011 1000
Page 129
1.2.5.19 Convert BCD to Decimal
1001 0100 01102 = 94610
1001 0100 0110
9 4 6
Page 130
QUESTIONS : Binary and other applicable numbering system
1. What is 11110001 in Octal?

a) 684
b) 361
c) 72
2. 100000 in binary is which number in decimal?

a) 16
b) 32
c) 64
3. D in hexadecimal is which number in decimal

a) 8
b) 13
c) 17
4. 101012 + 110012 =
a) 462
b) 468
c) 4610
5. What is 738 in binary coded decimal?

a) 11110010
b) 1011110010
c) 1110011100
6. Octal is to the base of

a) 2
b) 16
c) 8
Page 131
7. 101110 binary is
a) 462
b) 468
c) 4610
8. What is octal 13 in base 10

a) 4
b) 11
c) 5
9. Hexadecimal is base
a) 2
b) 8
c) 16
10. BCD format of numbering system having base of

a) 10
b) 8
c) 2
35. 100112 =
a) 1910
b) 292
c) 3510
Page 132
1.2.6 Simultaneous Equations and Second Degree Equations with One Unknown
1.2.6.1 Linear Systems of Equations of Two Variables
In many practical situations there are problems which involve more than one unknown quantity. In order to solve a problem with
two unknown quantity, it is necessary to write two equations which relate to the unknown quantity. These two equations whose
common solution is sought to form a system of equations. There are different methods to solve such systems of equations for the
two unknown or variables.
Example: The following problem is to be solved: The sum of two numbers is 62.
Their difference is 16. Find the numbers.
In the first step the verbal problem is to be converted into two mathematical equations. The two unknown numbers are called x
and y. Then the first equation is
x + y = 62 The sum of two numbers is 62.
The second equation is:

x - y = 16 Their difference is 16.
These two equations form a system of equations of two variables.
1.2.6.2 Solving Systems of Equations by the Substitution Method
Using the substitution method out of one equation one of the unknowns is determined in dependence on the other one. The result
is inserted in the other equation which then forms an equation with one unknown. This equation is solved and the result inserted in
one of the equations to solve for the second unknown.
Page 133
Example: Solve the system of equations got from the first example
x + y = 62 (1)
x y = 16 (2).
Solution:
On both sides of equation (1) the number (--x) is added:
x + y + ( x) = 62 + ( x)
y = 62 x (3)
Then y in equation (2) is substituted by the left side of equation (3):
x (62 x) = 16 (4).
To both sides of equation (4) the number +62 is added:
2x = 78 (5)
Dividing both sides of equation (5) gives the value of the first unknown:
x = 39 (6)
In order to get the value of the second unknown y the value of the first unknown x is inserted in equation (2):
39 y = 16 (7)
Then the numbers (-16) and (+y) are added to both sides of equation (7):
39 16 =y (8)
y = 23 (9)
The two numbers asked for are 39 and 23.
Page 134
1.2.6.3 Solving Systems of Equations by the Elimination Method
Using the elimination method for solving equations of two variables, it is looked for that by addition or subtraction of a matching
multiple of the second equation with a multiple of the first equation; a new equation is formed which only contains one unknown.
This remaining unknown is determined and then inserted in the first or second equation in order to get the second unknown.
Example: Solve the following system of equations:
x y =3 (1)
2x + 2y = 14 (2)
Solution:
In the first step each side of equation (1) is multiplied by the factor -2 , and each side of equation (2) by the factor +1, in order to
eliminate the unknown or variable x when adding both equations:
xy=3 | (2)
2x + 2y = 14 | (+1)
2x + 2y = 6 (3)
2x + 2y = 14 (4)
Then the resulting equations (3) and (4) are added by adding the left sides and the right sides of the equations each.
( 2x + 2y) + (2x + 2y) = ( 6) + 14

4y =8 (5)
The result of the addition (5) has to be divided by 4 in order to get the value of the unknown y :
4y = 8 |4
y =2 (6)
Page 135
Then the variable y in equation (1) is replaced by its value to get an equation of only one variable, and then this equation is solved
for the second unknown x:
x2=3
x =5 (7)
The last step of each calculation is to prove the results. In this case, the variables in equations (1) and (2) are replaced by their
values:
5 2 =3 (8)
(2 5) + (2 2) = 14 (9).
1.2.6.4 Solving Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation in one variable is any equation that can be written in the form : ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 0 (Standard form) where
x is a variable and a, b, and c are constants. The highest exponent or power of the variable in quadratic equation is 2. A solution
of an equation is also called a root of the equation.
Methods usually used to solve Quadratic Equation:
i) By factoring
If ax2 + bx + c can be written as the product of two first-degree factors, then the quadratic equation can be quickly and easily
solved.
Example : Solve by factoring :

a) 6x2 19x 7 = 0
(2x 7) (3x + 1) = 0
2x 7 = 0 or 3x + 1 = 0
2x = 7 or 3x = -1
x = 7/2 or x = -1/3
Page 136
b) x2 6x + 5 = -4
x2 6x + 9 = 0
(x 3)2 = 0
x=3
(2 similar roots or double roots)
c) 2x2 = 3x
2
2x 3x = 0
x (2x 3) = 0
x = 0 or 2x 3 = 0
x = 0 or x = 3/2
ii) Solution by using Formula

b b 2 4ac
The formula to find the unknown or variable x is x . Given a quadratic equation in the standard form ax2 + bx + c
2a
= 0, then a, b, and c are the coefficients of the terms x2, x1, and x0 respectively. For example, given 5x2 4x + 6 = 0, then a is 5, b
is 4 and c is 6.
Example : Solve : 2x2 + 3x 4 = 0

a = 2, b = 3, c = 4 (by comparing with ax2 + bx + c = 0)
3 3 2 4(2)(4)
x=
2(2)
3 9 32
=
4
3 41
=
4
Page 137
3 6.40
=
4
3 6.40 3 6.40
= or
4 4
= 0.85 or 2.35
Page 138
EQUATIONS : Simultaneous equations and second degree equations with one unknown
1. If x2 3 = 6, then x =
a) 3
b) 2
c) 18
2. If 2x2 + kx 8 = 0 has two equal real roots, then

a) k = -8
b) k = 8
c) k is an imaginary number
3. Solve the following equation to find x

4x + 8y = 64
2x 8y = 86
a) 5
b) 25
c) 125
4. Determine x in the following : (2x-1)(3x+2)=0

a) 0.5, 3
b) 1.5, 1
c) -0.67, 0.5
5. y = 2x + 4, when x = -1, y =
a) 2
b) 4
c) 0.5
Page 139
12x
6. 14 50 when y=2, solve x
2y
a) 14
b) 12
c) 11.6
7. Factorise the following: 4x2 6x 28 = 0

a) (2x + 7)(x 2)
b) (4x - 14)(x + 2)
c) (2x2 + 7)(x + 2)
8. Factorise the following: x2 x - 6 = 0

a) (x-2)(x-3)
b) (x-2)(x+3)
c) (x+2)(x-3)
9. 2x 8y = 14 and 4x + 8y = 16; x =
a) 1
2
b) 5
c) 3
10. If y = 4 and y = 5 x =
x
a) 20
b) 1 1
4
c) 4
5
Page 140
11. If y 4 and y = 5 then x =

x
a) 20
b) 1 1
4
c) 4
5
Page 141
1.2.6.5 Logarithms
A logarithms is an exponent. It is the exponent to which the base must be raised to produce a given number. For example, since
23 = 8 then 3 is called the logarithm of 8 with base 2. 3 = log28. 3 is the exponent to which 2 must be raised to produce 8. We
write the base 2 as a subscript.
Since 104 = 10,000, then log1010,000 = 4. "The logarithm of 10,000 with base 10 is 4.". 4 is the exponent to which the base 10
must be raised to produce 10,000. "104 = 10,000" is called the exponential form. "log1010,000 = 4" is called the logarithmic form.
Here is the definition:
logbx = n means bn = x.
That base with that exponent produces x.
Example 1 : Write in exponential form : log232 = 5

Answer : 25 = 32
Example 2 : Write in logarithmic form: 42 = 1/16

Answer : log4 1/16 = 2
Problem 1 : Which numbers have negative logarithms?
Proper fractions.
Example 3 : Evaluate log81.

Answer : 8 to what exponent produces 1? 80 = 1.
log81 = 0.
We can observe that in any base b, the logarithm of 1 is 0.
logb1 = 0
Page 142
Example 4 : Evaluate log55.

Answer : 5 to what exponent will produce 5? 51 = 5.
log55 = 1.
In any base, the logarithm of the base itself is 1.
logbb = 1
Example 5 : log22m = ?
Answer : 2 raised to what exponent will produce 2m ? m, obviously.
m
log22 = m.
This is an important formal rule, valid for any base b:
logbbx = x
This rule embodies the very meaning of a logarithm. x -- on the right -- is the exponent to which the base b must be raised.
Example 6 : Evaluate log3 = 1/9

Answer : 1/9 is equal to 3 with what exponent? 1/9 = 32
log3 1/9 = log332 = 2
Example 7 : log2 0.25 = ?

Answer. : 0.25 = = 22. Therefore,
log2 0.25 = log222 = 2
Example 8 : log3 =?
Answer : = 3 . Therefore,
log3 = log33 = 1/5
Problem 2. Write each of the following in logarithmic form.

a) bn = x logbx = n
b) 23 = 8 log28 = 3
2
c) 10 = 100 log10100 = 2
d) 52 = 1/25 log51/25 = 2
Page 143
Problem 3. Write each of the following in exponential form.

a) logbx = n bn = x
b) log232 = 5 25 = 32
c) 2 = log864 82 = 64
d) log61/36 = 2 62 = 1/36
Problem 4. Evaluate the following.

a) log216 = 4
b) log416 = 2
c) log5125 = 3
d) log81 = 0
e) log88 = 1
f) log101 = 0
Problem 5. What number is n?

a) log10n = 3 1000
b) 5 = log2n 32
c) log2n = 0 1
d) 1 = log10n 10
e) logn1/16 = 2 4
f) logn 1/5 = 1 5
g) log21/32 = n 5
h) log2 1/2 = n 1
Problem 6. logbbx = x
Page 144
Problem 7. Evaluate the following.

a) log9 1/9 = log991 = 1
b) log9 1/81 = 2
c) log2 1/4 = 2
d) log2 1/8 = 3
e) log2 1/16 = 4
f) log10 0.01 = 2
g) log10 0.001 = 3
h) log6 = 1/3
i) logb = 3/4
The three laws of logarithms
1. logbxy = logbx + logby
"The logarithm of a product is equal to the sum of the logarithms of each factor."
2. logb x/y = logbx logby

"The logarithm of a quotient is equal to the logarithm of the numerator minus the logarithm of the denominator."
3. logb x n = n logbx
"The logarithm of a power of x is equal to the exponent of that power times the logarithm of x."
5
Example 1 :Use the laws of logarithms to rewrite log x y / z
Answer : According to the first two laws,
5
log x y / z = log x + log log z5
Now, = y. Therefore, according to the third law,
5
log x y / z = log x + log y 5 log z
Page 145
Example 2 : Use the laws of logarithms to rewrite log (sin x log x)

Solution : This has the form log ab. a = sin x, b = log x. Therefore,
log (sin x log x) = log sin x+ log log x
Example 3 : Use the laws of logarithms to rewrite log .

Solution
log . = log (x cos x)
= log (x cos x), 3rd Law
= (log x + log cos x), 1st Law
Problem 8 : Use the laws of logarithms to rewrite the following.

log ab/c = log a + log b log c
log ab/ c4 = log a + 2 log b 4 log c
log 3 x y /z = 1/3 log x + 1/2 log y log z
log (sinx log x) = log sinx + log log x
= 2 log sin x + log log x
log = log (sin x cos x)1/2
= log (sin x cos x)
= (log sin x + log cos x)
Common logarithms
The system of common logarithms has 10 as its base. When the base is not indicated : log 100 = 2 then the system of
common logarithms -- base 10 -- is implied. Here are the powers of 10 and their logarithms:
1 1 1
Powers of 10: 1 10 100 1000 10,000
1000 100 10
Logarithms: 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
Logarithms replace a geometric series with an arithmetic series.
Page 146
Problem 9
a) log 105 = 5. 10 is the base.
b) log 10n = n
c) log 58 = 1.7634. Therefore, 101.7634 = 58
1.7634 is the common logarithm of 58. When 10 is raised to that exponent, 58 is produced.
Problem 10 : log (log x) = 1. What number is x?

log a = 1, implies a = 10. Therefore, log (log x) = 1 implies log x = 10. Since 10 is the base,
x = 1010 = 10,000,000,000
Example 4 : Given: log 3 = 0.4771 Evaluate

a) log 3000
Solution. Write 3000 in scientific notation:
log 3000 = log (3 103)
= log 3 + log 103
= 0.4771 + 3
= 3.4771
b) log .003
Solution. log 0.003 = log (3 103)
= log 3 + log 103
= 0.4771 3
= 2.5229
Problem 11 : Given: log 6 = 0.7781 Use the laws of logarithms to evaluate the following.
a) log 600 = log (6 102)
= log 6 + log 102
= 0.7781 + 2
= 2.7781
Page 147
b) log 60 = log (6 10)

= log 6 + log 10
= 0.7781 + 1
= 1.7781
c) log .06 = log (6 102)

= log 6 + log 102
= 0.7781 2
= 1.2219
Example 5 : Given: log 2 = 0.3010, log 3 = 0.4771 Evaluate log 18.

Solution. 18 = 2 3. Therefore,
log 18 = log (2 3)
= log 2 + log 3
= log 2 + 2 log 3
= 0.3010 + 2(.4771)
= 0.3010 + 0.9542
= 1.2552
Problem 12 : Given: log 2 = 0.3010 log 3 = 0.4771 log 5 = 0.6990

Use the laws of logarithms to find the following.
a) log 6 = log 2 + log 3 = 0.7781
b) log 15 = log 3 + log 5 = 1.1761
c) log 4 = log 2 = 2 log 2 = 0.6020
d) log 8 = log 2 = 3 log 2 = 0.9030
e) log 30 = log 3 + log 10 = 1.4771
f) log 300 = log 3 + log 100 = 2.4771
g) log 3000 = log 3 + log 1000 = 3.4771
h) log 12 = log 3 + log 4 = 1.0791
j) log 3/5 = log 3 log 5 = 0.2219
Page 148
k) log = log 3 = 0.2386

l) log = log 5 = 0.3495
m) log = 3/2 log 3 = 0.7157
n) log = 1/3 log 2 = 0.1003
o) log = (log 2 log 3) = 0.0881
p) log 1500 = log 3 + log 5 + log 100 = 3.1761
Page 149
EQUATIONS : Logarithms
1. What is log 9 log 3 + log 4

a) log 16
b) log 10
c) log 12
2. Given the log of A exceeds that of B by 4, find the correct statement about A and B
a) A is 1000 times the value of B
b) A is 4000 times the value of B
c) A is 10000 times the value of B
3. The characteristic of log 0.698 is

a) -2
b) -1
c) 1
4. log 59000 is equal to

a) 5.77452
b) 0.77452
c) 4.7745
5. log 9 log 3
a) log 3
b) log 6
c) log 9
Page 150
GEOMETRY (EASA 1.3 (a) L1)
1.3.1 SIMPLE GEOMETRY CONSTRUCTION
In performing geometrical constructions, the following should be available.
1. A 30cm long ruler with mm and cm scale.

2. Set squares of 90, 45, 45 or 90, 60, 30, 15 to 20 cm in size.
3. A protractor with 180 scale to measure angles.
4. Pencil compasses for radii up to 10cm to draw circles and arcs of circles.
5. HB pencil, pencil sharpener and eraser.
1.3.1.1 To Bisect a Line Segment

C
To bisect a line segment means to divide it into two equal parts. The point on a line segment
that separates the line segment into two equal parts is called the midpoint of the line segment.
a. Using a ruler, we first measure the line segment AB.

b. Using a compass, with A and B as centres, draw arcs which cross above and below
the segment at C and D. In using the compass, set it so that the radius is more than half
the length of AB.
c. Join C and D. Line CD bisects line segment AB at point E. Observe that CD is also A B
perpendicular to AB. Thus a line like CD, which both bisects a line segment and is
perpendicular to it, is called the perpendicular bisector of the given segment.
Page 151
1.3.1.2 To Bisect an Angle
To bisect an angle means to divide it into two equal angles.

a. Use a protractor to measure the given angle. Let it be angle ABC as in the
figure shown below.
b. Using a compass: With B as the centre (vertex) and any radius draw an arc
cutting side AB at D and side BC at E.
c. With D and E as centres and a radius of more than half the distance from D to
E, draw arcs crossing at E.
d. Join BF. This is the line which bisects angle ABC.
1.3.1.3 To Divide a Given Line into Equal Parts
This is a very accurate method when measurements may be troublesome or inaccurate. No

measurements are required. Suppose AB is to be divided into seven equal parts.
a. Draw any other line AX.
b. Step off seven equal steps at A1,A2 . A7 using compasses. The length of the
step is irrelevant, however the radius from A to A1 from A1 to A2 up to from A6 to A7
must be similar.
c. Join A7 B.
d. Using set squares, make parallels through each step point to cut AB in the
required points.
Page 152
1.3.1.4 Construction of Triangles
A triangle contains three sides and three angles. A triangle may be constructed when any of the following combinations of three
parts are known.
Three sides
Two sides and an included angle
Two angles and an included side
1. Given three sides:

Draw one side and use compasses to locate the third vertex by intersecting arcs. Join the vertex with the left and right
endpoints of the side first drawn.
2. Given two sides and the included angle:

Draw one side, construct the angle and then measure off the second side. Join to obtain the triangle.
3. Given two angles and the included side:

Draw the side and measure the angles at each end of the line, calculating the third angle if necessary. Join to obtain the
triangle.
Examples:
(1) Construct a triangle having sides 4cm, 3.5 cm and 3cm.
To construct this triangle, we first use a ruler to lay off a line segment 4cm long. With one of the end points of the line just
drawn as the center and setting a compass so that the radius is 3.5cm, we draw an arc. With the other end points as the
center and a radius of 3cm, we draw an arc crossing the first arc. From this point of intersection, we draw line segments to the
end points of the base line to form the required triangle.
(2) Construct a triangle having 2 sides that measure 2.8cm and 2.1 cm and the included angle measures 1000. To construct this
triangle we first draw a line segment 2.8cm long. Using the left endpoint as the vertex, we draw an angle of 1000. Along the
ray just draw and measure 2.1cm from the vertex. We then draw a line segment connecting endpoints to form the required
triangle.
Page 153
(3) Construct a triangle having 2 angles that measure 300 and 900 and the included side measures 3.1cm. To draw this triangle
we first draw a line segment 3.1sm long. Using the left endpoints as the vertex, we draw an angle of 900. We extend the sides
until they meet to form the required angle.
1.3.1.5 Construction of Regular Polygons
A regular polygon is a polygon that is both equilateral and equiangular. Equilateral means all of polygons sides are of equal
length. Equiangular means all of polygons angles are of equal size. An inscribed polygon in a circle is a polygon whose vertices
are points on the circle. One method to construct regular polygons is based on the geometric fact that equal central angles of a
circle intercept equals arcs and equal chords. A regular polygon constructed in this way is inscribed within a circle.
Therefore to construct a regular polygon, we first draw a circled, followed by the procedure to be explained in the following
examples. Then draw a circle responding number of equal central angles by dividing 3600
Example 1:
Construct a regular pentagon i.e a polygon having 5 equal sides.
To construct this polygon after constructing a circle, we first determine the measure of each of the 5 equal central angles by
dividing 3600 by 5 this measure is 720. Then we draw 5 central angles each measuring 720, with its sides or radii intercepting the
circle dividing it into 5 equal arcs. We then draw line segments to connect the points of division to form the regular pentagon.
Example 2:
Construct a regular octagon i.e polygon with 8 equal sides.
To construct, first we draw a circle. Then we determine the measure of each of the eight equal central angles by dividing 3600 by
8. This measure is 450. We then draw line segments to connect the points of division to form the regular octagon. We draw eight
central angles each measuring 450, with its sides or radii interception the circle dividing it into eight equal arcs.
Page 154
QUESTIONS : Simple geometry construction
1. All the following instruments are necessary in bisecting a given line except:
a. A protractor
b. A ruler
c. A compass
2. A protractor is needed to divide a given line segment into equal parts

3. Only a protractor is needed to bisect an angle accurately

4. A triangle contains 3 sides and 3 angles

5. It is necessary to have a protractor in order to draw a triangle with 3 sides given.

6. The following information will allow us to construct a triangle except:

a. 2 sides and an excluded angle
b. 3 sides given
c. 2 angle and an included side
7. Each of the central angles of a regular pentagon is 50

Page 155
8. Name the diagram below:
a. Octagon
b. Pentagon
c. Hexagon
Page 156
GEOMETRY (EASA 1.3 (b) L2)
1.3.2 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
1.3.2.1 Coordinates
Coordinates are numbers which are used to represent a particular point on a graph. Coordinate axes consist of a horizontal line (x
axis) and a vertical line (y axis). The point of intersection of these two lines is called the origin (denoted by the letter O).
Along the x and y axes we can mark off units of measurement (not necessarily the same on both axes). The origin takes the value
zero on both axes. The x axis takes positive values to the right of the origin and negative values to the left of the origin. The y axis
takes positive values above the origin and negative values below the origin.
Any point on this diagram can be defined by its coordinates (consisting of two numbers). The first, the x coordinate, defines the
horizontal distance of the point from the y axis, the second, the y coordinate, defines the vertical distance of the point from the x
axis. In general, a point is defined by its coordinates which are written in the form (x, y), the x coordinate always written first. The
coordinates are always written in brackets with a comma between them to avoid confusion.
Page 157
Example:
The point (3, 2) may be plotted on the coordinate axes as follows
Page 158
1.3.2.2 Nature and Uses of Graph
Graphs and charts are pictorial presentations of equations

and formulas. Through their use the relationship between two
or more quantities may be more clearly understood. Also a
person can see certain conditions or relationships at a
glance, while it would require considerable time to obtain the
same information from a written description. Graphs may be
used in a number of ways such as representing a single
equation or formula or they may be used to solve two
equations for a common value.
Graphs and charts take many forms. A few of the more

common forms are called bar graphs, pictographs, broken-
line graphs, continuous-curved-line graphs and circle graphs.
An example of each graph shown in figure below. The most
of these graphs in technical work is the continuous-curved-
line graph.
Page 159
1.3.2.3 Graph of Equations / Functions
1.3.2.3.1 Graph of Functions
1. A function shows a relation between two sets.
For examples:
a. Relation between incomes and expenses.
b. Relation between heights and ages.
2. The set which depends on another set is called dependent set (variable). Hence the other set is the independent one.
3. Usually, dependent and independent variables are represented by the literals y and x respectively. Having these literals,
then: y is said to be a function of x or in equation : y = f(x).
4. A plane having x and y axes can be used.
5. Any function having 2 literals or variables can be represented by graphs. Generally, a table is prepared to show the
coordinates of the 2 literals. This is especially for a graph having curvy shape.
Page 160
Example:
Sketch the graph of the function y = x for the domain of 0 =< x =< 5, x = integers.
Solution:
We substitute x = 0, x = 1
up to x = 5 into the function to give the table below:
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 0 1 4 9 16 25
Based on the table, the graph of the function is obtained.
Page 161
Example:
Sketch the graph of the function y equals 2x squared plus1 for the following domains of x.
Solution:
To sketch we must first compute the values of x by substituting the values of x into the function y equals 2x squared plus 1.
Starting with x equals 0: when x equals 0, y equals 2 multiplied by 0 squared plus 1. Hence y equals 1. When x equals 1, y
equals 2 multiplied by 1 squared plus 1. Hence y equals 3. Substituting x equals 2,3,4 and 5 into the function, we will get the
respective values of y such as shown in the table. The table then enables us to sketch the graph of the function y equals 2x
squared plus 1. This is done by positioning the computed x and y coordinates in a plane having x and y axes.
X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
X 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100
Y 3 9 19 33 51 73 99 129 163 201
200
150
100
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Page 162
QUESTIONS : Graph of equations/functions
1. What type of equation is y = x2 + 9x + 14 ?

a) Quadratic
b) Exponential
c) Circular
2. What is commonly referred to as the law of a straight line?

a) The line must pass through through the 180 degrees datum
b) y = x squared plus 180
c) y = mx plus c
3. The y intercept of 4y = 4x + 8 is
a) 8
b) 4
c) 2
4. What is the slope between the points (3 , 1) and (9 , 3)?

a) 1
3
b) 3
1
c) 9
5. 2y = 5x + 3. What is the gradient?

a) 5 +3
2
b) 5
2
c) 2
5
Page 163
6. In the following equation what is the y-intercept

4y = 2x + 8
a) 4
b) 2
c) 8
7. What is the equation of this line?
a) x + y = -2
b) y = 2 x
c) x y = 2
8. What is commonly referred to as the law of a straight line?

a) the line must pass through the 180 degree datum
b) y = x squared plus 180
c) y = mx plus c
Page 164
9. How many times does the X axis get crossed when y = x2 3

a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
10. ax2 + bx + c = 0, what type of equation is this?

a) Quadratic equation
b) Polynomial equation
c) Gradient of the line
11. The graph points (9,3) and (3,1) what is the slope?
a) 1
3
b) 3
1
c) 9
5
12. For an equation 2y = 5x + 3, what is the gradient

5x 3
a)
2
3
b)
5x
5
c)
2
Page 165
13. A straight line graph has the equation

3y = 12x 3
What is the gradient?
a) 1
4
b) 3
4
c) 4
1
14. On a graph what is the intercept of y when 4y = x + 8

a) 2
b) 4
c) 8
15. What is the equation of the line shown
a) y = 2 - x
b) y = x 2
c) y = 2x + 2
Page 166
16. Time is an independent variable and thus plotted horizontally

17. Distance is a dependent variable and thus plotted vertically.

18. If literal y is assigned for Distance and x for time, then y = x.

19. Find the value of the function y=2x3 + 4 when x=1 and x=2
Answers: x = _____, y = _____
x = _____, y = _____
Page 167
GEOMETRY (EASA 1.3 (c) L2)
1.3.3 SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRY
The ratio of opposite side length over hypotenuse length is a function with the specific name sine of the angle concerned.
By referring to the above right-angled triangle :
sin = opposite side = AC

hypotenuse AB
Opposite side is the side opposite to a given angle.

Hypotenuse is the side opposite to the right angle. (usually the longest side and slanting)
Some other functions of acute angles :
cos = Adjacent side = BC

Hypotenuse AB
tan = Opposite side = AC

Adjacent side BC
The value of the sine, cosine and tangent for angles between 0 to 90 may be obtained from tables or from a pocket calculator.
Page 168
1.3.3.1 Trigonometrical Relationship
General angle is an angle of any size, positive or negative. A positive angle is formed by having an anti clockwise rotation about 0
(the origin). A negative angle is formed by having a clockwise rotation about 0. Ratio of any angle (general angle) is the ratio of
the associated acute angle, which is formed between the final position of OP and its projection on the x-axis.
1.3.3.1.1 Anticlockwise Rotation
i) Ratios of angles formed in the 1st quadrant :
sin = y/r (positive : y positive, r positive)

cos = x/r (positive : x positive, r positive)
tan = y/x (positive : y positive, x positive)
(refer to figure 1)
Radius, r is always regarded as positive .

is the acute or basic angle formed between the final position of OP and its projection on the x axis.
Page 169
ii) Ratios of angle formed in the 2nd quadrant
sin = y/r (positive) = sin

cos = -x/r (negative) = cos
tan = -y/x (negative) = tan
(refer to figure 2)
iii) Ratios of angle formed in the 3rd quadrant`
sin = -y/r (negative) = - sin

cos = -x/r (negative) = -cos
tan = -y/-x (positive) = + tan
(refer to figure 3)
Page 170
iv) Ratios of angle formed in the 4th quadrant`

sin = -y/r (negative)
cos = x/r (positive)
tan = -y/x (negative)
(refer to figure 4)
1.3.3.1.2 Clockwise Rotation
There will be similar signs of ratios in each quadrant although the rotation is
opposite to the direction shown before.
(i.e opposite to anticlockwise rotation).
Examples :
sin ( -30) = -sin 30
cos (- 30) = + cos 30
tan (-30) = - tan 30
(refer to figure 5)
Note : (-30) means negative angle of 30.
Page 171
The ratios related to (-30) will be obtained in the fourth quadrant. The signs of the 3 ratios in this quadrant will be similar to the
general angle formed by having an anticlockwise rotation explained before.
Examples:
Find the value of:
a) sin 210
sin 210 = -sin 30
=-
(refer to figure 6)
b) cos (-230)
cos (-230) = - cos 50
= - 0.64
(refer to figure 7)
Page 172
1.3.3.2 Solving Simple Trigonometric Equations
Simple trigonometric equations: when given in terms of sin = k, cos = k, where

1 k 1 and tan = k where k is a real number.
Examples :
1. Solve sin = 0.5 where 0 360
From the table or calculator, sin = 0.5 when = 30.

Sin is positive in the first and second quadrants.
= 30 and 150
2. Solve sin = -0.5
The associated acute angle which gives sin = 0.5 is = 30

Sin is negative in the third and fourth quadrants.
= 210 and 330
3. Solve sin = -0.4417, for 0 360
- the associated acute angle where sin = -0.4417 is = 26 13'.

- sin is negative in the third and fourth quadrants,
= 206 13' , 333 47'
Page 173
4. Solve cos 2 = 0.845, for 0 360
- the associated acute angle for cos 2 = 0.845 is = 32 20'

- cosine is positive in first and fourth quadrants
2 = 32 20', 327 40', 392 20', 687 40'

= 2 = 16 10', 163 50', 196 10', 343 50'.
2
Page 174
QUESTIONS : Simple trigonometry & Trigonometrical relationship
1. Complete the following: sin a =

a) opposite side divided by the hypotenuse side
b) adjacent side divided by the opposite side
c) a squared times b squared
2. One radian is
a) the angle subtended at the centre of a circle when the arc-length formed between two radial lines is equal to phi
b) the angle subtended at the centre of a circle when the arc-length formed between two radial lines is equal in length to
the radius
c) 66.67 degrees
3. What is the tangent of 900

a) positive infinity
b) negative infinity
c) 0
4. Two angels of a triangle are 680 and 320. Therefore the third angle must be
a) 630
b) 1140
c) 800
5. Which of the following formulae are correct for the triangle shown ?
a) C2 = A2 + B2
b) B2 = C2 +A2
c) A2 = C2 + B2
Page 175
6. If there are two similar angles in a right triangle, these angels are
a) complementary
b) supplementary
c) subordinate
7. The three angles of a triangle summed together equal

a) 900
b) 1800
c) 3600
8. In a right-angled triangle the other two angles are both 450. The length of the opposite side can be calculated by
a) sin 450 length of the hypotenuse side of the triangle
b) cos 450 length of the adjacent side of the triangle
c) sin 450 length of the adjacent side of the triangle
9. A circular path is held together by seven equally spaced rivets, what is the angular relationship
a) 51.500
b) 51.430
c) 520
10. sin =
a) C / A
b) A / C
c) B / C
Page 176
11. Cos A =
a) 1.2
b) 0.8
c) 0.6
12. In a right angle triangle, the sine of an angle is

a) opposite divided by hypotenuse
b) adjacent divided by hypotenuse
c) opposite divided by adjacent
13. In a right angle triangle, the tangent of an angle is

a) opposite divide by hypotenuse
14. In a right angle triangle, the cosine of an angle is

a) opposite divide by hypotenuse
15. One radian is equal to

a) 57.50
b) 900
c) 750
Page 177
16. What is tan when = 900

a) +ve infinity
b) 0
c) ve infinity
17. Complete the following: sin a =

a) opposite side divided by the hypotenuse side
b) adjacent side divided by the opposite side
c) a squared times b squared
18. What is the supplement of 130 13 13

a) 1660 4647
b) 27604647
c) 7604647
19. 1660 46 47 + 130 13 13

a) 1800
b) 1790 60 60
c) 1790 1 1
20. Starting from zero amplitude, the cosine curve repeats itself between.
a) 0 and 360 degree
b) -180 and 180 degree
c) -90 and 270 degree
21. Choose the correct statement

a) sec2x + tan2x = 1
b) cos2x sin2x = 1
c) cos sec2x cot2x = 1
Page 178
22. One radian is

a) the angle subtended at the centre of a circle when the arc-length formed between two radial lines is equal to
b) the angle subtanded at tehj centre of a circle when the arc length formed between two radial lines is equal in length to
the radius
c) 66.67 degrees
23. The supplement of 13 degrees is

a) 76
b) 243
c) 167
24. What is 1 radian in degrees ?

a) 570
b) 2700
c) 660
25. Using cosine to find the angle of triangle, which statement is true?
a) Adj / hyp
b) Opp / adj
c) Opp / hyp
26. How many radians are in 3600

a) 2
b) 4
c) 65
27. Sector with angle A subtended to the centre point. Area of the sector proportional to:
a) sin A
b) cos A
c) Angle A
Page 179
1.3.3.3 Use of Tables and Rectangular and Polar Coordinates
1.3.3.3.1 Rectangular Coordinates
Rectangular coordinates refer to the (x,y) coordinates of the

point on a graph having x and y axes. The figure below
shows the rectangular coordinates of points A, B, C, D and E
respectively
Page 180
Rectangular coordinates refer to the standard (x,y) coordinates that we commonly use in plotting graphs.
These coordinates are measured from two reference arcs positioned at right angles. It is conventional practice to call the
horizontal axis x and the vertical axis y. See figure A. Independent variables are plotted on the x-axis and dependent variables
on the y-axis. Having this method, it means every point on graph is represented by certain values of an ordered pair (x,y)
coordinates. The (x,y) coordinates of the point are called its rectangular coordinates. Figure A shows the rectangular
coordinates of point A,B,C,D and E respectively.
Notice that all the points start with coordinate x first, followed by coordinate y.
Point A is located on x equals 2 and y equals 1.

Point B is located on x equals 1 and y equals 3.
Point C is located on x equals 3 and y equals 0.
Point D is located on x equals 3 and y equals 3.
Point E is located on x equals 1 and y equals 2
Page 181
Questions:
Write down the rectangular coordinates of each point of the figure below.
x y
A = ( __ , __ )
B = ( __ , __ )
C = ( __ , __ )
D = ( __ , __ )
E = ( __ , __ )
Page 182
1.3.3.3.2 Polar Coordinates
Polar Coordinates determine the position of a point in a plane

by reference to:
1. A fixed point (the origin).
2. A fixed line from the origin.
Referring to Figure 1:
The point P has polar coordinates (r, )
i. r is conventionally taken as positive.
ii. is an angle in radians: - < < , is positive
when measured anticlockwise and negative when
measured clockwise.
Page 183
There is a simple relationship between polar and rectangular coordinates:
Referring to Figure 2:
x = r cos
y = r sin
or r x 2 y 2 and tan = y
x
cos = x x = r cos
r
sin = y y = r sin
r
tan = y = tan 1 y
x x
r x 2 y 2 (Pythagoras Theorem)
Page 184
QUESTIONS : Use of tables and rectangular and polar coordinates
1. Polar coordinates have (x, y) coordinates.

2. Rectangular and polar coordinates both make use of x and y axes.

3. in the polar coordinates system is in terms of radian.

4. Refer to the diagram below and state whether each of the following relationships is true or false
a) x = r, y = True / False
b) r2 = x2 + y2 True / False
c) tan /r = y True / False
d) cos = x / r , thus x = r / cos True / False
Page 185

Module 1

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Module 1

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

EASA PART 66 CAT B1.

1.1 ARITHMETIC ..........................................................................................................................................................................1

1.1.3.1.4 Subtraction of Fractions ..........................................................................................................................................16

1.1.9.1.3 THE TRIANGLE......................................................................................................................................................54

1.2.2.2 Subtraction .................................................................................................................................................................88

1.2.3.2 Roots ........................................................................................................................................................................108

1.2.5.10 Convert Binary to Decimal ....................................................................................................................................125

1.3.1.4 Construction of Triangles..........................................................................................................................................153

1.1.1 Arithmetic Term and Signs

1.1.1.2 Whole Numbers

1.1.1.3 Addition of Whole Numbers (+)

1.1.1.4 Subtraction of Whole Numbers (-)

Question: Arithmetic term & sign

3. The sum of an odd and even number is

1.1.2 Methods of Multiplication and Division

1.1.2.1 Multiplication of Whole Number ()

1.1.2.2 Division of Whole Number ()

Question: Methods of multiplication and division

1.1.2.3 Positive and Negative Numbers

The sum of positive number is positive

Example : (+5) + (+6) (4) = 15

1.1.2.4 Adding Signed Numbers

1.1.2.5 Subtracting Signed Numbers

1.1.2.6 Multiplying Signed Numbers

1.1.2.7 Dividing Signed Numbers

- (+) (+) = (+)

Questions : Positive and Negative Numbers

1. Work out the following sum:

3. Calculate (+3) (4)

A simple mnemonic helps us to remember the order in which to simplify expressions

Example using BODMAS.

1. Simplify each of the following:

(a) (2 4/5 1 ) 2/3

2. Evaluate the following:

1.1.3 Fractions and Decimals

1.1.3.1.1 Lowest Terms

Reduce 2135 to its lowest terms

1.1.3.1.2 Finding the Least Common Denominator (LCD)

Find LCD for 7 8 , 1120 , 836 , 2145

1.1.3.1.3 Addition of Fractions

The lowest common denominator of 5 and 7 is 35

4 2 3 2 35 6 2 3 35 6 1015 915 6 1915 6 1 415 7 415

1.1.3.1.4 Subtraction of Fractions

The lowest common denominator is 12

6 3 4 4 13 2 3 4 13 2 (94)12 2 512 2 512

1.1.3.1.5 Multiplication of Fractions

Find the value of 2 3 5 7 2132

Mixed numbers must be converted into improper fractions before multiplying.

1 38 2 13 118 7 3 (117) (83) 77 24 3 5 24

1.1.3.1.6 Division of Fractions

Mixed numbers must be converted into improper fractions before multiplying.

1.1.3.2.1 Decimals are Fraction

To understand the subject, look at the table below:

Thousand Hundred Tens Unit Tenth Hundredth Thousandth

a. 27.6 has one decimal place.

c. 27.026 has three decimal places.

1.1.3.2.2 Add Decimals

Evaluate 3.76 + 0.021 + 68.3 = 72.081

1.1.3.2.3 Subtract Decimals

Similarly in subtraction, ensure that decimal points are in line.

Evaluate 27.3 4.36 = 22.94

Note: 27.3 can be taken as 27.30.