International Journal of Police Science & Management Volume 2 Number 4
Is my stress greater than yours?
A comparison of policemen and firemen
David A. Alexander* and Leslie G. Walker
'Centre for Trauma Research, Bennachie, Royal Cornhill Hospital, Aberdeen AB25 2ZH;
tel: 01224 681818; fax: 01224 403642; e-mail: mental.health.FH@abdn.ac.uk
Received: 16th November, 1997
David Alexander is Professor in Mental Health
at the Medical School, University of Aberdeen
and is Director of the Centre for Trauma Re-
search, Royal Cornhill Hospital. He is honorary
consultant to the police and fire services of the
north-east of Scotland. Regularly he is a visiting
lecturer at the Scottish Police College, and he
has been on several occasions a guest lecturer
at the FBI Academy, Virginia, USA. Also, he has
been a consultant to the State Militia in Arkhan-
gelsk and Chelyabinsk in Russia. He is a director
of the British Section of the International Police
Association.
Leslie Walker is Reader in Mental Health and
Director of the Behavioural Oncology Unit, Aber-
deen Royal Infirmary. He is a consultant clinical
psychologist with extensive experience in the
UK and abroad of the identification and treat-
ment of stress-related conditions.
ABSTRACT
Previous research has suggested that police work
is stressiul both because of the nature <if
operational duties and because <if the organisa-
tional climate in which police officers fulfil these
duties. Few studies have compared, however,
the views of police officers with those <if other
emergency personnel.
This paper compares large samples of
policemen and firemen in relation to many
aspects <if their work, job satisfaction and
several health indices.
The results confirm that police work and
firf!fighting generate sources of stress for those
involved in such work, but that policemen more
commonly report health problems and identify
such factors as shift work and long hours as
being damaging to their personal life. Firemen,
on the other hand, reported more job satisfac-
tion than did the policemen.
INTRODUCTION
Investigation of the impact of police work
on police officers and their families has
been relatively slow to develop in the
UK, although the pioneering efforts of
Cooper et al. (1982) and Gudjonsson and
Adlam (1985) suggested that police do
have a particularly demanding occupation.
Further interest in the effects of police
work was fuelled by a series of national
catastrophes such as the Bradford Stadium
fire (Duckworth, 1986), the Piper Al-
pha oil platform disaster (Alexander and
Wells, 1991; Alexander, 1993) and the
Hillsborough Stadium disaster (Duck-
worth, 1991).
Police work is not exclusively associated
with trauma, however, and more recent
attempts have been made to assess the
impact of police work from an or-
ganisational and managerial perspective
(Alexander et al., 1993; Brown and
Campbell, 1994). These efforts identify International Journal of Police
Science and Management,
other stressors associated with police work Vol. 2 No.4. 2000, pp. 303-312.
Henry Stewart Publications.
in relation to, for example, shift work, 1461-3557
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Is my stress greater than yours? A comparison of policemen and firemen
paperwork, deadlines and specific opera-
tional duties.
Although much has been written about
stress in the police as reflected in, for
example, marital problems (Alexander and
Walker, 1996), alcohol problems (Kroes,
1976) and suicide rates (Cooper et al.,
1982), there are many unchallenged as-
sumptions about the levels of stress among
police officers compared to other occupa-
tional groups. As Brown and Campbell
(1994) recently emphasised, comparative
studies are required in order that some of
the findings from police research are put
in perspective.
Firefighters have been studied less fre-
quently than police officers in relation
to the impact of their work. Most re-
search has tended to focus on the ef-
fects on firefighters of major disasters
(eg Stuhlmiller, 1994; McFarlane, 1998)
and the unpleasant 'critical incidents' of
more routine frrefighting (Robinson et al.,
1997). Another popular research focus has
been on the physical health of these
personnel in relation to, for example, their
pulmonary function (Serra et al., 1996),
back problems (Finkelstein, 1995) and
their exposure to carcinogenic hazards
(Golden et al., 1995).
Less effort has been dedicated to
identifying the more routine stressors in
the work of a firefighter. Murphy et al.
(1994), however, highlighted the stressful
nature of disrupted sleep, and concerns
about safety, technical competence and
wages. In a later study Beaton et al. (1997)
emphasised the deleterious effects of
conflict with the organisation in terms of
low job satisfaction and morale.
This report provides information on a
comparison between police officers and
firefighters; occupational groups which
have much in common because they
represent two of the emergency services;
they are generally uniformed services, and
they are disciplinary in their organisation.
Page 304
The aims of the comparison are to
identify to what extent police officers and
firefighters
(i) are exposed to the same occupational
stressors (beyond occupation-specific
types of 'critical incident')
(ii) report any similar impact of these
stressors on their marital and social
lives
(iii) have similar health problems
(iv) display comparable levels of job satis-
faction.
METHOD
Staff questionnaire
Based on a literature search, on extensive
consultation with emergency personnel
and on a pilot study, a questionnaire was
designed for a survey of the police and
fire services of the north-east of Scotland.
These two services are responsible for a
population of approximately half a mil-
lion, and they cover rural and urban
areas.
The composition of the questionnaire
was as follows:
- five general aspects of work, VIZ
work overload, work underload, ex-
posure to physical danger, personal
recognition (by the organisation of
work achievement) and frustration
due to (perceived) obstacles at work.
The response options were 'not at
all', 'slightly', 'considerably' and 'ex-
tremely'. The reference period was 'in
the previous four weeks'
- a series of questions identifying the
impact of six factors on marital and
social life. (Here 'marital' refers to
any enduring stable relationship.) The
factors were: working shifts, working
long hours, having rostered shifts al-
tered, having leave cancelled, work-

mg with members of the opposite
sex, and having to move home (for
work-related reasons). The response
options were the same as for the first
section, but there was also a 'not
relevant' option for those respondents
for whom an item did not pertain. The
reference period was 'within the last
eight weeks'
- respondents were also asked to answer
a number of questions about their
physical health, alcohol consumption
and job satisfaction.
In addition, each individual completed
the Hospital Anxiety and Depression
Scale (Zigmond and Snaith, 1983), which
is a standardised, valid and reliable
measure of anxiety and depression used in
non-psychiatric samples.
Subjects
Of the questionnaires distributed through
the internal mailing system of the Gram-
pian Police Force to all 1,014 full-time
police officers, 772 were returned. On
examination, however, 14 of the respon-
dents were considered to be ineligible for
various reasons (eg they had been out of
the Grampian region on extended attach-
ments). Thus 758 questionnaires (repre-
senting a response rate of 76 per cent)
remained for analysis. The questionnaire
was also sent to the 265 firefighters
employed by the regional fire service.
One hundred and forty-six (55 per cent)
questionnaires were returned.
All police officers and firefighters were
operational staff; administrative staff were
not included in this comparison.
Analysis
Data were analysed using appropriate
non-parametric statistics (X2 for categori-
cal variables and the Mann Whitney U
test for ordinal variables). All probability
values are two-tailed.
Alexander and Walker
RESULTS
Since all the firefighters were male, the
following comparisons are confmed to
those with the male police officers
(n = 688).
Personal data
The median ages for the firemen and the
policemen were 36 years and 26 years
respectively. A comparison by Mann Whit-
ney U test indicated firemen were sig-
nificantly older (z = -5.254, P = 0.001).
Similarly, their years of experience in their
occupations were significantly different
(z = -13.079, P = 0.0001) with firemen
being more experienced. The median
years of experience were 12 and 22
years for policemen and firemen respec-
tively. Eighty per cent (355/445) of the
policemen were in a stable enduring
relationship (ie 'married'); 122 out of 154
(79 per cent) of firemen lived in such a
relationship. There was, however, no
statistical difference between the occupa-
tional groups in terms of the proportion
who were 'married' (Fisher Exact Test,
0.258, ns).
General work stressors
Table 1 displays the frequency of
responses to the specific stressors
encountered by police and fire service
personnel. The figures in the right-hand
columns are the raw frequencies,
representing the numbers of respondents;
those in parentheses are the percentages of
the respective sample.
The only factor which was associated
with a statistically significant difference
between the two occupational groups was
overwork (X2 = 17.20, df, P < 0.001).
Over half the firemen (56 per cent)
compared to just over a third of the
policemen (39 per cent) reported that
they had not been overworked during the
previous four weeks. On the other hand,
a quarter of the police officers but only 15
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Is my stress greater than yours? A comparison of policemen and firemen

Table 1: Comparison of policemen (PM) and firemen (FF) in relation to

general work stressors in the previous four weeks

Not at all Slightly Considerably Extremely

PM FF PM FF PM FF PM FF
General work stressor n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) YI (%)

1. Being overworked* 266 (39) 82 (56) 249 (36) 42 (29) 148 (22) 17 (11) 19 (3) 6 (4)
2. Being underworked 522 (77) 112 (77) 107 (16) 23 (16) 37 (6) 11 (7) 10 (1) 0(0)
3. Being exposed to 383 (56) 78 (53) 239 (35) 57 (39) 56 (8) 9 (6) 5 (1) 2 (2)
danger
4. Lack of recognition 355 (52) 83 (64) 143 (21) 23 (16) 137 (20) 20 (13) 47 (7) 10 (7)
at work
5. Frustrated by 229 (33) 64 (44) 234 (42) 49 (33) 136 (20) 26 (18) 34 (5) 7 (5)
perceived unnecessary
obstacles

*X 2 = 17.20, df 3, p < 0.001

per cent of the firemen claimed that they
had been 'considerably' or 'extremely'
overworked during that period. The two
groups had identical figures (77 per cent)
in relation to being underworked. Seven
per cent of the firemen and 1 per cent of
the policemen claimed, however, they
had been 'considerably' or 'extremely'
underworked. The difference however
was not statistically significant (X 2 = 3,04,
df3, ns).
The number of policemena and firemen
who had been exposed to danger was
quite high (44 per cent and 47 per cent
respectively), but the difference between
the two groups was not statistically sig-
nificant (X 2 = 1.92, df3, ns).
Although there was no statistically sig-
nificant difference between the groups
(X2 = 7.23, df3, ns), at least a fifth of
each group felt that there was a marked
lack of recognition of their efforts at
work shown by their respective organisa-
tions.
Twenty-three per cent of firemen and
policemen claimed that they felt
considerably or extremely frustrated by
what they regarded as unnecessary
obstacles at work; however, the chi-
squared analysis produced a non-
significant result (X 2 = 5.82, df3, ns).
Effect of work on marital and social
life
Shift work
Policemen were much more likely than
firemen to report that shift work adversely
affected their marriage (X 2 = 28.228, df 3,
P < 0.00001). Eight per cent of policemen
and only 1 per cent of firefighters
reported the effect as a 'considerable' or
an 'extreme' one. Similarly, the effect of
shift work on social life was reported to
be worse for policemen than for firemen
(X2 = 45.627, df 3, P < 0.00001). Over a
third (37 per cent) of the policemen
reported a 'considerable' or an 'extreme'
effect; only 12 per cent of firemen did
so,
Altered roster shifts
The marriages (X 2 = 11,798, dfl, P
< 0.0006) and the social lives (X2 =
14.634, df3, P < 0.0002) of policemen
were more likely than those of firemen to
be adversely affected by this factor.
(The first chi-squared analysis had to

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be conducted on collapsed response
categories because of the small cell
values.)
Working long hours
Policemen were more likely than firemen
to report that working long hours
affected their marriages (X2 = 26.005,
df 3, p < 0.00001) and their social lives
(X 2 = 46.194, df 3, P < 0.00001).
Cancelled leave
Although 46 per cent of policemen and
33 per cent of firemen reported that
cancellation of leave affected their marital
relationship, this difference was not statis-
tically significant (X 2 = 3.604, cf3, ns).
Similarly, this aspect of work did not
identify a difference between the two
groups in terms of its effect on their social
lives (X 2 = 2.901, df3, ns). It is to be
noted, however, that 70 per cent of the
policemen and 57 per cent of the firemen
reported that cancelled leave did affect
their social lives.
Having to move house
There was no difference between the two
occupational groups in terms of the effect
of having to move house (for work-
related reasons) on marital or social life
(X2 = 7.274, dfl, ns; X 2 = 0.009, cfl, ns
respectively). The small cell values re-
quired analyses to be conducted on col-
lapsed categories.
Working with the opposite sex
Nine per cent of policemen and 4 per
cent of firemen reported that their marital
relationships were adversely affected by
their having to work with colleagues of
the opposite sex, but this difference was
not statistically significant (X 2 = 1.41 7,
df 1, ns). Similarly, this variable did not
distinguish between the two groups in
terms of its effect on their social lives
(X 2 = 4.413, df 1, ns). In both com-
Alexander and Walker
parisons collapsed categories were used
because of small cell values.
Self-reported health record
Do you have a current health problem?
To this question, 20 per cent and 10
per cent respectively of policemen and
firemen answered in the affirmative, but a
2 X 2 chi-squared analysis failed to iden-
tify a statistically significant difference be-
tween the groups (X 2 = 6.49, dfl, ns).
How many visits have you made to your
family doctor in the last 12 months?
The median number of visits and the
standard deviations for the policemen
were 1.00 and 2.01 visits respectively. The
figures for the firemen were 1.00 and 2.03
visits respectively. The range for the
policemen was 0-20 visits and that for the
firemen was 0-10 visits. A Mann Whitney
U test did not obtain a statistically
significant difference between the two
groups (z = -1.0848, ns).
Have you been admitted to hospital
within the last 12 months?
Although there was no difference be-
tween policemen and fIremen in terms of
the numbers who had had a hospital
admission (X 2 = 3.36, dfl, ns), 18 per
cent of the former group and 25 per cent
of the latter group had had an admission
during this period.
What was your approximate alcohol
consumption in the previous week?
(converted into units)
For policemen the median was eight units
with a range of 0-150 units. The respec-
tive fIgures for firemen were ten units,
and 0-110 units.
There was a statistically significant dif-
ference between the two occupational
groups in terms of their alcohol con-
sumption when compared by the Mann
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Is my stress greater than yours? A comparison of policemen and firemen

Table 2: The anxiety and depression scores from the Hospital Anxiety and
Depression Scale obtained from policemen and firemen

Anxiety Depression

mean sd median mean sd median

Policemen 6.55 3.65 6.00 3.32 2.93 3.00

Firemen 5.54 3.23 5.00 3.02 2.61 2.00

Table 3: The categorical distribution of anxiety and depression scores from the
Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale for policemen and firemen

Anxiety Depression

Normal Borderline Pathological Normal Borderline Pathological

n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%)

Policemen 441 (64) 149 (22) 98 (14) 621 (90) 50 (7) 17 (3)
Firemen 110 (76) 26 (18) 9 (6) 137 (95) 6 (4) 2 (1)

X 2 = 9.32, df2, P < 0.01 X 2 = 2.60, df2, ns

Whitney U test (z = -1.9903, P < 0.05),
confirming the higher unitary consump-
tion of the firemen. (The range of con-
sumption in both groups is also worthy of
note.)
The Hospital Anxiety and Depression
Scale
The mean scores, medians and standard
deviations for the two employment
groups are displayed in Table 2. A
Mann Whitney U test confmned
that the policemen have significantly
higher anxiety levels than firemen
(z = -2.8428, P < 0.01) but there was no
significant difference between them with
respect to their depression scores
(z = -0.8350, ns).
The data were also analysed categori-
cally in terms of the distribution of the
scores according to the scheme recom-
mended by Zigmond and Snaith (1983).
These data are shown in Table 3. The
chi-squared analysis confirms that there
are more policemen than firemen in the
categories associated with high levels of
anxiety. This relationship, however, does
not hold for the depression scores.
Job satisfaction
The extent to which policemen and
firemen were satisfied with their most
recent posting can be seen in Table 4. A
chi-squared analysis identified a highly
significant difference between the two
groups (X2 = 15.73, df3, P < 0.002).
Overall, fireman are clearly more satisfied
with their work than are policemen.

Page 308

Table 4: Job satisfaction among policemen and firemen
Very satisfied Satisfied
n (%) n (%)
Policemen 208 (31) 337 (50)
Firemen 68 (46) 63 (43)
DISCUSSION
This study reports on comparisons be-
tween large samples of male police of-
ficers and male firefighters in relation to
a number of occupational and health
Issues.
Out of the five general occupational
stressors only work overload produced a
significant difference between these two
groups of emergency service personnel.
This study confirms the fmdings of Brown
and Campbell (1994) that work overload
is a greater issue within the police service.
While jobs which are demanding are
no doubt rewarding, overwork is likely
to lead eventually to negative conse-
quences. About a quarter of individuals
in both services reported being under-
worked at some stage during the sur-
vey period. Fluctuating workload is of
course a perennial problem in occupations
which are essentially 'reactive' to usually
unforeseen events. (It is acknowledged
that no operational defmitions of 'over-
load' and 'underload' were given in the
questionnaire as the concepts will always
reflect a subjective appraisal by the in-
dividual. Moreover, since the duties both
between and within these two organisa-
tions are so complex and variable, there
could be no way of effecting an objective
comparison of workload.)
Fairly high numbers of both groups
reported that they experienced a lack
of recognition for their efforts by their
respective services. It is a challenge, there-
Alexander and Walker
Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied
n (%) n (%)
104 (15) 30 (4)
14 (10) 2 (1)
fore, to any service to ensure that its
employees' efforts are appreciated. Unfor-
tunately, it is traditional (certainly within
the police service) that feedback tends to
be provided according to the principles of
the servo-mechanism; nothing happens
until something goes wrong and then
punitive action tends to be taken. It is
widely recognised that it is stressful when
employees feel that their efforts are being
frustrated by what they regard as un-
necessary impediments. This study cannot
identity what these impediments were,
but policemen and firemen (about 20 per
cent in each case) reported feeling con-
siderably or extremely frustrated. It would
appear therefore that both services subject
their employees to the experience of a
lack of appreciation and a sense of frustra-
tion; neither circumstance is conducive to
a healthy and happy workforce.
There is a growing awareness of a
'ripple effect' in relation to the implica-
tions of an adverse working environment.
These implications extend beyond the
individual employees to their families and
to their lives outside work. There is a
persistently held view that the effects on
marriages of police work is particularly
deleterious although this view has been
challenged (Terry, 1981). A common
source of this alleged impact is shift work,
although some have argued (eg Davidson
and Veno, 1980) that one can adjust
successfully one's personal life to this
factor. Policemen more frequently than
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Is my stress greater than yours? A comparison of policemen and firemen
the firemen reported that shift work in
general, and alterations to their rostered
shifts in particular, did adversely affect
their marital and social lives. In an earlier
report (Alexander and Walker, 1996),
spouses of policemen described shift work
as the second most damaging aspect of
police work to family life, after 'long
hours'. In the present report it should also
be noted that long hours are more likely
to be regarded by policemen than by
firemen as markedly disruptive to their
marital and social lives.
Not surprisingly, cancelled leave was
described by both groups as adversely af-
fecting their personal lives, although the
extent to which this was the case was the
same for both occupational groups. In
an earlier study (Alexander and Walker,
1996) about a third of police spouses had
stated that the threat of having to move
house for work-related reasons was a potent
source of stress, but there was no evidence
from the present figures that the impact
of this factor was specific to policemen.
Similarly, although there have been as-
sertions (eg Casey, 1992) that policemen
find working with colleagues of the op-
posite sex is threatening to or disruptive of
their relationships at home, relatively few
policemen reported any marked effect of
this circumstance on their marriages, and
there was no difference between policemen
and firemen in terms oftheir reporting such
an effect.
The health of the workforce is an
important consideration for any organisa-
tion, even if this concern is motivated
more by practical considerations (such as
lost man-hours) than by humanitarian
motives. In a survey conducted by the
Office of Population Census and Survey,
it was noted that police officers have a
higher (unexplained) death rate than do
fire service personnel (reported in Brown
and Campbell, 1994). Although the
present self-report data need to be
Page 310
interpreted with caution, there are also
differences between these two groups.
Although historically the misuse of al-
cohol has been associated with policemen
(eg Bonifacio, 1991), in this survey
the weekly unitary intake of firemen
was significantly higher than that of
policemen. (One must also view with
some concern the extreme end of the
consumption range for both groups, viz
110 and 150 units for firemen and
policemen respectively.) In terms of their
depression scores there was no difference
between the services, but there was a
significantly higher level of anxiety among
the policemen irrespective of whether
the data were analysed categorically or
dimensionally.
Job satisfaction is probably multi-deter-
mined, and this survey cannot comment
upon which factors underlie it. It can,
however, be seen that firemen are much
more satisfied than are their police col-
leagues. Just under half the firemen, but
less than a third of the policemen, were
'very satisfied' with their jobs. It should
also be noted that 30 policemen and only
two firemen were 'very dissatisfied'.
There may of course be other stressors
which have a pervasive influence, but this
study was not designed to identity their
possible effect. Other factors which might
contribute to the higher levels of stress
and the lower levels of job satisfaction
reported by policemen might include
societal perceptions of their roles com-
pared to those of firemen. Firefighters
more common enjoy a good public
image; what they do is almost universally
perceived to be in society's interest. On
the other hand, police officers have more
conflicting roles; they may shield us from
the nefarious predations of criminals but
they are also likely to give us a parking
ticket. Crowe and Stradling (1993) have
illuminated the complex conflicts as-
sociated with being a police officer.

Moreover, the police service has had to
endure episodes of adverse publicity (eg in
relation to unjustifiable convictions) and
organisational review (eg the Sheehy
Conunittee Report).
CONCLUSIONS
That police work and firefighting are
demanding and pressured occupations
cannot be denied; indeed, it may be these
features which at least in part underlie
their attractiveness to some personnel.
This study provides, however, some
evidence that policemen and their per-
sonal lives are more likely to be com-
promised by their work than is the case
for firemen. Male police officers in this
study reported themselves to be more
overworked, more anxious and more
likely to have a current health problem. In
addition, the police were more likely to
describe the adverse effects of shift work
and altered shifts and long hours on their
marital and social lives. Finally, their job
satisfaction was lower than that of their
colleagues in the fire service.
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