Automatic grass cutter Machine

ABSTRACT

A Solar grass cutter is a machine that uses rotating blades to cut a lawn at an even length. Even
more sophisticated devices are there in every field. Power consumption becomes essential for
future. Solar grass cutter is a very useful device which is very simple in construction. It is used
to maintain and upkeep lawns in gardens, schools, colleges etc. We have made some changes in
the existing machine to make its application easier at reduced cost. Our main aim in pollution
control is attained through this. Unskilled operation can operate easily and maintain the lawn
very fine and uniform surface look. In our project, Solar grass cutter is used to cut the
different grasses for the different application.
 I. INTRODUCTION

Moving the grass cutters with a standard motor powered grass cutters is an inconvenience, and
no one takes pleasure in it. Cutting grass cannot be easily accomplished by elderly, younger,
grass cutter moving with engine create noise pollution due to the loud engine, and local air
pollution due to the combustion in the engine. Also, a motor powered engine requires periodic
maintenance such as changing the engine oil. Even though electric solar grass are
environmentally friendly, they too can be an inconvenience. Along with motor powered grass
cutter, electric grass cutters are also hazardous and cannot be easily used by all. Also, if the
electric grass cutter is corded, mowing could prove to be problematic and dangerous.
COMPONENTS USED
The main components of the solar powered grass
cutter are,
*
Batteries
Gear DC motor
*
*
Mechanism used
IR sensor
*
*
Blades
L clamps
These are explained below one by one

4.1 TRANSFORMER

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with a little loss of power. Step-up
transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down
transformer to reduce the dangerously high voltage to a safer low voltage.

FIG 4.1: A TYPICAL TRANSFORMER

The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no electrical
connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-
iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers
waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down
and current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages.
A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high
voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.
 TURNS RATIO = (Vp / Vs) = ( Np / Ns )
Where,
Vp = primary (input) voltage.
Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip = primary (input) current
Is = secondary (output) current.

Ideal power equation

The ideal transformer as a circuit element

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is transmitted from the
primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly efficient; all the incoming energy is
transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is
met, the incoming electric power must equal the outgoing power:

Giving the ideal transformer equation

Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable approximation.

If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The impedance in one circuit is
transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if an impedance Zs is attached across the terminals of
the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is
reciprocal, so that the impedance Zp of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be (Ns/Np)2Zp.

4.2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

Features
Output Current up to 1A.
Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
Thermal Overload Protection.
Short Circuit Protection.
Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

Description
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the TO-220/D-
PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide range of applications. Each
type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe operating area protection, making it
essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current.
Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to
obtain adjustable voltages and currents.
Absolute Maximum Ratings

TABLE 4.2(b): RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

4.3 RECTIFIER
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses
direction, to direct current (DC), current that flows in only one direction, a process known as rectification.
Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals.
Rectifiers may be made of solid state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components.
The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a
half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good
stability and full wave rectification. In positive half cycle only two diodes (1 set of parallel diodes) will conduct,
in negative half cycle remaining two diodes will conduct and they will conduct only in forward bias only.
4.4 FILTER

Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and smoothens
the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load is maintained constant.
However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is
applied at the output stage.
The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The use of this filter is very
limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low-current power supplies for cathode-ray and similar
electron tubes that require very little load current from the supply. This filter is also used in circuits where the
power-supply ripple frequency is not critical and can be relatively high.below figure can show how the
capacitor chages and discharges.
4.11 LED
Light Emitting Diodes (LED) have recently become available that are white and bright, so bright that
they seriously compete with incandescent lamps in lighting applications. They are still pretty expensive as
compared to a GOW lamp but draw much less current and project a fairly well focused beam.
The diode in the photo came with a neat little reflector that tends to sharpen the beam a little but doesn't
seem to add much to the overall intensity.
When run within their ratings, they are more reliable than lamps as well. Red LEDs are now being used
in automotive and truck tail lights and in red traffic signal lights. You will be able to detect them because they
look like an array of point sources and they go on and off instantly as compared to conventional incandescent
lamps.
 LEDs are monochromatic (one color) devices. The color is determined by the band gap of the
semiconductor used to make them. Red, green, yellow and blue LEDs are fairly common. White light contains
all colors and cannot be directly created by a single LED. The most common form of "white" LED really isn't
white. It is a Gallium Nitride blue LED coated with a phosphor that, when excited by the blue LED light, emits
a broad range spectrum that in addition to the blue emission, makes a fairly white light.
There is a claim that these white LED's have a limited life. After 1000 hours or so of operation, they
tend to yellow and dim to some extent. Running the LEDs at more than their rated current will certainly
accelerate this process.
There are two primary ways of producing high intensity white-light using LEDS. One is to use
individual LEDS that emit three primary coloursred, green, and blueand then mix all the colours to form
white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to
broad-spectrum white light, much in the same way a fluorescent light bulb works. Due to metamerism, it is
possible to have quite different spectra that appear white.
LEDs are semiconductor devices. Like transistors, and other diodes, LEDs are made out of silicon. What
makes an LED give off light are the small amounts of chemical impurities that are added to the silicon, such as
gallium, arsenide, indium, and nitride.
When current passes through the LED, it emits photons as a byproduct. Normal light bulbs produce light
by heating a metal filament until it is white hot. LEDs produce photons directly and not via heat, they are far
more efficient than incandescent bulbs.

Fig 3.1(a): circuit symbol

Not long ago LEDs were only bright enough to be used as indicators on dashboards or electronic
equipment. But recent advances have made LEDs bright enough to rival traditional lighting technologies.
Modern LEDs can replace incandescent bulbs in almost any application.

Types of LEDS
LEDs are produced in an array of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package is the most common,
estimated at 80% of world production. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the actual color of light
emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have clear
housings. There are also LEDs in extremely tiny packages, such as those found on blinkers and on cell phone
keypads. The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as alphanumeric or
multi-color.

Fig 3.1(b) Different types of LEDS

4.12 PUSH BUTTONS

Fig.4.8 (a): Push Buttons

A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a simple switch mechanism for controlling
some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard material, usually plastic or metal.
The surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the human finger or hand, so as to be easily depressed or
pushed. Buttons are most often biased switches, though even many un-biased buttons (due to their physical
nature) require a spring to return to their un-pushed state. Different people use different terms for the "pushing"
of the button, such as press, depress, mash, and punch.

Uses:
In industrial and commercial applications push buttons can be linked together by a mechanical linkage
so that the act of pushing one button causes the other button to be released. In this way, a stop button can
"force" a start button to be released. This method of linkage is used in simple manual operations in which the
machine or process have no electrical circuits for control.
Pushbuttons are often color-coded to associate them with their function so that the operator will not push
the wrong button in error. Commonly used colors are red for stopping the machine or process and green for
starting the machine or process.
Red pushbuttons can also have large heads (mushroom shaped) for easy operation and to facilitate the
stopping of a machine. These pushbuttons are called emergency stop buttons and are mandated by the electrical
code in many jurisdictions for increased safety. This large mushroom shape can also be found in buttons for use
with operators who need to wear gloves for their work and could not actuate a regular flush-mounted push
button. As an aid for operators and users in industrial or commercial applications, a pilot light is commonly
added to draw the attention of the user and to provide feedback if the button is pushed. Typically this light is
included into the center of the pushbutton and a lens replaces the pushbutton hard center disk.
The source of the energy to illuminate the light is not directly tied to the contacts on the back of the
pushbutton but to the action the pushbutton controls. In this way a start button when pushed will cause the
process or machine operation to be started and a secondary contact designed into the operation or process will
close to turn on the pilot light and signify the action of pushing the button caused the resultant process or action
to start.
In popular culture, the phrase "the button" refers to a (usually fictional) button that a military or
government leader could press to launch nuclear weapons.

Push to ON button:

Fig. 4.8(b): push on button

Initially the two contacts of the button are open. When the button is pressed they become connected. This makes
the switching operation using the push button.

4.13 BC547

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS:
 The BC547 transistor is an NPN Epitaxial Silicon Transistor. The BC547 transistor is a general-purpose
transistor in small plastic packages. It is used in general-purpose switching and amplification BC847/BC547
series 45 V, 100 mA NPN general-purpose transistors.

BC 547 TRANSISTOR PINOUTS

An NPN Transistor Configuration

We know that the transistor is a "CURRENT" operated device and that a large current (Ic) flows freely
through the device between the collector and the emitter terminals. However, this only happens when a small
biasing current (Ib) is flowing into the base terminal of the transistor thus allowing the base to act as a sort of
current control input. The ratio of these two currents (Ic/Ib) is called the DC Current Gain of the device and is
given the symbol of hfe or nowadays Beta, (). Beta has no units as it is a ratio. Also, the current gain from the
emitter to the collector terminal, Ic/Ie, is called Alpha, (), and is a function of the transistor itself. As the
emitter current Ie is the product of a very small base current to a very large collector current the value of this
parameter is very close to unity, and for a typical low-power signal transistor this value ranges from about
0.950 to 0.999.

4.14 RESISTORS
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current by producing a voltage
drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are extremely commonplace in
most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as
resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they can dissipate. Other
characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the
value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is
applied voltage. Critical resistance depends upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical
dimensions; it's determined by design.
 Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits. Size, and
position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be physically large enough
not to overheat when dissipating their power.
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical resistance as a
circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow through the
resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the constant of proportionality is known as the
resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by
Ohm's law:

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most
electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire
(wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated
circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are
manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic
design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the
chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be
of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power
rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly
of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may
require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working
voltage of the resistor.
The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms law; this
specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of resistance. In a low-
noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance,
excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the
resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a
particular technology.[1] A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is,
the size of the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of
circuits using them.

Units
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An ohm is
equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large range of
values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 103 ), kilohm (1 k = 103 ), and megohm (1 M = 106 ) are
also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens (SI unit),
sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = 1. Although the concept of
conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are always specified in terms of their resistance
(ohms) rather than conductance.

VARIABLE RESISTORS
Adjustable resistors
A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the resistance can be changed by moving
the connecting wires to different terminals. Some wire wound power resistors have a tapping point that can slide
along the resistance element, allowing a larger or smaller part of the resistance to be used.
Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of equipment is required, the
sliding resistance tap can be connected to a knob accessible to an operator. Such a device is called a rheostat and
has two terminals.

Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a manually adjustable resistor. The way this device works is relatively simple. One terminal
of the potentiometer is connected to a power source. Another is hooked up to ground (a point with no voltage or
resistance and which serves as a neutral reference point), while the third terminal runs across a strip of resistive
material. This resistive strip generally has a low resistance at one end; its resistance gradually increases to a
maximum resistance at the other end. The third terminal serves as the connection between the power source and
ground, and is usually interfaced to the user by means of a knob or lever. The user can adjust the position of the third
terminal along the resistive strip in order to manually increase or decrease resistance. By controlling resistance, a
potentiometer can determine how much current flow through a circuit. When used to regulate current, the
potentiometer is limited by the maximum resistivity of the strip.

The power of this simple device is not to be underestimated. In most analog devices, a potentiometer is what
establishes the levels of output. In a loud speaker, for example, a potentiometer directly adjusts volume; in a
television monitor, it controls brightness.
 A potentiometer can also be used to control the potential difference, or voltage, across a circuit. The setup
involved in utilizing a potentiometer for this purpose is a little bit more complicated. It involves two circuits: the first
circuit consists of a cell and a resistor. At one end, the cell is connected in series to the second circuit, and at the other
end it is connected to a potentiometer in parallel with the second circuit. The potentiometer in this arrangement drops
the voltage by an amount equal to the ratio between the resistance allowed by the position of the third terminal and
the highest possible resistivity of the strip. In other words, if the knob controlling the resistance is positioned at the
exact halfway point on the resistive strip, then the output voltage will drop by exactly fifty percent, no matter how
high the potentiometer's input voltage. Unlike with current regulation, voltage regulation is not limited by the
maximum resistivity of the strip

4.15 CAPACITORS
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors
separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the conductors, an electric field is
present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the plates. The effect
is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly separated conductors.
 An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is measured in
farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. In
practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors and leads
introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a
breakdown voltage.
The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency and quality factor of a
resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic circuit, energy capacity in a high-
power system, and many other important aspects.
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a non-conductor. Capacitors used as
parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating
current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune
radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.
A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric
(insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops
in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. An ideal capacitor
is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric
charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
 The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence
capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of construction. In practice the
dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength
limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and
resistance.

Theory of operation
Capacitance

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric (orange) reduces the
field and increases the capacitance.

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region The non-conductive region
is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical
insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion
region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no
net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and
opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance
of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the
device. The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor
is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the
voltage V between them:

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this case,
capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:
Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a capacitor.
When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric field and energy is stored to
be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium position. The work done in establishing the
electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is given by:[11]

Current-voltage relation
The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a charge
q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric layer of a capacitor,
rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an
electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the
accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the
current as well as proportional to the voltage as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of
integration is added to represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation,

.
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,

.
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than the electric field.
Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the capacitor equations and
replacing C with the inductance L.

DC circuits
A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a switch and a constant DC source of voltage V0 is known
as a charging circuit. If the capacitor is initially uncharged while the switch is open, and the switch is closed at t
= 0, it follows from Kirchhoff's voltage law that

Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first-order differential equation,

At t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero and the voltage across the resistor is V0. The initial current is
then i (0) =V0 /R. With this assumption, the differential equation yields

where 0 = RC is the time constant of the system.

As the capacitor reaches equilibrium with the source voltage, the voltage across the resistor and the current
through the entire circuit decay exponentially. The case of discharging a charged capacitor likewise
demonstrates exponential decay, but with the initial capacitor voltage replacing V0 and the final voltage being
zero.
Applications
Capacitors have many uses in electronic and electrical systems. They are so common that it is a rare
electrical product that does not include at least one for some purpose.

Principles of Operation

The principle of operation for all AC motors relies on the interaction of a revolving magnetic field created in the stator by AC current, with an
opposing magnetic field either induced on the rotor or provided by a separate DC current source. The resulting interaction produces usable
torque, which can be coupled to desired loads throughout the facility in a convenient manner. Prior to the discussion of specific types of AC motors,
some common terms and principles must be introduced.
Michael Faradeys laws of electromagnetic induction:

When a current is passed through stator winding, an alternating flux created on the stator winding which in turn cuts a rotor winding(wire wound
motor)/short circuited copper bar(squirrel cage motor), then a current flows through it and as above one motors works.

AC Motor Construction

Three-phase AC induction motors are commonly used in industrial applications. This type of motor has three main parts, rotor, stator, and enclosure.
The stator and rotor do the work, and the enclosure protects the stator and rotor.

Stator Core
The stator is the stationary part of the motors electromagnetic circuit. The stator core is made up of many thin metal sheets, called laminations.
Laminations are used to reduce energy loses that would result if a solid core were used.

Stator Windings Stator laminations are stacked together forming a hollow cylinder. Coils of insulated wire are inserted into slots of the stator core.
When the assembled motor is in operation, the stator windings are connected directly to the power source. Each grouping of coils, together with the
steel core it surrounds, becomes an electromagnet when current is applied. Electromagnetism is the basic principle behind motor operation.

Rotor Construction
The rotor is the rotating part of the motors electromagnetic circuit. The most common type of rotor used in a three-phase induction motor is a
squirrel cage rotor. Other types of rotor construction is discussed later in the course. The squirrel cage rotor is so called because its construction is
reminiscent of the rotating exercise wheels found in some pet cages.
A squirrel cage rotor core is made by stacking thin steel laminations to form a cylinder.

Rather than using coils of wire as conductors, conductor bars are die cast into the slots evenly spaced around the cylinder. Most squirrel cage rotors
are made by die casting aluminum to form the conductor bars. Siemens also makes motors with die cast copper rotor conductors. These motor exceed
NEMA Premium efficiency standards.

After die casting, rotor conductor bars are mechanically and electrically connected with end rings. The rotor is then pressed onto a steel shaft to form
a rotor assembly.

Enclosure
The enclosure consists of a frame (or yoke) and two end brackets (or bearing housings). The stator is mounted inside the frame. The rotor fits inside
the stator with a slight air gap separating it from the stator. There is no direct physical connection between the rotor and the stator.
The enclosure protects the internal parts of the motor from water and other environmental elements. The degree of protection depends upon the type
of enclosure. Enclosure types are discussed later in this course.

Bearings, mounted on the shaft, support the rotor and allow it to turn. Some motors, like the one shown in the following illustration, use a fan, also
mounted on the rotor shaft, to cool the motor when the shaft is rotating.

2 IR LED AND IR SENSOR

3.2.1 SCHEMATIC CIRCUIT IR SENSOR

IR LED is used as a source of infrared rays. It comes in two packages 3mm or 5mm. 3mm is better as it
is requires less space. IR sensor is nothing but a diode, which is sensitive for infrared radiation.
 This infrared transmitter and receiver are called as IR TX-RX pair. It can
be obtained from any decent electronics component shop and costs less than 10Rs. Following snap shows 3mm
and 5mm IR pairs. Color of IR transmitter and receiver is different. However you may come across pairs which
appear exactly same or even has opposite colorsthan shown in above picture and it is not possible to distinguish
between TX and RX visually. In case you will have to take help of multi-meter to distinguish between them.

Here is how you can distinguish between IR TX-RX using DMM:

Connect cathode of one LED to +ve terminal of DMM

Connect anode of the same LED to common terminal of DMM

(means connect LED such that It gets reverse biased by DMM )

Set DMM to measure resistance up to 2M Ohm.

Check the reading.

Repeat above procedure with second LED.

In above process, when you get the reading of the few hundred Kilo Ohms on DMM, then it indicated
that LED that you are testing is IR sensor. In case of IR transmitter DMM will not show any reading.

Following snap shows typical DMM reading obtained when IR receiver is connected to it as mentioned
above. Second snap shows how sensors resistance increases when it is covered by a finger. Note that, these are
just illustrative figures and they will depend upon sensor as well as DMM that you are using.

While buying an IR sensor, make sure that its reverse resistance in ambient light is below 1000K. If it is
more than this value, then it will not be able to generate sufficient voltage across external resistor and hence will
be less sensitive to small variation in incident light.
 The circuit diagram::Circuit diagram for IR sensor module is very simple and straight forward.

Fig: 3.2 Circuit diagram of IR sensor

Circuit is divided into two sections. IR TX and IR RX are to be soldered on small general purpose Grid PCB.
From this module, take out 3 wires of sufficiently long length (say 1 ft). Then, as shown above, connect them to
VCC, present and to ground on main board. By adjustingpreset, you can adjust sensitivity of the sensor. VCC
should be connected to 5V supply.

3.3 IR TRANSMITTER

Fig: 3.3 IR led

IR LED emits infrared radiation. This radiation illuminates the surface in front of LED. Surface reflects
the infrared light. Depending on the reflectivity of the surface, amount of light reflected varies. This reflected
light is made incident on reverse biased IR sensor. When photons are incident on reverse biased junction of this
diode, electron-hole pairs are generated, which results in reverse leakage current. Amount of electron-hole pairs
generated depends on intensity of incident IR radiation. More intense radiation results in more reverse leakage
current. This current can be passed through a resistor so as to get proportional voltage. Thus as intensity of
incident rays varies, voltage across resistor will vary accordingly.

This voltage can then be given to OPAMP based comparator. Output of the comparator can be read by
uc. Alternatively, you can use on-chip ADC in AVR microcontroller to measure this voltage and perform
comparison in software.

Fig: 3.4 Op amps

3.4 IR RECEIVER:
 A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either current or voltage,
depending upon the mode of operation. Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductordiodes except that they
may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber connection
to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for use specifically as a
photodiode will also use a PIN junction rather than the typical PN junction.

3.4.1USE OF INFRARED DETECTORS BASICS

Fig: 3.5IR Emitter and IR Photo transistor

An infrared emitter is an LED made from gallium arsenide, which emits near-infrared energy at about
880nm. The infrared phototransistor acts as a transistor with the base voltage determined by the amount of light
hitting the transistor. Hence it acts as a variable current source. Greater amount of IR light cause greater currents
to flow through the collector-emitter leads. As shown in the diagram below, the phototransistor is wired in a
similar configuration to the voltage divider. The variable current traveling through the resistor causes a voltage
drop in the pull-up resistor. This voltage is measured as the output of the device.
Fig: 3.6 Circuit diagram of infrared reflectance sensor

IR reflectance sensors contain a matched infrared transmitter and infrared receiver pair. These devices
work by measuring the amount of light that is reflected into the receiver. Because the receiver also responds to
ambient light, the device works best when well shielded from ambient light, and when the distance between the
sensor and the reflective surface is small(less than 5mm). IR reflectance sensors are often used to detect white
and black surfaces. White surfaces generally reflect well, while black surfaces reflect poorly. Of such
applications is the line follower of a robot.

Relays:

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Most of the relays use an electromagnet to

operate a switching mechanism mechanically. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit
by a low-power signal with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits or
where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.

The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal
coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone
exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. Relays can also be used to protect
electrical circuits from overload. In modern electric power systems these functions are performed by
digital instruments still called protective relay, which designed to calculate operating conditions on an
electrical circuit and trip circuit breakers when a fault is detected.
 When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
attracts the armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact either makes or breaks a
connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then
the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open.
When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as
strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but
gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate
quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it
reduces arcing.

4.6.1 Single pole single throw Relay:

In Single Pole Single Throw relay, current will only flow through the contacts when the relay coil is
energized.

Single pole single throw Relay and its circuit symbol

4.7 Transistors used in the project

BC547(NPN)

Features

1500 C Junction temperature

Through hole package

 BC557

Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials
that can act as either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The
transistor's ability to change between these two states enables it to have two basic functions: switching
or amplification. Then bipolar transistors have the ability to operate within three different regions:

Active Region - the transistor operates as an amplifier and IC = IB

Saturation - the transistor is fully-ON operating as a switch and IC = Isaturation

Cut-off - the transistor is "fully-OFF" operating as a switch and IC = 0

The word Transistor is an acronym, and is a combination of the words Transfer Varistor
used to describe their mode of operation way back in their early days of development. There are two
basic types of bipolar transistor construction, NPN and PNP, which basically describes the physical
arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor materials from which they are made.

A transistor is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three terminals
for connection to an external circuit. The Bipolar Junction Transistor basic construction consists of two
PN-junctions producing three connecting terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it
from the other two. These three terminals are known and labeled as the Emitter (E), the Base (B) and
the Collector (C) respectively.

Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current
flowing through them in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal
acting like a current-controlled switch. The principle of operation of the two transistor types NPN and
PNP, is exactly the same the only difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply
for each type.

Bipolar Junction Transistor Configurations

Since Bipolar Junction Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three
possible ways to connect it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the
input and output. Each method of connection responding differently to its input signal within a circuit
as the static characteristics of the transistor varies with each circuit arrangement.
 Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.

Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

Bibliography

Electromechanical book
1. Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology, S. M. Sze., New York: Wiley, 1985; 2nd
ed., 2001, ISBN 0-471-33372-7.

2. Physics of Semiconductor Devices, S. M. Sze., New York: Wiley, 1969, ISBN 0-471-84290-
7.
3. Solid State Physics, Hook, J. R.; H. E. Hall., Wiley, 2001, ISBN 0-471-92805-4.