Christianity in the 1st century

should be adopted in the church as it exists today.

1 Life and ministry of Jesus

See also: Gospel harmony, New Testament view on Je-
sus life and Chronology of Jesus
The ministry of Jesus, according to the account of the

Christians believe that Jesus is the mediator of the New

Covenant.[1] Depicted by 19th century Danish painter Carl Hein-
rich Bloch is his Sermon on the Mount (c. 30) in which he
expounds on the Law. Some scholars consider this to be an
antitype of the proclamation of the Ten Commandments or
Mosaic Covenant by Moses from the Biblical Mount Sinai.[2]
18th-century painting, The Crucixion, by Giovanni Battista
Tiepolo.
Main articles: History of early Christianity and Early
Christianity
Gospels, falls into a pattern of sectarian preachers with
See also: Ministry of Jesus, Apostolic Age and devoted disciples. After being baptized by John the Bap-
Christianity in the 2nd century
tist, Jesus preached for a period of one to three years in
the early 1st century AD. Jesus method of teaching in-
Christianity in the 1st century deals with the forma- volved parables, metaphor, allegory, sayings, proverbs,
tive years of the Early Christian community. The ear- and a small number of direct sermons such as the Sermon
liest followers of Jesus composed an apocalyptic Jew- on the Mount. His ministry was ended by his execution
ish sect, which historians refer to as Jewish Christian- at the hands of the Roman authorities in Jerusalem. His
ity.[3] The Apostles dispersed from Jerusalem, founding surviving disciples then followed the Great Commission
the Apostolic Sees, presumably following the Great Com- to spread the teachings of Jesus to all nations.
mission's decree to spread the teachings of Jesus to all Christians believe that three days after his death, Je-
nations. Peter, Paul, and James the Just were the most sus rose bodily from the dead.[6][7][8][9] Early works
inuential early Christian leaders,[4] though Pauls inu- by Jesus followers document a number of resurrection
ence on Christian thinking is said to be more signicant appearances[10][11][12][13][14] and the resurrection of Je-
than any other New Testament authors,[5] but the rela- sus formed the basis and impetus of the Christian
tionship of Paul of Tarsus and Judaism is still disputed faith.[15][16][17] His followers wrote that he appeared to
today. The split of early Christianity from Judaism was the disciples in Galilee and Jerusalem and that Jesus
gradual, as Christianity became a predominantly Gentile was on the earth for 40 days before his Ascension to
religion. heaven[18] and that he will return to earth to full aspects
Christian restorationists propose that the 1st century of Messianic prophecy, such as the resurrection of the
Apostolic Age represents a purer form of Christianity that dead, the last judgment and the full establishment of the

1
2 2 APOSTOLIC AGE

Kingdom of God, though Preterists believe these events

have already happened.
The main sources of information regarding Jesus life and
teachings are the four canonical gospels, and to a lesser
extent the Acts of the Apostles and writings of Paul.
Christianitys popularity is largely founded and based on
one central point found in these Gospels: that Jesus died
and rose from death as Gods sacrice for human sins.[19]

2 Apostolic Age
Main article: Apostolic Age

Early Christianity may be divided in two distinct phases:

the apostolic period, when the apostles were leading the
congregations, and the post-apostolic Ante-Nicene Pe-
riod, when imperial persecution of Christians continued
until the rise of Constantine the Great.
The years following Jesus until the death of the last of
the Twelve Apostles is called the Apostolic Age.[20] The
Christian Church came fully into being on Pentecost
when, according to scriptural accounts, the apostles re-
ceived the Holy Spirit and emerged from hiding following
the death and resurrection of Jesus to preach and spread
his message.[21][22] The apostolic period produced writ-
ings attributed to the direct followers of Jesus Christ and
is traditionally associated with the apostles and apostolic
times. This age is the foundation upon which the entire
churchs history is founded.[23] Though congregations met
in the houses of these followers of Jesus Christ, this Apos-
tolic Congregation, also called the Primitive Church,
was the community led by Jesus apostles and, it would
seem, his relatives.[24]
2.1 Acts of the Apostles
The principal source of information for this earliest pe-
riod is the Acts of the Apostles. However, there are
scholars who dispute the Historical reliability of the Acts
of the Apostles. Soon after the earthly ministry of Je-
sus, the Jerusalem church started up at Pentecost with
apostles and others totalling some 120 Jews and Jewish
proselytes,[26] in an upper room, believed by some to
be the Cenacle, and thus the rst Christian church.[27]
The Acts of the Apostles goes on to record the stoning of
Stephen and the subsequent dispersal of the church,[28]
which led to the baptism of Simon Magus in Samaria;[29]
and also an Ethiopian eunuch.[30] Pauls "Road to Dam-
ascus" conversion to the Apostle to the Gentiles is
rst recorded in Acts 9:13-16. Peter baptized the Ro-
man Centurion Cornelius, traditionally considered the
rst Gentile convert to Christianity, in Acts 10. Based on
this, the Antioch church was founded. It is also believed
that it was there that the term Christian was coined.[31]
The Cenacle on Mount Zion, claimed to be the location of the
Last Supper and Pentecost. Bargil Pixner[25] claims the original
Church of the Apostles is located under the current structure.
Disputes over the Mosaic law generated intense contro-
versy in early Christianity.[32][33] This is particularly no-
table in the mid-1st century, when the circumcision con-
troversy came to the forefront. The issue was addressed at
the Council of Jerusalem where Paul made an argument
that circumcision was not a necessary practice, vocally
supported by Peter, as documented in Acts 15. This posi-
tion received widespread support and was summarized in
a letter circulated in Antioch. Four years after the Coun-
cil of Jerusalem, Paul wrote to the Galatians about the
issue, which had become a serious controversy in their
region. Paul considered it a great threat to his doctrine of
salvation through faith and addressed the issue with great
detail in Galatians 3[34]
Although competing forms of Christianity emerged early
and persisted into the 5th century, there was broad doctri-
nal unity within the mainstream churches.[35][36] Bishops
like Ignatius of Antioch (c.35-c.108) and later Irenaeus
(d. c.202) dened proto-orthodox teaching in stark op-
position to heresies such as Gnosticism.[37]
In spite of intermittent intense persecutions, the
Christian religion continued its spread throughout the
Mediterranean Basin.
2.5 Peter and the Twelve 3

2.2 Worship of Jesus the 1st century. The relatives of Jesus were accorded a
special position within the early church, as displayed by
The sources for the beliefs of the apostolic community the leadership of James the Just in Jerusalem.[46]
include the Gospels and New Testament Epistles. The
The destruction of Jerusalem, seen as symbolic by
very earliest accounts are contained in these texts, such
supersessionism, and the consequent dispersion of Jews
as early Christian creeds and hymns, as well as accounts
and Jewish Christians from the city (after the Bar Kokhba
of the Passion, the empty tomb, and Resurrection appear-
revolt) ended any pre-eminence of the Jewish-Christian
ances; often these are dated to within a decade or so of
leadership in Jerusalem. Although Epiphanius of Salamis
the crucixion of Jesus, originating within the Jerusalem
reported that the Cenacle survived at least to Hadrian's
Church.[38]
visit in 130,[27] some today think it was rebuilt shortly af-
The earliest Christian creeds and hymns express belief ter this rst Jewish war.[25] Early Christianity grew further
in the risen Jesus, e.g., that preserved in 1 Corinthi- apart from Judaism to establish itself as a predominantly
ans 15:341[39] The antiquity of the creed has been Gentile religion, and Antioch became the rst Gentile
located by many scholars to less than a decade after Christian community with stature.[47]
Jesus death, originating from the Jerusalem apostolic
community,[40][41] and no scholar dates it later than the
40s.[42][43] Other relevant and very early creeds include 1
John 4:2, 2 Timothy 2:8[44] Romans 1:34[45] and 1 Tim-
othy 3:16

2.3 Persecutions 2.5 Peter and the Twelve

See also: Persecution of Christians in the New Tes-

Today, New Testament scholars agree that there is a spe-
tament and Persecution of early Christians by the Romans
cial position to Peter among the Twelve. The ocial
Catholic Church position is that Jesus had essentially ap-
From the beginning, Christians were subject to various pointed Peter as the rst Pope, with authority over the
persecutions. According to the Book of Acts in the New entire Church.[48] This is derived from his seeming pri-
Testament, this involved even death for Christians such macy among the Twelve in New Testament texts on Peter,
as Stephen (Acts 7:59) and James, son of Zebedee (12:2). namely Matthew 16:17-19, Luke 22:32, and John 21:15-
Larger-scale persecutions followed at the hands of the au- 17.
thorities of the Roman Empire, beginning with in 64 AD,
The Christian Church, however, built its identity on the
when Emperor Nero blamed them for the Great Fire of
Apostles as witnesses to Christ, and its leadership was not
Rome.
restricted to Peter. Events such as Paul publicly rebuking
Several of the New Testament writings mention persecu- Peter (Galatians 2) and Paul being sent for a mission to
tions and stress endurance through them. Christians suf- Samaria (Acts 15) indicates that the apostles acted as a
fered persecutions for their refusal to give any worship to body in giving direction to early Christians. Likewise,
the Roman emperor, considered treasonous and punish- the New Testament does not contain any record of the
able by execution. transmission of Peters leadership, nor is even the trans-
Systematic persecution of the early Christian church mission of any apostolic authority clear. As a result, the
caused it to be an underground movement. Of the under- New Testament texts on Peter have been subjected to dif-
ground churches that existed before the Edict of Milan le- fering interpretations even from the time of the earliest
galized Christianity, some churches are recorded to have Church Fathers.
existed as the catacombs in Europe, Catacombs of Rome, Irenaeus of Lyons believed in the 2nd century that Pe-
Greece, and also in the underground cities of Anatolia ter and Paul had been the founders of the Church in
such as Derinkuyu Underground City. Rome and had appointed Linus as succeeding bishop.[49]
There is no conclusive evidence, scripturally, historically
or chronologically, that Peter was in fact the Bishop of
2.4 Jerusalem in Christianity Rome. While the church in Rome was already ourish-
ing when Paul wrote his Epistle to the Romans about AD
Main article: Jerusalem in Christianity 57,[50] he greets some fty people in Rome by name,[51]
but not Peter whom he knew. There is also no mention of
The Christian community in Jerusalem, where Jesus, Peter in Rome later during Pauls two-year stay there in
many of the twelve Apostles and many eyewitnesses orig- Acts 28, about AD 60-62. Church historians consistently
inally lived( St Marks monastery or House Of Mary), had consider Peter and Paul to have been martyred under the
a special position among Christian communities. The reign of Nero,[2][52][53] around AD 65 such as after the
Desposyni (relatives of Jesus) lived in Nazareth during Great Fire of Rome.[54][55][56]
4 4 EARLY CHRISTIANITY AND JUDAISM

2.6 Worship Liturgy available in Koine Greek translation, then as Aramaic

Targums. In the 2nd century, Melito of Sardis called
See also: Eastern Orthodox Worship these Scriptures the "Old Testament"[63] and specied an
early canon. The Greek translation, later known as the
Liturgical services are based on repeating the actions of Septuagint[64] and often written as LXX, arose from
Jesus (do this in remembrance of me), using the bread Hellenistic Judaism which predates Christianity. Per-
and wine, and saying his words (known as the words of the haps the earliest Christian canon is the Bryennios List
which was found by Philotheos Bryennios in the Codex
institution). The church has the rest of the liturgical ritual
being rooted in the Jewish Passover, Siddur, Seder, and Hierosolymitanus. The list is written in Koine Greek,
synagogue services, including the singing of hymns (es- Aramaic and Hebrew and dated to around 100[65]
pecially the Psalms) and reading from the Scriptures.[57]
Clement writes that liturgies are to be celebrated, and
3.2 New Testament
not carelessly nor in disorder but the nal uniformity of
liturgical services only came later, though the Liturgy of St
Main article: Development of the New Testament canon
James is traditionally associated with James the Just.[58]
Earliest Christianity took the form of a Jewish
The New Testament (often compared to the New
eschatological faith. The book of Acts reports that
Covenant) is the name given to the second major division
the early followers continued daily Temple attendance
of the Christian Bible, either by Tertullian or Marcion
and traditional Jewish home prayer. Other passages in
in the 2nd century.[66] The original texts were written by
the New Testament gospels reect a similar observance
various authors, most likely sometime after c. AD 45 in
of traditional Jewish piety such as fasting, reverence for
Koine Greek, the lingua franca of the eastern part of the
the Torah and observance of Jewish holy days[59][60] At
Roman Empire, though there is also a minority argument
rst, Christians continued to worship alongside Jewish
for Aramaic primacy.
believers, but within twenty years of Jesus death, Sunday
(the Lords Day) was being regarded as the primary day
of worship.[61]
4 Early Christianity and Judaism

3 Dening scripture
Main article: Development of the Christian Biblical
canon

The early Christians likely did not have their own copy of
Scriptural and other church works. Much of the original
church liturgical services functioned as a means of learn-
ing Christian theology later expressed in these works.
Christianity rst spread in the predominantly Greek-
speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire, and then
extensively throughout the empire by Paul and others.
Ecclesiastical historian Henry Hart Milman writes that
in much of the rst three centuries, even in the Latin-
dominated western empire: the Church of Rome, and
most, if not all the Churches of the West, were, if we may
so speak, Greek religious colonies [see Greek colonies for
the background]. Their language was Greek, their organi-
zation Greek, their writers Greek, their scriptures Greek;
and many vestiges and traditions show that their ritual,
their Liturgy, was Greek.[62]
Painting by Rembrandt of Paul, one of the most notable of early
3.1 Old Testament Christian missionaries, who called himself the Apostle to the
Gentiles. Paul, a Hellenistic Jew, was very inuential on the shift
of Christianity to Gentile dominated movement.
Main article: Development of the Old Testament canon
Jewish messianism has its roots in the apocalyptic liter-
The Biblical canon began with the Jewish Scriptures, rst ature of the 2nd to 1st century BC, promising a future
4.2 Jewish Christians 5

anointed leader or Messiah to resurrect the Israelite
"Kingdom of God", in place of the foreign rulers of the
time. This corresponded with the Maccabean Revolt di-
rected against the Seleucids. Following the fall of the
Hasmonean kingdom, it was directed against the Roman
administration of Iudaea Province, which, according to
Josephus, began with the formation of the Zealots during
the Census of Quirinius of 6 AD.
ther addressed with the Council of Jerusalem. Around
this same time period, Rabbinic Judaism made their
circumcision requirement even stricter.[73]
The doctrines of the apostles brought the early Church
into conict with some Jewish religious authorities.
Late 1st century developments attributed to the Council
of Jamnia eventually led to Christians expulsion from
synagogues.

4.1 Jewish continuity

4.2 Jewish Christians
See also: Rejection of Jesus, Biblical law in Christianity,
Sabbath in Christianity and Paul of Tarsus and Judaism

The early Christians in the 1st century AD believed

Yahweh to be the only true God,[67] the god of Israel, and
considered Jesus to be the messiah (Christ) prophesied
in the Jewish scriptures. The rst Christians were essen-
tially all ethnically Jewish or Jewish proselytes. In other
words, Jesus preached to the Jewish people and called
from them his rst disciples, known as the Limited Com-
mission of Matthew 10:5-42, while the Great Commis-
sion issued after the Resurrection is specically directed
at all nations.
Alister McGrath, a proponent of palaeo-orthodoxy,
claimed that many of the Jewish Christians were fully
faithful religious Jews, only diering in their acceptance
of Jesus as the messiah.[3] The book of Acts records the
martyrdom of Stephen and James. Thus, Christianity ac-
quired an identity distinct from Rabbinic Judaism. The
name Christian (Greek ) was rst applied
to the disciples in Antioch, as recorded in Acts 11:26.[68]
Early Christianity retained some of the doctrines and
practices of 1st-century Judaism while rejecting others.
They held the Jewish scriptures to be authoritative and sa-
cred, employing mostly the Septuagint or Targum trans-
lations, later called the Old Testament, a term associ-
James the Just, whose judgment was adopted in the Apostolic
ated with Supersessionism, and added other texts as the
Decree of Acts 15:19-29, "...we should write to them [Gen-
New Testament canon developed. Christianity also con-
tiles] to abstain only from things polluted by idols and from
tinued other Judaic practices: baptism,[69] liturgical wor- fornication and from whatever has been strangled and from
ship, including the use of incense, an altar, a set of scrip- blood... (NRSV)
tural readings adapted from synagogue practice, use of
sacred music in hymns and prayer, a religious calendar, Jewish Christians were among the earliest followers of
and ascetic practices. Circumcision was rejected as a Jesus and an important part of Judean society during the
requirement at the Council of Jerusalem, c. 50, though mid to late 1st century. This movement was centered
the decree of the council parallels Jewish Noahide Law. around Jerusalem and led by James the Just. They held
Sabbath observance was modied, perhaps as early as faithfully to the Torah (perhaps also Jewish law which
Pauls First Epistle to the Corinthians 16.1. was being formalized at the same time), including ac-
An early diculty arose concerning the matter of Gentile ceptance of Gentile converts based on a version of the
(non-Jewish) converts as to whether they had to become Noachide laws (Acts 15 and Acts 21). In Christian cir-
Jewish, in following circumcision and dietary laws, as cles, "Nazarene" later came to be used as a label for those
part of becoming Christian. Circumcision was consid- faithful to Jewish law, in particular for a certain sect.
ered repulsive during the period of Hellenization of the These Jewish Christians, originally the central group in
Eastern Mediterranean.[70][71] The decision of Peter, as Christianity, were not at rst declared to be unorthodox
evidenced by conversion of the Centurion Cornelius,[72] but were later excluded and denounced. Some Jewish
was that it was not required, and the matter was fur- Christian groups, such as the Ebionites, were considered
6 5
to have unorthodox beliefs, particularly in relation to their
views of Christ and Gentile converts. The Nazarenes,
holding to orthodoxy except in their adherence to Jew-
ish law, were not deemed heretical until the dominance
of orthodoxy in the 4th century. The Ebionites may have
been a splinter group of Nazarenes, with disagreements
over Christology and leadership. After the condemnation
of the Nazarenes, Ebionite was often used as a general
pejorative for all related heresies.[74][75]
Jewish Christians constituted a separate community from
the Pauline Christians but maintained a similar faith, dif-
fering only in practice. There was a post-Nicene double
rejection of the Jewish Christians by both Gentile Chris-
tianity and Rabbinic Judaism. It is believed that there
was no direct confrontation or persecution between Gen-
tile and Judaic Christianity. However, by this time the
practice of Judeo-Christianity was diluted both by inter-
nal schisms and external pressures. Gentile Christianity
remained the sole strand of orthodoxy and imposed itself
on the previously Jewish Christian sanctuaries, taking full
control of those houses of worship by the end of the 5th
century.[76]
The Nasrani or Syrian Malabar Nasrani community in
Kerala, India, is conscious of their Jewish origins. How-
ever, they have lost many of their Jewish traditions be-
cause of western inuences. The Nasrani are also known
as Syrian Christians or St. Thomas Christians. This is
because they follow the traditions of Syriac Christianity
and are descendants of the early converts by Thomas the
Apostle. Today, they belong to various denominations
of Christianity, but they have kept their unique identity
within each of these denominations.[77]
4.3 Split with Judaism
See also: Schisms among the Jews and List of events in
early Christianity
In or around the year 50, the apostles convened the rst
church council, known as the Council of Jerusalem, to
reconcile practical (and by implication doctrinal) dier-
ences concerning the Gentile mission.[78] While not num-
bered among them, this council has often been looked to
as ecumenical and the model for later ecumenical coun-
cils.
At the Council of Jerusalem it was agreed that Gentiles
could be accepted as Christians without full adherence
to the Mosaic Laws, possibly a major break between
Christianity and Judaism (the rst being the Rejection of
Jesus[3] ), though the decree of the council (Acts 15:19-
29) seems to parallel the Noahide laws of Judaism. The
Council, according to Acts 15, determined that circum-
cision was not required of Gentile converts, only to ab-
stain from food polluted by idols, from sexual immoral-
ity, from the meat of strangled animals and from blood.
(NIV, Acts 15:20).
SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY
There was a slowly growing chasm between Christians
and Jews, rather than a sudden split. Even though it is
commonly thought that Paul established a Gentile church,
it took centuries for a complete break to manifest. How-
ever, certain events are perceived as pivotal in the grow-
ing rift between Judaism and Christianity. The Council
of Jamnia c. 85 is often stated to have condemned all who
claimed the Messiah had already come, and Christianity
in particular. However, the formulated prayer in ques-
tion (birkat ha-minim) is considered by other scholars to
be unremarkable in the history of Jewish and Christian
relations. There is a paucity of evidence for Jewish perse-
cution of heretics in general, or Christians in particular,
in the period between 70 and 135. It is probable that the
condemnation of Jamnia included many groups, of which
the Christians were but one, and did not necessarily mean
excommunication. That some of the later church fathers
only recommended against synagogue attendance makes
it improbable that an anti-Christian prayer was a common
part of the synagogue liturgy. Jewish Christians contin-
ued to worship in synagogues for centuries.[79][80]
A coin issued by Nerva reads
sci Judaici calumnia sublata,
abolition of malicious prosecution in connection with the Jewish
tax[81]
During the late 1st century, Judaism was a legal religion
with the protection of Roman law, worked out in compro-
mise with the Roman state over two centuries. Observant
Jews had special rights, including the privilege of abstain-
ing from civic pagan rites. Christians were initially iden-
tied with the Jewish religion by the Romans, but as they
became more distinct, Christianity became a problem for
Roman rulers. Emperor Nerva decreed that Christians
did not have to pay the annual tax upon the Jews, ef-
fectively recognizing them as distinct from Rabbinic Ju-
daism. This opened the way to Christians being perse-
cuted for disobedience to the emperor as they contin-
ued to refuse to worship the state pantheon. It is notable
that from c. 98 onwards a distinction between Christians
and Jews in Roman literature becomes apparent. For ex-
ample, Pliny the Younger postulates that Christians are
not Jews since they do not pay the tax, in his letters to
Trajan.[82][83]
6.1 Clement of Rome
Mediterranean Basin geography relevant to Pauls life, stretching
from Jerusalem in the lower right to Rome in the upper left.
5 Spread of Christianity
See also: Early centers of Christianity
Paul and the Twelve Apostles traveled extensively estab-
lishing communities in major cities and regions through-
out the Empire. The rst Christian communities out-
side of Jerusalem appeared in Antioch, Ephesus, Corinth,
and the political center of Rome. The original church
communities were founded by apostles and numerous
other Christians, soldiers, merchants, and preachers[84] in
northern Africa, Asia Minor, Arabia, Greece, and other
places.[85][86][87] Over 40 churches were established by
100,[86][87] many in Asia Minor.
Paul was responsible for bringing the Christianity to new
parts of the world such as Ephesus, Corinth, Philippi, and
Thessalonica.[88][89] By the end of the 1st century, Chris-
tianity had already spread to Rome and to various cities
in Greece, Asia Minor and Syria. Major cities such as
Rome, Ephesus, Antioch and Corinth served as founda-
tions for the expansive spread of Christianity in the post-
apostolic period. Christianity spread quickly throughout
Asia Minor.
6 Apostolic Fathers
The Church Fathers are the early and inuential
theologians and writers in the Christian Church, partic-
ularly those of the rst ve centuries of Christian his-
tory. The earliest Church Fathers, within two genera-
tions of the Twelve apostles of Christ, are usually called
Apostolic Fathers for reportedly knowing and studying
under the apostles personally. Important Apostolic Fa-
thers include Clement of Rome,[90] Ignatius of Antioch
and Polycarp of Smyrna. In addition, the Didache and
Shepherd of Hermas are usually placed among the writ-
ings of the Apostolic Fathers although their authors are
unknown.
7
6.1 Clement of Rome
Clement of Rome was best known for his letter 1
Clement.[90] which was held in high regard by later Chris-
tian writers and even cited as Scripture by Clement of
Alexandria. In it, Clement calls on the Christians of
Corinth to maintain harmony and order.[90] It is the ear-
liest Christian epistle outside the New Testament; indeed
it is even included in the Codex Alexandrinus and in the
Canons of the Apostles and today is part of the Apostolic
Fathers collection. Tertullian identies him as the fourth
Bishop of Rome, later called Pope. Some see his epis-
tle as an assertion of Romes authority over the church
in Corinth and, by implication, the beginnings of papal
supremacy.[91]
Clement wrote about the order with which Jesus com-
manded the aairs of the Church be conducted, and
the selection of persons was also by His supreme will
determined.[92] Clement also refers the way rivalry ...
concerning the priesthood was resolved by or through
Moses and that likewise, the apostles gave instructions,
that when these should fall asleep, other approved men
should succeed them in their ministry.
The New Testament writers use the terms overseer and
elders interchangeably. Clement also refers to the lead-
ers of the Corinthian church in his letter as bishops and
presbyters interchangeably, and likewise states that the
bishops are to lead Gods ock by virtue of the chief
shepherd (presbyter), Jesus Christ. Bishops eventually
emerged as overseers of urban Christian populations in
the early church, and a hierarchical clergy gradually took
the form of epskopos (overseers, bishops), then elders
and presbyters (shepherds), and third were deacons (ser-
vants).
6.2 Didache
The Didache is the common name of a brief early
Christian treatise dated by most scholars to the late 1st
century.[93] It is an anonymous work not belonging to
any single individual and a pastoral manual that reveals
more about how Jewish-Christians saw themselves and
how they adapted their Judaism for Gentiles than any
other book in the Christian Scriptures.[94] The text, parts
of which may have constituted the rst written catechism,
has three main sections dealing with Christian lessons, rit-
uals, and Church organization. It was considered by some
of the Church Fathers as part of the New Testament[95][96]
(Deuterocanonical) c. 380[97] but rejected as spurious or
non-canonical by others,[98] and eventually not accepted
into the New Testament canon. The Ethiopian Ortho-
dox Church does include the later Didascalia within its
broader canon (though only the narrower canon has
printed since 20th century), and the Didascalia was inu-
enced by the Didache.[99]
8 7 TIMELINE
7 Timeline
1st century Timeline
Earliest dates must all be considered approximate
72 BC Jesus is born in Bethlehem
6 BC Herod Archelaus deposed by Augustus;
Samaria, Judea and Idumea annexed as Iudaea
Province under direct Roman administration,[100]
capital at Caesarea, Quirinius became Legate (Gov-
ernor) of Syria, conducted Census of Quirinius, op-
posed by Zealots (JA18, Luke 2:13, Acts 5:37)
726 AD Brief period of peace, relatively free of
revolt and bloodshed in Iudaea & Galilee[101][102]
9 Pharisee leader Hillel the Elder dies, temporary
rise of Shammai
1437 Tiberius, Roman Emperor
1836 Caiaphas, appointed High Priest of Herods
Temple by Prefect Valerius Gratus, deposed by Syr-
ian Legate Lucius Vitellius
19 Jews, Jewish Proselytes, Astrologers, expelled
from Rome[103][104]
2636 Pontius Pilate, Prefect (governor) of Iudaea,
recalled to Rome by Syrian Legate Vitellius on com-
plaints of excess violence (JA18.4.2)
28 or 29 John the Baptist began his ministry in the
15th year of Tiberius (Luke 3:12)(Matt 3:12)
30 Great Commission of Jesus to go and make dis-
ciples of all nations;[105] Pentecost, a day in which
3000 Jews from a variety of Mediterranean-basin
nations are converted to faith in Jesus Christ.
3036 Jesus is crucied on order of Pontius Pilate.
Christians believe he rose from the dead 3 days later.
34 In Gaza, Philip baptizes a convert, an Ethiopian
who was already a Jewish proselyte.
39 Peter preaches to a Gentile audience in the
house of Cornelius
3741 Crisis under Caligula[106]
42 Mark goes to Egypt [107]
44? Saint James the Great: According to ancient
local tradition, on 2 January of the year AD 40, the
Virgin Mary appeared to James on a Pilar on the
bank of the Ebro River at Caesaraugusta, while he
was preaching the Gospel in Spain. Following that
apparition, St James returned to Judea, where he was
beheaded by King Herod Agrippa I in the year 44
during a Passover (Nisan 15) (Acts 12:13).
44 Death of Herod Agrippa I (JA19.8.2, Acts
12:2023)
4446? Theudas beheaded by Procurator Cuspius
Fadus for saying he would part the Jordan river (like
Moses and the Red Sea or Joshua and the Jordan)
(JA20.5.1, Acts 5:36-37 places it before the Census
of Quirinius)
4549? Mission of Barnabas and Paul, (Acts
13:114:28), to Cyprus, Pisidian Antioch, Iconium,
Lystra and Derbe (there they were called gods ... in
human form), then return to Syrian Antioch. Map1
47? St. Thomas Christianity, now in several forms,
is begun in India by Thomas.
47 Paul (formerly known as Saul of Tarsus) be-
gins his rst missionary journey to modern-day
Turkey.[108]
48100 Herod Agrippa II appointed King of the
Jews by Claudius, seventh and last of the Herodians
50 Passover riot in Jerusalem, 2030,000 killed
(JA20.5.3,JW2.12.1)
50 Council of Jerusalem on admitting Gentiles
into the Church[108]
50? Council of Jerusalem and the Apostolic De-
cree, Acts 15:135, same as Galatians 2:110?,
which is followed by the Incident at Antioch[109]
at which Paul publicly accused Peter of "Judaizing"
(2:1121)
51 Paul begins his second missionary journey, a
trip that takes him through modern-day Turkey and
on into Greece[110]
5053? Pauls 2nd mission, (Acts 15:3618:22),
split with Barnabas, to Phrygia, Galatia, Macedonia,
Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, Corinth, he
had his hair cut o at Cenchrea because of a vow he
had taken, then return to Antioch; 1 Thessalonians,
Galatians written? Map2
5152 or 5253 proconsulship of Gallio according
to an inscription, only xed date in chronology of
Paul[111]
52 Saint Thomas Christians of India
52 Thomas arrives in India and founds church
that subsequently becomes Indian Orthodox Church
(and its various descendants)[112]
54 Paul begins his third missionary journey[113]
5357? Pauls 3rd mission, (Acts 18:2322:30),
to Galatia, Phrygia, Corinth, Ephesus, Macedonia,
Greece, and Jerusalem where James the Just chal-
lenged him about rumor of teaching antinomianism

(21:21), he addressed a crowd in their language
(most likely Aramaic), Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2
Corinthians, Philippians written? Map3
55? "Egyptian prophet" (allusion to Moses) and
30,000 unarmed Jews doing The Exodus reen-
actment massacred by Procurator Antonius Felix
(JW2.13.5, JA20.8.6, Acts 21:38)
58? Paul arrested, accused of being a revolutionary,
ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes", teaching
resurrection of the dead, imprisoned in Caesarea
(Acts 2326)
59? Paul shipwrecked on Malta, there he was called
a god (Acts 28:6)
60 Paul sent to Rome under Roman guard, evan-
gelizes on Malta after shipwreck[110]
60? Paul in Rome: greeted by many brothers
(NRSV: believers), three days later called together
the Jewish leaders, who hadn't received any word
from Judea about him, but were curious about this
sect, which everywhere is spoken against; he tried
to convince them from the "Law and Prophets", with
partial success, said the Gentiles would listen and
spent two years proclaiming the Kingdom of God
and teaching the Lord Jesus Christ (Acts 28:15
31); Epistle to Philemon written?
62 James the Just stoned to death for law transgres-
sion by High Priest Ananus ben Artanus, popular
opinion against act results in Ananus being deposed
by new procurator Lucceius Albinus (JA20.9.1)
63107? Simeon, 2nd Bishop of Jerusalem, cruci-
ed under Trajan
6468 after July 18 Great Fire of Rome, Nero
blamed and persecuted the Christians
63 Joseph of Arimathea travels to Glastonbury on
the rst Christian mission to Britain
64/67(?)76/79(?) Pope Linus succeeds Peter as
Episcopus Romanus (Bishop of Rome)
65? Q document, a hypothetical Greek text thought
by many critical scholars to have been used in writ-
ing of Matthew and Luke
66 Thaddeus establishes the Christian church of
Armenia[114]
6673 Great Jewish Revolt: destruction of Herods
Temple, Qumran community destroyed, site of
Dead Sea Scrolls found in 1947
68107? Ignatius, third Bishop of Antioch, fed
to the lions in the Roman Colosseum, advocated
the Bishop (Eph 6:1, Mag 2:1,6:1,7:1,13:2, Tr 3:1,
Smy 8:1,9:1), rejected Sabbath on Saturday in favor
9
of The Lords Day (Sunday). (Mag 9.1), rejected
Judaizing (Mag 10.3), rst recorded use of the term
catholic (Smy 8:2).
69 Andrew is crucied in Patras on the
Peloponnese peninsula of Greece[115]
70(+/10)? Gospel of Mark, written in Rome, by
Peters interpreter (1 Peter 5:13), original ending ap-
parently lost, endings added c.400, see Mark 16
70? Signs Gospel written, hypothetical Greek text
used in Gospel of John to prove Jesus is the Messiah
70100? additional Pauline Epistles
70200? Didache; Other Gospels: Unknown
Berlin Gospel, Gospel of Peter, Gospel of Thomas,
Oxyrhynchus Gospels, Egerton Gospel, Fayyum
Fragment, Dialogue of the Saviour; Jewish Chris-
tian Gospels: Gospel of the Ebionites, Gospel of the
Hebrews, Gospel of the Nazarenes
76/79(?)88 Pope Anacletus rst Greek Pope, who
succeeds Linus as Episcopus Romanus (Bishop of
Rome)
80 First Christians reported in Tunisia and
France[105]
80(+/20)? Gospel of Matthew, theoretically based
on Mark and Q, most popular in Early Christianity
80(+/20)? Gospel of Luke, theoretically based on
Mark and Q, also Acts of the Apostles by same au-
thor
88101? Clement, fourth Bishop of Rome, wrote
Letter of the Romans to the Corinthians (Apostolic
Fathers)
90? Council of Jamnia of Judaism (disputed),
Domitian applied the Fiscus Iudaicus tax even to
those who merely lived like Jews[116]
90(+/10)? 1 Peter
94 Testimonium Flavianum, disputed section of
Jewish Antiquities by Josephus in Aramaic, trans-
lated to Koine Greek
95(+/30)? Gospel of John and Epistles of John
95(+/10)? Book of Revelation written, by John
(son of Zebedee) and/or a disciple of his
100(+/30)? Epistle of Barnabas (Apostolic Fa-
thers)
100(+/25)? Epistle of James
100(+/10)? Epistle of Jude written, probably by
doubting relative of Jesus (Mark 6,3), rejected by
some early Christians due to its reference to apoc-
ryphal Book of Enoch (v14), Epistle to the Hebrews
written
10 9 NOTES

100 First Christians are reported in Monaco, 9 Notes

Algeria and Sri Lanka;[105] a missionary goes to
Arbela, old sacred city of the Assyrians[117] [1] Hebrews 8:6

[2] Sermon on the Mount. Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford

Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford
8 See also University Press. 2005

[3] McGrath, p. 174

Ante-Nicene Period
[4] Dunn, p. 577
Apostolic Age
[5] Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church ed. F. L. Cross
(Oxford) entry on Paul
Christian martyrs
[6] Grant, p.176
Christian monasticism
[7] Maier, p.5
Christianity in the 2nd century [8] Van Daalen, p.41

Christianization [9] Kremer, pp.4950

Chronological list of saints in the 1st century [10] Gundry

[11] Weiss, p.345

Church Fathers
[12] Davies, pp.305308
Development of the New Testament canon
[13] Wilckens, pp.128131
Early history of Christianity [14] Smith, p.406

EastWest Schism [15] Johnson, p.136

[16] Ludemann, p.8

Gospel harmony
[17] Wright, p.26
Great Church
[18] Christs Life: Key Events. Retrieved 2007-10-22.
History of Calvinist-Arminian debate
[19] Catechism of the Catholic Church, Loyola University
Press, #651-655, pp. 170-171.
History of Christian theology
[20] August Franzen, Kirchengeschichte, Freiburg, 1988: 20
History of Christianity
[21] Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005),
History of early Christianity pp. 1920

[22] Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p.130

History of the Eastern Orthodox Church
[23] Brown, Schuyler, p.10
History of the Roman Catholic Church
[24] R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds
(New York: Houghton Miin Company, 2004) p. 51
Jesuism
[25] Bargil Pixner, The Church of the Apostles found on Mount
Hellenistic Judaism Zion, Biblical Archaeology Review 16.3 May/June 1990,
centuryone.org
List of events in early Christianity
[26] Acts 1:13-15
New Testament view on Jesus life
[27] CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Jerusalem (A.D. 71-
1099)". newadvent.org.
Persecution of Christians in the New Testament
[28] Acts 7:54-8:8
Timeline of Christian missions
[29] Acts 8:9-24
Timeline of Christianity [30] Acts 8:26-40

Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church [31] Acts 11:26


[32] Acts 10
[33] The Catholic Encyclopedia says of Cornelius: The bap-
tism of Cornelius is an important event in the history of
the Early Church. The gates of the Church, within which
thus far only those who were circumcised and observed
the Law of Moses had been admitted, were now thrown
open to the uncircumcised Gentiles without the obligation
of submitting to the Jewish ceremonial laws.
[34] McGrath, pp.174-175
[35] McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity
(2002), pp.37-38
[36] Davidson, p.155
[37] Davidson, pp.169, 181
[38] On the Creeds, see Oscar Cullmann, The Earliest Christian
Confessions, trans. J. K. S. Reid (London: Lutterworth,
1949); on the Passion, see Rudolf Pesch, Das Marku-
sevangelium, 2 vols., Herders Theologischer Kommentar
zum Neuen Testament 2 (Freiburg: Herder, 197677), 2:
51920
[39] Neufeld, p.47
[40] Pannenberg, p.90
[41] Cullmann, p.66
[42] O' Collins, p.112
[43] Hunter, p.100
[44] Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament vol 1, pp. 49,
81
[45] Pannenberg, pp.118, 283, 367
[46] Taylor (1993). Pg 224.
[47] Franzen, p.25
[48] Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes Eamon Duy,
ch. 1
[49] ANF01. The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and
Irenaeus. ccel.org.
[50] Franzen, p.26
[51] 16
[52] Pennington, p. 2
[53] St-Paul-Outside-the-Walls homepage
[54] Historians debate whether the Roman government dis-
tinguished between Christians and Jews prior to Nervas
modication of the Fiscus Judaicus in 96. From then on,
practising Jews paid the tax, Christians did not.
[55] Wylen, pp.190-192
[56] Dunn, pp. 33-34
[57] LITURGY - JewishEncyclopedia.com. jewishencyclo-
pedia.com.
11
[58] The traditional title is: The Divine Liturgy of James the
Holy Apostle and Brother of the Lord; Ante-Nicene Fa-
thers by Philip Scha in the public domain
[59] White (2004), p.127
[60] Ehrman (2005), p.187.
[61] Davidson, p.115
[62] Greek Orthodoxy - From Apostolic Times to the Present
Day. ellopos.net.
[63] A dictionary of Jewish-Christian relations, Dr. Edward
Kessler, Neil Wenborn, Cambridge University Press,
2005, ISBN 0-521-82692-6, p.316
[64] McDonald & Sanders, p.72
[65] published by J. P. Audet in JTS 1950, v1, pp. 135154,
cited in The Council of Jamnia and the Old Testament
Canon, Robert C. Newman, 1983.
[66] McDonald & Sanders p.310
[67] G. Bromiley, ed. (1982). The International Standard
Bible Encyclopedia, God. Fully Revised. Two: E-J.
Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 497499. ISBN 0-
8028-3782-4.
[68] E. Peterson, Christianus pp. 35372
[69] BAPTISM - JewishEncyclopedia.com. jewishencyclo-
pedia.com.
[70] CIRCUMCISION - JewishEncyclopedia.com. jew-
ishencyclopedia.com.
[71] Hodges, Frederick, M. (2001). The Ideal Prepuce in
Ancient Greece and Rome: Male Genital Aesthetics and
Their Relation to Lipodermos, Circumcision, Foreskin
Restoration, and the Kynodesme (PDF). The Bulletin
of the History of Medicine 75 (Fall 2001): 375405.
doi:10.1353/bhm.2001.0119. PMID 11568485. Re-
trieved 2007-07-24.
[72] CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Cornelius. newad-
vent.org.
[73] peri'ah, (Shab. xxx. 6)
[74] Tabor (1998).
[75] Esler (2004), pp.157-159.
[76] Dauphin (1993), pp.235, 240-242.
[77] stthoma.com. stthoma.com.
[78] McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity
(2002), p.37
[79] Wylen (1995), p.190.
[80] Wright, pp.164-165.
[81] As translated by Molly Whittaker, Jews and Chris-
tians: Graeco-Roman Views, (Cambridge University
Press, 1984), p. 105.
[82] Wylen, pp.190-192.
 12
[83] Dunn, pp.33-34.
[84] Franzen 29
[85] Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005),
pp.1920
[86] Hitchcock, Geography of Religion (2004), p.281
[87] Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church
(2004), p. 18
[88] Paul, St Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the
Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. [114] Wood, Roger, Jan Morris and Denis Wright. Persia. Uni-
2005.
[89] Acts 19, 18:1-18a, 16:12-15, 17:1-9
[90] Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and [116] FISCUS JUDAICUS - JewishEncyclopedia.com. jew-
Schuster. 1972
[91] CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pope St. Clement I. [117] Latourette, 1941, vol. I, p. 103
newadvent.org.
[92] CHURCH FATHERS: Letter to the Corinthians
(Clement)". newadvent.org.
[93] Draper, JA (2006), The Apostolic Fathers: the Didache,
Expository Times, Vol.117, No.5, p.178
[94] Aaron Milavec, p. vii
[95] Apostolic Constitutions Canon 85 (approved at the Or-
thodox Synod of Trullo in 692)
[96] Runus, Commentary on Apostles Creed 37
[97] John of Damascus Exact Exposition of Orthodox Faith
4.17
[98] Athanasius, Festal Letter 39 (excludes them from the
canon, but recommends them for reading) in 367
[99] The earlier Didache seems to have been an inuence upon
it too. Johannes Quasten, Patrology, Vol. I (Christian
Classics, Allan, Texas, 1996, ISBN 0-87061-084-8), p.
37.
[100] H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard
University Press, 1976, ISBN 0-674-39731-2, p.246
[101] John P. Meier's A Marginal Jew, v. 1, ch. 11
[102] H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard
University Press, 1976, ISBN 0-674-39731-2, p.251
[103] Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Tiberius 36
[104] ROME - JewishEncyclopedia.com. jewishencyclope-
dia.com.
[105] Barrett, p.23
[106] H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard
University Press, 1976, ISBN 0-674-39731-2, The Crisis
Under Gaius Caligula, pp.254-256
[107] Kane, 10
[108] Williston Walker, A History of the Christian Church 1959,
p. 26
10 REFERENCES
[109] Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers see section titled: THE
INCIDENT AT ANTIOCH
[110] Walker, 27
[111] Pauline Chronology: His Life and Missionary Work, from
Catholic Resources by Felix Just, S.J.
[112] Neill, 4445
[113] Apostle Pauls Third Missionary Journey Map.
biblestudy.org.
verse Books, 1970, p. 35.
[115] Herbermann, p. 737
ishencyclopedia.com.
10 References
Brown, Schuyler. The Origins of Christianity: A His-
torical Introduction to the New Testament. Oxford
University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-826207-8.
Cullmann, Oscar, The Early church: Studies in Early
Christian History and Theology, ed. A. J. B. Higgins,
Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966
Davidson, The Birth of the Church (2005)
W. D. Davies, Paul and Rabbinic Judaism 2d ed.,
London, 1965
Dunn, James D.G., The Canon Debate, McDon-
ald & Sanders editors, 2002
Dunn, James D.G. Jews and Christians: The Part-
ing of the Ways, AD 70 to 135. Wm. B. Eerdmans
Publishing (1999). ISBN 0-8028-4498-7.
Grant, M., Jesus: An Historians Review of the
Gospels New York: Scribners, 1977
Gundry, R.H., Soma in Biblical Theology, Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976
Hunter, Archibald, Works and Words of Jesus
(1973)
Johnson, L.T., The Real Jesus, San Francisco,
Harper San Francisco, 1996
Kremer, Jakob, Die Osterevangelien Geschichten
um Geschichte, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk,
1977
Ludemann, Gerd, What Really Happened to Jesus?
trans. J. Bowden, Louisville, Kentucky: Westmin-
ster John Knox Press, 1995

Maier, P. L., The Empty Tomb as History in
Christianity Today, March 1975
McGrath, Alister E., Christianity: An Introduction,
Blackwell Publishing (2006), ISBN 1-4051-0899-1
Neufeld, The Earliest Christian Confessions, Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964
O' Collins, Gerald, What are They Saying About the
Resurrection?, New York: Paulist Press, 1978
Pannenberg, Wolfhart, JesusGod and Man trans-
lated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe, Philadelphia:
Westminster, 1968
Smith, J. L., Resurrection Faith Today, in TS 30
(1969)
Van Daalen, D. H., The Real Resurrection, London:
Collins, 1972
Weiss, Johannes, Der erste Korintherbrief 9th ed.,
Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1910
Wilckens, Ulrich, Auferstehung, Stuttgart and
Berlin: Kreuz Verlag, 1970
Wright, N.T., The New Unimproved Jesus, in
Christianity Today, 1993-09-13
Wylen, Stephen M., The Jews in the Time of Jesus:
An Introduction, Paulist Press (1995), ISBN 0-8091-
3610-4
11 Further reading
Bockmuehl, Markus N.A. (ed.) The Cambridge
Companion to Jesus. Cambridge University Press
(2001). ISBN 0-521-79678-4.
Bourgel, Jonathan, From One Identity to Another:
The Mother Church of Jerusalem Between the Two
Jewish Revolts Against Rome (66-135/6 EC). Paris:
ditions du Cerf, collection Judasme ancien et
Christianisme primitive, (French). ISBN 978-2-
204-10068-7
Brown, Raymond E.: An Introduction to the New
Testament (ISBN 0-385-24767-2)
Dormeyer, Detlev: The New Testament among the
Writings of Antiquity (English translation), Sheeld
1998
Dunn, James D.G. (ed.) The Cambridge Compan-
ion to St. Paul. Cambridge University Press (2003).
ISBN 0-521-78694-0.
Dunn, James D.G. Unity and Diversity in the New
Testament: An Inquiry into the Character of Earli-
est Christianity. SCM Press (2006). ISBN 0-334-
02998-8.
13
Freedman, David Noel (Ed). Eerdmans Dictionary
of the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (2000).
ISBN 0-8028-2400-5.
Esler, Philip F. The Early Christian World. Rout-
ledge (2004). ISBN 0-415-33312-1.
Mack, Burton L.: Who Wrote the New Testament?,
Harper, 1996
Keck, Leander E. Paul and His Letters. Fortress
Press (1988). ISBN 0-8006-2340-1.
Mills, Watson E. Acts and Pauline Writings. Mercer
University Press (1997). ISBN 0-86554-512-X.
Malina, Bruce J.: Windows on the World of Jesus:
Time Travel to Ancient Judea. Westminster John
Knox Press: Louisville (Kentucky) 1993
Malina, Bruce J.: The New Testament World: In-
sights from Cultural Anthropology. 3rd edition,
Westminster John Knox Press Louisville (Ken-
tucky) 2001
Malina, Bruce J.: Social Science Commentary on the
Gospel of John Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Min-
neapolis 1998
Malina, Bruce J.: Social-Science Commentary on
the Synoptic Gospels Augsburg Fortress Publishers:
Minneapolis 2003
McKechnie, Paul. The First Christian Centuries:
Perspectives on the Early Church. Apollos (2001).
ISBN 0-85111-479-2
Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan. The Christian Tradition:
The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600).
University of Chicago Press (1975). ISBN 0-226-
65371-4.
Stegemann, Ekkehard and Stegemann, Wolfgang:
The Jesus Movement: A Social History of Its First
Century. Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapo-
lis 1999
Stegemann, Wolfgang: The Gospel and the Poor.
Fortress Press. Minneapolis 1984 ISBN 0-8006-
1783-5
Tabor, James D. Ancient Judaism: Nazarenes and
Ebionites, The Jewish Roman World of Jesus. De-
partment of Religious Studies at the University of
North Carolina at Charlotte (1998).
Thiessen, Henry C. Introduction to the New Tes-
tament, Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand
Rapids 1976
White, L. Michael. From Jesus to Christianity.
HarperCollins (2004). ISBN 0-06-052655-6.
14 12 EXTERNAL LINKS

Wright, N.T. The New Testament and the People of

God. Fortress Press (1992). ISBN 0-8006-2681-8.
Interpreting the New Testament. An Introduction
to the Principles and Methods of N.T. Exegesis,
H. Conzelmann and A. Lindemann, translated by
S.S. Schatzmann, Hendrickson Publishers. Peabody
1988.

Zahn, Theodor, Introduction to the New Testament,

English translation, Edinburgh, 1910.

12 External links
New Testament Reading Room Extensive online NT
resources (incl. commentaries), Tyndale Seminary
Scholarly articles on the New Testament from the
Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library
Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Christian
Origins
Guide to Early Church Documents
 15

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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