PQ113 Student Workbook 100612

Introduction to Power
Quality: Problems,
Analysis & Solutions
Course: T-PQ113
Presented by:
PowerCET Corporation
3350 Scott Blvd., Bldg. 55 Unit 1
Santa Clara, CA 95054 USA
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2007-2010 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (100612)

PQ113 - Introduction to Power Quality: Problems, Analysis & Solutions
Introduction to Power Quality:

Problems, Analysis & Solutions
Course: PQ113
By
PowerCET Corporation
Introduction to PQ Sections
Introduction
I. The Utility
II. The Facility
III. Harmonics
IV. Ground / Grounding
V. Power Problems
VI. Power Conditioning / Mitigation Equipment
VII. Network Protection
VIII. Safety
IX. Planning & Performing a PQ Survey

1
The Electrical Environment & Power Quality
What is it? ...Quality or Reliability?

Why is it important?
How do we measure it?
Is it getting better?
Where do electrical problems come from?
What can we do about it?
Power Quality (def.)
"Poor Power Quality" generally mean there is

sufficient deviation in the power (electrical)
supply to cause equipment/process mis-
operation or failure.
"Good Power Quality" means that the power
(electrical) supply is sufficient for the
equipment/process to operate satisfactorily.
Equipment design is a major determinant
between good and bad power quality.

2
Power Quality & Reliability
Power Reliability is the presence of sufficient

voltage at the meter.
Power Quality is the value of the voltage (and
other electrical parameters) as a percent of
nominal at the meter.
Power Quality - Translated
If you can achieve what you want--making

widgets, etc.--in the existing electrical
environment then power quality would be
considered good!
If you can not achieve the desired results in the
existing electrical environment then power
quality would be considered bad!
It can change from good to bad in an instant!

3
Some Additional PQ Observations
95% of the PQ problems are on the customer

side of the meter.
80% of the $$$ losses are caused by the 5%
of the problems from the utility side of the
meter.
The vast majority of the problems from the
utility are voltage sags.
Sources of Power Quality Problems in

Order of Frequency of Occurrence
User loads
User electrical distribution and grounding
Weather related...lightning, wind, rain, etc.
Utility distribution.
Utility transmission.
Utility generation.

4
The Cost of Poor Power Quality

Various studies (annual The truth is no one really
costs to U.S. knows...our cost
business).... accounting systems just
Clemmensen (1993) do not capture the data
$25.6 Billion to provide an accurate
EPRI (1995) $400 Billion indication of the true
Swaminathan and Sen cost of poor power
(1998) $150 Billion quality
Douglas (2000) $50
Billion
The Cost of Poor Power Quality

Compressor manufacturer:
Sags and interruptions cost
some $1,700,000/year.
($100,000 per event.)
Automotive Industry:
Momentary interruptions cost
DuPont: Saved $75 some $10 million/year ($50,000
million/annually by to $500,000 per event.)
implementing PQ
solutions. ($50,000
to $500,000 per
event...additionally
risk of accident and
pollution.)
Paper Industry: Billinton

study determined cost of 2 Air Traffic Control: Lost
second outage to be control at a major airport can
approximately $30,000 cost $15,000-$50,000/minute
Source: EPRI Power Electronics Applications Center

10

5
Power Interruption Cost Calculator

Disturbance Statistics Cost of Losses
Downtime duration (Hrs.) Other lost material value ($)
Recovery time (Hrs.) Canceled orders
Number of idled personnel Late delivery / performance
Average hourly rate ($/Hr) penalty payments
Number of recovery personnel Lost customer confidence
Average hourly rate ($/Hr) Recovery Costs
Payroll overhead & benefits Equipment repair/replacement
($/Hr) costs
Scrap material (units) Software / restarting costs
Scrap material unit cost ($/unit) (labor & material)
11
The "9s" of Reliable Power

Disruption
Reliability Applications
Duration/Year
Three 9s 99.9% Homes 9 Hours
Four 9s 99.99% Factories 59 Minutes

Standby Generator
Five 9s 99.999% Hospitals, Airports 5 Minutes
Multiple Redundancy UPS, Standby Generators

Six 9s 99.9999% Banks 32 Seconds
Mirrored Sites, Multiple Redundancy UPS, Standby Generators
Nine 9s 99.9999999% On-line Markets 30 Milliseconds
Source: Reliable Power Meters
12

6
Failing to "Look" Beyond the Traditional

Power Quality Environment
Power
Problem
13
Looking Beyond Traditional Power Quality
14

7
Why is the Quality of the Environment

Important?
Load
Electrical
Sensitivity
Environment
RELIABILITY
Electrical
Load
Environment Sensitivity
PRODUCTIVITY
Infrastructure Equipment
PROFITABILITY
Management Compatibility
Infrastructure Equipment
Management Compatibility
15
What Determines Electrical Environment

Quality?
Generation Climatic & Geographic Traditional

Loads
T&D Facility Wiring Electronic

& Construction Loads
16

8
Electrical Loads
Traditional
Lights
Motors
L
N
L
Electronic AC
N DC
17
Sources of Electrical Problems

External
Utility sources
Other utility customers
A.O.G.
Internal
Wiring errors and poor
construction practices
Other loads
EMI / RFI
18

9
Evaluating the Changes Over the Past

30-Years
Equipment
characteristics
Technology
Environment
19
Equipment Characteristics
Past... Present...
Inefficient power supply, Compact, high efficiency
voltage regulation design
generally required. More sensitive to high
Large physical size frequency electrical noise
Increasing applications Increased temperature
Limited networking (stand sensitivity
alone systems) Voltage regulation
generally not required
Increasing networking
applications
20

10
The Technology
Past...
Present...
Discrete components --
relatively robust, high Increasing IC densities
power logic Increasing processor
Slow data rates and speed and data rates
processor cycle times Switch mode & PFC
power supplies
Increasing network
applications
New technology
Wireless , Cellular,
Power line
networks...
21
The Environment
Past...
Present...
Engineering, Construction
& Maintenance Limited internal engineering,
if any
Internal (Except for
very large jobs or Out-source most
additions) construction
Good records Deferred maintenance
Good infrastructure Little internal control over
management electrical environment
Installation by Folklore and
Tradition
Lack of understanding of the
Real World Environment
22

11
The Future...
Increasing complex applications
Component technology continues to evolve
Increasing operating speeds and data rates
Increased networking applications
Power supplies--CE Mark complications / harmonic limits
Decreased filter capacitors to reduce harmonics also
decreases effective ride-through...voltage regulation???
Application of "choppers" to provide sinusoidal current draw
results in increased low frequency emissions and voltage
source interactions
23
Increased Data Rates & Processor Speed
Data Rate (bps) Time Approximate

Distance
60 16.7 mS 3100 Miles
2400 417 uS 78 Miles
1M 1 uS 982 Feet
10 M 100 nS 98 Feet
100 M 10 nS 10 Feet
1G 1 nS 1 Foot
24

12
Power Supply Technology

LINEAR D.C. POWER SUPPLY
LARGE 60Hz
TRANSFORMER
L
LINEAR
N REGULATOR Vo
N:1
SMALL HF
L TRANSFORMER
N Vo
SWITCH MODE D.C. POWER SUPPLY
PWM
25
The Changing Electrical Environment

Changing electrical loads (SCRs)
Variable speed drives (ac & dc)
Frequency modulators
Large UPS systems
Loss of control over the internal electrical environment
Decreased infrastructure management and control
Changing residential electrical environment
26

13
The Electromagnetic Environment

Facility
Electrical Electric
Wiring,
Service Utility
Grounding &
Configuration Reliability
Construction
Telco Facility
Interface Mission Critical
Loads
& Protection Eqpt & Sys
(Harmonics)
EMI Electrostatic
Network
& Discharge
Facilities
RFI (ESD)
Dist & Prot
Control
27
The Future of Power Quality

The Utility
The Mitigation Equipment Supplier
The Consulting Engineer
The Electrical Contractor
The User
28

14
The California Experience
29
Electric Utility Deregulation
30

15
Electric Utility Deregulation

Deregulated Electric Utility Industry
Power Producers
(GENCOs or IPPs)
Vertically Integrated Regional Transmission Network

Electric Utility Operators (TRNSCOs)
Generation Bulk Power Trader

Deregulated (POWERCOs)
Transmission
& Industry
Distribution Restructuring Distribution System Operators
Customer Service (DISTCOs)
Retail Power Marketers

(RETAILCOs)
Energy Service Companies

(ESCOs)
31
PQ and the User

Will become more demanding
Will increase reliance on electrical energy
Will have a greater variety of loads
May, in some instances, make Power Quality a PRIORITY!
32

16
You Never Have a Problem...

Until You Plug it IN!
33

17
I The Electric Utility System
The US National Grid
Transmission level
interconnections
Evolving mission from
backup to power transfer
Three major
interconnections

1-1
Electric Utility Energy Sources
Electric Utility Customers & Usage

1-2
Power Quality & Utility Reliability
Electrical Conditions that can Disrupt a

Process.
Voltage sags, i.e., 90% of nominal for 6-12 cycles
Single phasing, i.e., loss of one of three phase
sources
Voltage interruption of several cycles caused by a
utility reclosure operation
Complete extended power outage
Transients caused by:
Lightning
Utility grid and capacitor switching
Non-linear loads
6

1-3
Std. Nominal System Voltages

Voltage Class 2-wire 3-wire 4-wire
120* 120/240* 240/120

Low Voltage (LV) 480 208Y/120
600 480Y/277
2400 4160Y/2400
4160 8320Y/4800
Medium Voltage 4800 12000Y/6930
(MV) 6900 12470Y/7200
13800 13200Y/7620
23000 13800Y/7970
34500 24940Y/14400
46000 34500Y/19920
69000
115000
High Voltage (HV) 138000
161000
230000
345000
Extra High Voltage 500000
(EHV) 765000
1100000
7
Power Quality and the Utility
Transformers
Transmission &
distribution
Service
wye
delta
open delta
red-leg (high-leg) delta
OR

1-4
Service Transformers
Single phase Three phase
Service Transformers
Pad mount
3-phase pole mount
3-phase red-leg delta
10

1-5
Protective apparatus
Fuses and circuit breakers

Lightning arresters and suppressors
Insulators, conductors and switches
11
Circuit Breakers / Reclosure
5 to 6 Cycles for operation after application of

the fault condition
Customer experiences a sag during this interval
Open duration from 20 cycles to 2 to 5 seconds
Actual duration depends on location of fault and
local utility practices
Multiple operations (typically 3) may be
experiences if the fault does not clear during
initial operations
12

1-6
Reclosure
13
Utility Fault Clearing: Reclosure Operation
14

1-7
Utility Reclosure Operation

Utility fault on customer
feeder
V & I = Source
15
Utility Reclosure Operation

Fault on adjacent feeder
V & I = Source
16

1-8
Utility Reclosure Operation / Lightning
17
Sag Correcting Devices

Softswitching Dip Proofing
Technologies Technologies, Inc.
18

1-9
Power Factor Correction Capacitors
19
Corrective apparatus
Voltage regulating
equipment
Power factor correction
capacitors
20

1-10
Power Factor Capacitor Switching

Zero Voltage Sensing
Control--before & after
21
Utility Fault Time Plot Data

Timeplot
300
275
Volts
250
225
200
A Vrms B Vrms C Vrms
1500
1250
1000
Amps
750
500
250
0
A Irms B Irms C Irms
00:00 03:00 06:00 09:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 00:00

05/13/2008 05/14/2008
Tuesday Wednesday
Event #104 at 05/13/2008 08:13:16.450
CV Mild Bipol Trans Neg 1/4 Cyc
22

1-11
Utility Fault Sag

Event Details/Waveforms
400
200
Volts
0
-200
-400
AV BV CV
300
Volts
280
260
240
A Vrms (val) B Vrms (val) C Vrms (val)
750
500
250
Amps
0
-250
-500
-750
AI BI CI DI
500
450
400
Amps
350
300
250
200
A Irms (val) B Irms (val) C Irms (val)
08:13:16.4 08:13:16.5 08:13:16.6 08:13:16.7

05/13/2008
Tuesday
Event #104 at 05/13/2008 08:13:16.450
CV Mild Bipol Trans Neg 1/4 Cyc
23
Utility Fault Single Phasing
24

1-12
II Building & Facility Wiring
Service Entrance
Main disconnect and overcurrent protection (circuit

breakers).
Building electrical system earth reference (neutral-to-
ground bond).
Earth grounding system.
Equipment grounding system.
Wiring errors and electrical code violations (NEC
Article 250).

2-1
Building (Facility) Wiring

MAIN
ELECTRICAL
BUILDING SERVICE UTILIZATION
SERVICE BRANCH
PANEL EQUIPMENT
TRANSFORMER FEEDER SUB-PANEL CIRCUIT
NEUTRAL
N
BUS
N G
N-G
BOND
PLUG/
G RECEPTACLE
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
EARTH GROUND
SYSTEM (GREEN WIRE)
GROUNDING BUS
SYSTEM
EARTH
GROUND 3
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupt

Protection for personnel: NEC 210-8 [1996 - 2005]
32 separate references in the 2002 code & 39 references in 2005 code.
Receptacles, portable devices, bathrooms, etc.
y5mA response level
SHUNT GFI SENSE

TRIP
TEST

2-2
Facility Ground Fault Protection

Service entrance
Protection for switchgear
NEC 230-95 [1996 - 2005]
>1000 ampere & >150V L-G
Maximum response levels: 1200
amperes & 1 second
Slowest and highest response levels
at service entrance
Exceptions
Service entrances with multiple input
breakers (six or less) none of which
have ampacities equal to or greater
than 1000 amperes.
Continuous industrial services where
the interruption of power poses more
hazard than relying upon normal
overcurrent interruption
Services with high impedance
grounded neutral systems. 5
Ground Fault Interrupt (GFI)

Required for all 480V GFI problems
services rated at 1000A Excessive current from
or more. voltage sag or load
operation.
Harmonic distortion
confuses current summing
circuitry.
Electrical noise
(interference) confuses
the GFI controller

2-3
Ground Fault Interrupt 1

Polyphase -- single CT GFI -- "zero sequence"
SHUNT GFI SENSE

TRIP

Polyphase -- Multiple CT GFI -- "residual"
SHUNT GFI SENSE

TRIP
8

2-4

Neutral-to-ground bond detect - "source"
SHUNT GFI SENSE

TRIP
GFI Problems
Magnetic pickup from adjacent circuits
Voltage and current harmonics vs CT response
EMI/RFI sensitivity
Trips settings too low for the application
GFI on primary of N/G bond in wye-to-wye
systems
Neutral return current flow through N/G bond CT
in multiple grounding systems
10

2-5
Ground Fault Interrupt (GFI) Troubleshooting
Monitor neutral-to-ground bond to determine if tripping

is the result of a fault or wiring errors.
Monitor for distortion levels.
Monitor service voltage levels.
Have GFI circuitry tested and calibrated.
Do not disable GFI equipment or adjust threshold
limits to their maximum range.
11
Distribution Transformer Uses

Voltage
Transformation
Isolation Line
Voltage transformation (step-

Neutral
up/step-down).
Ground
Limit neutral-to-ground voltage
Neutral-to-Ground
differentials. Voltage
Differential =
Limit and control undesirable Near Zero
A
neutral return currents (delta-to- A
B
wye
B C
C Neutral
Eqpt Grounding Conductor
12

2-6
Other Transformer Considerations
Separately derived systems must be grounded as

outlined in NEC Article 250 or 645.
Transformers 1000VA and larger must be grounded to
the nearest grounding electrode (NEC Article 250).
Health care facilities have special requirements.
13
Separately Derived Sources

Neutral continuity is the key
determinant. If the neutral is
interrupted or switched then the
source is probably separately
derived.
If separately derived then the

source must be bonded to the
building grounding electrode
system (BGES).
Autotransformers (voltage
changers) are not separately
derived.
14

2-7
Panelboards (sub-panels)
1, 2. Incoming Hot wires. There is 240 volts between
these wires, or 120 volts between either wire and the
neutral line.
3. Neutral wire. This is at the same electrical potential

as the ground. At the main breaker only, the neutral
is connected to ground.
4. Ground Bus Bar. This strip of metal has a row of

screws for connecting the ground wires of the various
circuits.
5, 6, 7. Neutral Bus Bars. This panel has 3 short bus

bars for neutral wire connections. Some panels have
only one long bar.
8. Circuit Breakers. Each single-pole breaker

connects to one of the two hot bus bars. Each
double-pole breaker connects to both of the bus bars
(thus providing 240 volts between hot wires).
9. The last available space in this panel. Our new

breaker will go here. 15
Neutral to Ground Bonds
Only ONE allowed!

Extra bonds are common through mis-wiring &
equipment problems
Use separate neutral & ground buses
Monitor circuit and ground conductors
16

2-8
Overcurrent Protection: "Do's & Don'ts"
Circuit breakers must be ganged for poly-phase

circuits.
Avoid using fuses in feeders as supplemental
protection in poly-phase circuits unless phase loss
detection is installed.
Overcurrent devices can only be loaded to 80% of their
rated capacity.
17
More: "Do's & Don'ts"

Inspect panelboards for loose, noisy or excessively hot
circuit breakers (IR or Ultra-sonic scans).
Inrush (nuisance) tripping -- replace older breakers.
Excessive voltage drop across circuit breaker --
replace (it will be the HOT one).
18

2-9
Ultrasonic Detectors (Translators)
In Amp Mixer Amp Out 5KHz

45KHz
40KHz
Osc
19
Mechanical Connections
Conduit instead of grounding
conductor
Screw thread
Clamp
Compression sleeve
Flexible
Wiring termination practices
Mixed wires & double-lugging
Solid vs. stranded
Copper vs. aluminum
20

2-10
Feeders & Branch Circuits
Recommended voltage drops

Feeders 3%
Branch circuits 3%
Overall 5%
Methods to decrease voltage drop
Increase wire size
Decrease load
Decrease length of circuit
Shared Neutral Circuits (Feeders)
21
Shared Neutral Facilities

Multi-wire circuits and non-linear loads
Non-canceling neutral return currents
Symptoms of high impedance (open) shared neutral
conductors
High incidence of power supply failure
Erratic equipment operation
Load interaction
22

2-11
High Impedance Neutral

Medium Heavy Light
Load Load Load
A
B
C
N
G
VOLTAGE PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C

L-N 143 73 166
L-G 122 122 123
N-G 54 54 54
23
Results of an Open Neutral
High Impedance Neutral
24

2-12
Neutral Current - Sinusoidal Loads

No Imbalance
Phase currents offset
Phase Imbalance
Imbalance = neutral
25
Neutral Current and Computer Loads

Current pulses do not offset
Current in neutral can reach
1.73 times the size of A
individual phase currents B
C
Frequency of current is 3x N
fundamental G
150 Hz for 50 Hz
180 Hz for 60 Hz
26

2-13
Solutions for Multiwire Problems

Delta-wye transformers
Eliminate shared facilities / oversize neutral conductors
Filtering
Equipment redesign
Managing the environment
27
Receptacles (NEMA Notation)
CONTACT TYPE TYPE OF CONNECTOR

"L" denotes locking type; nothing "R" denotes receptacle, or female.
denotes straight blade. "P" denotes plug, or male.
L21-30R
VOLTAGE TYPE
CURRENT CAPACITY
5 = 120V
15 Amps
6 = 240V, 208V
20 Amps
14 = 240/120V, 208V
30 Amps
21 = 208/120V, 3-Phase
28

2-14
Standard & IG Receptacles
29
IG Receptacle Construction
30

2-15
IG Applications
IG passes back through
panels to service origin.
With separately derived

source the IG must terminate
within the derived service.
Grounding wire size must

increase to match ampacity
of panels it passes through.
31
Common IG Errors
NEC violations
IG run separately from current
carrying conductors
IG does not terminate at the
derived service
IG grounding is separate from
facility grounding.
Supplemental grounding at IG
cannot serve as the sole
grounding
32

2-16
Automatic Transfer Switches
33
Generator ATS Setup 1

Continuous neutral
Not separately derived
3 Pole ATS
Automatic transfer switch
GES
Grounding electrode
system
Bonds to generator
chassis
34

2-17
Generator - ATS Setup 2

Separately derived
Neutral interrupted
4 Pole ATS
Automatic transfer switch
GES
Grounding electrode
system
Bonds to generator
neutral and chassis
35
Multiple Redundant System

Isolation breaker between feeders
Dual feeders - N+1 redundancy
Fast acting transfer switch to
power loads from A or B side
Maximum load on any UPS is 25%
N/G Bond???
36

2-18
ATS Configurations
Break before make

sequence.
Make before break

sequence
37
Synchronizing Waveforms
Synchronizing rate -- A / (A-B)

A frequency = utility; B frequency = generator
3 Hz delta @ 60 Hz = 20 cycles & 18 per cycle
0.1 Hz delta @ 60 Hz = 600 cycles @ 0.6 per cycle
38

2-19
Make Before Break Transfer
Sources paralleled and synchronized

Phase offset at moment of transfer - 15
Preferred offset - 7 or less
39
Non-Synchronous Transfers
Flux opposing
Flux aiding
40

2-20
Short Decay Time Transfer

Decay time
Less than 2 cycles
Common problem with
some ATS
Inrush Current
Almost 5kA inrush
Waveform Instability
Following transfe
41
Transformer: Out-of-Phase Transfer
200kVA transformer: 5% impedance

3mS break during transfer between sources
42

2-21
Phase Position Vs Rotation
43
Phase Position Vs Rotation
44

2-22
lll Harmonics
Harmonics
Harmonics
Integer multiples of a
fundamental -- added to
fundamental create distorted
sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal
waveform
Harmonics are caused by Non-
linear load currents & Non-
linear voltage sources
Measurements of harmonic
content does not always
indicate the presence of
problems

3-1
Effects of Harmonics
Current
Current flow without work (low power factor)
Transformer & wiring losses
Negative sequence currents that reduce torque in motors
Excessive neutral current
Voltage
Peak voltage loss and "ride-through reduction
Phase voltage imbalance
Motor plugging or cogging
Zero voltage cross distortion and frequency errors
Odd Harmonics
Symmetrical
90, 180, 270
Leading/trailing edge
Positive/negative cycle
Single phase loads
3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th...
Polyphase loads
Frequency doublets
5th & 7th, 11th & 13th

3-2
Even Order Harmonics

Asymmetrical
90, 180, 270
Can shift the position of
the fundamental causing
loss of 120 phase shift
between phases
Can cause dc bias
problems in motors and
transformers
Can cause phase control
problems for SCR/Triac
loads
Harmonic Order
Harmonic Harmonic 3 Pulse &
Balanced harmonics # Sequence L/N Loads
6 Pulse 12 Pulse 18 Pulse 24 Pulse
3 0 x
Frequency doublets: 6n +/- 1 5 - x x
7 + x x
5, 7; 11, 13; 17, 19; 23, 25 ... 9 0 x
Positive & negative sequence 11

13
-
+
x
x
x
x
x
x
Zero Sequence 15
17
0
-
x
x x x
19 + x x x
Harmonics 21 0 x
23 - x x x x
Triplens: 6n-3 (odd multiples of 25 + x x x x
150/180 Hz) 27 0 x
29 - x x
Ground referenced (neutral) 31 + x x
33 0 x
Even order harmonics 35

37
-
+
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Conduction angle differences 39

41
0
-
x
x x
Diode failure 43 + x x
45 0 x
3 pulse rectifiers -- IEEE519 47 - x x x x
49 + x x x

3-3
Power Factor
Power Factor (PF): PF = Watts / Volt*Ampere
Displacement Factor (): Cosine of angle (E & I)
Distortion Factor (): = Afund / Arms
Power
Displacement Distortion
Factor
Power Factor
Power Factor (PF)
PF = Watts/Volt*Ampere
Displacement Factor ()
Cosine of angle (EFND & IFND)
Distortion Factor ()
= AFND / Arms

3-4
Distorted Voltage Waveform

High impedance
distribution system
Load currents interact
with impedance
Peak voltage loss and
extended voltage
waveform
Dominant harmonics third,
fifth and ninth
Computer Load Current

Load current developed
by computers
Dominant harmonic
currents:
Third, fifth and ninth
10

3-5
Power Calculations
Fundamental and harmonic contributions to power
Power = E * I * cosine of angle between E & I
Phase angle affects power contribution
0 to 90 (+) : 90 (0) : 91 to 180 (-) : 180 (-1)
181 to 270 (-) : 270 (0) : 271 to 360 (+)
Harmonic Voltage Phase Current Phase Mean

Power
Fundamental 121.8 87 32.75 103 3,832
3 12.1 48 14.1 306 -35
5 2.8 264 8.3 167 -3
9 1.7 52 1.6 0 2
Total 3,796
11
Power Factor Determination

Mean power delivered = 3,796 watts
RMS voltage = 122.6 volts
RMS current = 36.7 amps
Apparent power = 122.6*36.7 = 4,499 VA
Power factor = 3,796/4,499 =0.84
Distortion factor = 0.89
Displacement PF = cos(fun) = cos16 = 0.96
12

3-6
Single Phase Angle Control Loads

Light dimmers and heater
controls
Odd order harmonics
dominant
Power factor and THD
depend upon phase angle
Even order harmonics
present when firing angle
varies
13
Full Wave Power Supply

Computer loads
Harmonics
Odd orders dominant
3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th...
Zero sequence harmonics
Triplens - 3rd, 9th, 15,
21st...
THD can exceed 100%
Referenced to
fundamental
Power factor typically 0.7
14

3-7
Half Wave Power Supply

Half cycle pulsed current
Asymmetrical current
DC bias
Power Factor
0.5 true power factor
Displacement power factor if
load is inductive
Harmonics
Odds - 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th...
Evens - 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th...
Source of zero sequence
harmonics (triplens) - 3rd, 9th,
15, 21st...
15
6 Pulse Voltage Fed Load

Each half cycle
Double pulsed current
Symmetrical current
Power Factor
0.8 true power factor - typical
No displacement power factor
Harmonics
Odd harmonics
Frequency doublets (6n +/- 1)
5th, 7th; 11th, 13th...
16

3-8
6 Pulse Current Fed Load

Pulsed current each half
cycle
Asymmetrical current due to
commutation differences
Power Factor
0.6 to 0.8 true power factor
Displacement power factor due
to motor load
Harmonics
Odd harmonics
Doublets (6n +/- 1)
5th, 7th; 11th, 13th...
Even harmonics - limited
amounts
17
12 Pulse Current (UPS)

Top trace -- 100kVA UPS -
Normal operation
Bottom trace -- 100kVA UPS
with problems
Input SCRs failed -- even order
distortion about 40%
18

3-9
Power Monitor & Harmonic Analysis
19
VTHD Graphical Display

Waveform harmonics
%
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
THD H02 H04 H06 H08 H10 H12 H14 H16 H18 H20 H22 H24
DC H03 H05 H07 H09 H11 H13 H15 H17 H19 H21 H23 H25
A VHarm B VHarm C VHarm
AV BV CV DV A-BV B-CV C-AV AI BI CI DI
RMS 287.16 286.20 286.59 0.05 495.95 495.54 497.98 396.46 413.42 441.19 41.28
FND 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
DC -0.00 -0.49 0.46 -188.19 0.28 -0.55 0.27 0.03 -0.41 0.49 -6.25
THD 1.47 1.40 1.39 663.44 1.46 1.35 1.44 11.41 11.74 12.21 81.50
20

3-10
ITHD Graphical Display

Waveform harmonics
%
12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0.0
DC H03 H05 H07 H09 H11 H13 H15 H17 H19 H21 H23 H25
A IHarm B IHarm C IHarm
RMS 287.16 286.20 286.59 0.05 495.95 495.54 497.98 396.46 413.42 441.19 41.28
FND 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
DC -0.00 -0.49 0.46 -188.19 0.28 -0.55 0.27 0.03 -0.41 0.49 -6.25
THD 1.47 1.40 1.39 663.44 1.46 1.35 1.44 11.41 11.74 12.21 81.50
21
ITHDNeutral Graphical Display

Waveform harmonics
%
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
DC H03 H05 H07 H09 H11 H13 H15 H17 H19 H21 H23 H25
D IHarm
RMS 287.16 286.20 286.59 0.05 495.95 495.54 497.98 396.46 413.42 441.19 41.28
FND 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
DC -0.00 -0.49 0.46 -188.19 0.28 -0.55 0.27 0.03 -0.41 0.49 -6.25
THD 1.47 1.40 1.39 663.44 1.46 1.35 1.44 11.41 11.74 12.21 81.50
22

3-11
PowerTHD Graphical Display

Waveform harmonics
%
0.00
-0.01
-0.02
-0.03
-0.04
-0.05
-0.06
-0.07
DC H03 H05 H07 H09 H11 H13 H15 H17 H19 H21 H23 H25
A PHarm B PHarm C PHarm
RMS 287.16 286.20 286.59 0.05 495.95 495.54 497.98 396.46 413.42 441.19 41.28
FND 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
DC -0.00 -0.49 0.46 -188.19 0.28 -0.55 0.27 0.03 -0.41 0.49 -6.25
THD 1.47 1.40 1.39 663.44 1.46 1.35 1.44 11.41 11.74 12.21 81.50
23
Harmonic Flow -- Power Monitor

AV Harm AV Harm AI Harm AI Harm AP Harm AP Harm
Harm [%] [Deg] [%] [Deg] [%] [Deg] [Deg] COS
THD 1.47 11.41 0 1.00
(0.00) 180 0.03 0 0.00 0 180 (1.00)
H02 0.51 270 0.45 300 0.00 22 31 0.86
H03 0.15 250 1.47 141 (0.00) 69 109 (0.32)
H04 0.19 270 0.28 283 0.00 9 13 0.98
H05 1.12 253 10.63 132 (0.07) 59 121 (0.52)
H06 0.15 271 0.27 167 (0.00) 55 104 (0.24)
H07 0.43 168 3.40 346 (0.02) 358 178 (1.00)
H08 0.10 260 0.13 236 0.00 3 23 0.92
H09 0.19 266 0.42 239 0.00 336 27 0.89
H10 0.10 262 0.10 208 0.00 358 54 0.59
H11 0.38 113 0.59 326 (0.00) 33 213 (0.84)
H12 0.07 261 0.12 261 0.00 1 1 1.00
H13 0.19 83 0.67 258 (0.00) 355 175 (1.00)
H14 0.04 260 0.15 281 0.00 17 21 0.93
H15 0.12 202 0.32 148 0.00 311 54 0.59
24

3-12
Transformer Sizing
De-rating
ANSI C57.110-1986
Standard ignores harmonic voltages and even
orders
K-factor
Based upon UL1561
K-factor affected by source impedance
Calculated number may be low
Allow for increased transformer impedance
Avoid the Goldilocks approach
25
K-Factor Calculations
Low-Impedance Source
K-Factor = 9.43
Voltage rms = 117.8; Voltage peak =
162.2; Voltage crest factor = 1.38
Current rms = 4.38; Current peak = 11.2;
Current crest factor = 2.55
High-Impedance Source
K-Factor = 3.73
Voltage rms = 114.1; Voltage peak =
145.2; Voltage crest factor = 1.27
Current rms = 3.83; Current peak = 7.9;
Current crest factor = 2.06
26

3-13
K-Factor Correction
Compensation process
Vthd is <2% the K number is OK
Vthd is >2% and <6% then K+1
Vthd is >5% then K+2
Rule of thumb K rating

Standard K-Factors: 4, 9, 13, 20, 30, 40 & 50.
At service with load diversity
K = 4 or 9
At load
K = 13 or 20
27
Power Supply W/O Power Factor

Correction
28

3-14
Power Supply With Power Factor

Correction
29
Neutral Current
Old style switch mode power supplies
Draw current in unique pulses
Ratio of neutral vs. phase current can reach 1.73:1
New style supplies with PFC
Power supplies with power factor correction circuitry (PFC)
draw current in a more sinusoidal form.
Concentrations of PFC corrected supplies will offset and not
contribute to neutral current.
Ratio of neutral vs. phase current may be less then 1 : 1.
The need to double neutral conductor size
may decrease with PFC corrected equipment.
for theaters is a code requirement.
30

3-15
Harmonic Propagation
Harmonic effects increase with load/source interaction

Odd harmonics develop naturally with rectangular
waveforms
Even harmonics develop with asymmetrical waveforms
Asymmetry results in direct voltages and currents
(dc)
DC conditions can adversely affect magnetic devices
Even harmonics often indicate load problems
Harmonic content normally decreases with increased
frequency (1/3 of the third, 1/5 of the fifth...)
31
Harmonic Problems Summary

Overheated, noisy Drift or hunting in
transformers electronic controls
Overloaded or burned Rapid motor failure or
(hot) neutrals insufficient torque
Timing errors in logic Insufficient distribution
controlled equipment capacity
Blown SCRs Power factor or
Capacitor failure harmonic rate penalties
Variable speed drive
(VSD) dropout
32

3-16
Harmonics and Power Factor

Mitigation methods Displacement Factor =
Delta-wye transformers Power Factor
Eliminate shared neutrals Correction capacitors
Filtering should work
Phase angle blending for Distortion Factor =
control of harmonics Power Factor
Equipment redesign Harmonic filters or phase
(linearize) shifting required
Management of the Displacement &
environment Distortion Present
Proceed with caution
33
IEEE 519
V
harmonic
PCC
I
harmonic
34

3-17
IEEE 519 Harmonics Standard

Utility responsibility Customer responsibility
Limit overall voltage distortion Limit current injection into utility
General limit 5% THD at PCC Limits based on short-circuit
Maximum single harmonic 3% capacity and maximum
of fundamental demand
Voltage distortion reflects Limits based on total demand
distortion
User-injected harmonic
Individual harmonics limited
currents
Even harmonics limited to 25%
Utility system impedance
of odd
No half-wave converters!
35
IEEE519 Current Distortion Limits

(120V Through 69000V)
Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of IL

Individual Harmonic Order (Odd Harmonics)
ISC / IL <11 11 h < 17 17 h < 23 23 h < 35 35 h TDD

<20* 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20<50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50<100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100<1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd harmonic limits above.
Current distortions that result in a dc offset, e.g., half-wave converters, are not allowed.
*All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion, regardless of actual
Isc / IL .
where
Isc = maximum short-circuit current at PCC
IL = maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) at PCC.
36

3-18
IV Grounding
Origins For Grounding Concepts
Electrical code
Single point grounding
Fault path to electrical service
Telecommunications grounding
Traditional DC grounding practices
Ground start & signaling
RF grounding
Antenna grounding
Isolated grounding
U.S. practice

4-1
Grounding
Earthing
Establishing a bond to earth at the facility service
entrance for the electrical distribution system
Grounding (U.S. Convention)
Establishing fault clearing paths within a facility for the
electrical distribution system and for equipment within the
facility.
Referencing
Establishing a chassis contact to an external point to limit
voltage rise.
Magic Vs Science
Grounding Grounding
Facility Grounding Considerations
Safety grounding ("earthing")

Reference the power system
Low frequency currents
Requires low resistance paths
Personnel safety
Remove touch potential
Prevent unacceptable voltage rise
Lightning protection
Provide discharge path for lightning currents.

4-2
Equipment Grounding Considerations

Fault currents and leakage currents
Low impedance path to derived source
Touch potential and chassis potential
Low 60Hz impedance path to derived source
Signal & performance grounding
High frequency currents
Equipment performance
Reference is local equipment chassis
Low impedance paths
Low inductance
High capacitance
Grounding System
Earth grounding system Equipment grounding

Grounding electrode (conductor) system
conductor Grounds exposed metal
Grounding electrode(s) and cabinets
Driven rod(s) Starts at the neutral-to-
Metal buried water pipe ground bond
Structural steel Must be run in same
Concrete encased electrode conduit as phase/neutral
(Ufer) conductors
Buried ring or linear
conductor May use conduit
Connected to electronics
dc & logic reference
6

4-3
Essential Grounding References
The Roles of Grounding
General requirements
NEC 250.4 [2002 & 2005]
Establish voltage
reference
Limit touch potential
Clear electrical faults
Carry lightning currents
Performance issues
Provide equipment
reference
Provide RF/ESD
discharge path 8

4-4
Grounding Electrode System (GES) - 1
National Electrical Code Article 250

Electrical service entrance bonding
NEC 250-5 [1996] & NEC 250-20 [1999 - 2005]
Incoming utility neutral or internal facility neutral
Grounding Electrode System (GES) -2
National Electrical Code Article 250 (cont.)

Grounding electrode system - NEC 250.50
Structural steel where effectively grounded
"All grounding electrodes as described in 250.51(A)(1)
through (A)(6) that are present at each building or structure
served shall be bonded together to form the grounding
electrode system."
Ufer grounds (concrete encased electrode)
Building footings if designed as Ufer grounds
Water pipes
Ground ring
Plate electrodes
Driven grounding rods
10

4-5
Earth Grounding System (GES)
11
Grounding Electrode System

Driven Ground
Water Pipe Bond
Structural Steel Bond
Metering
Must not impede grounding
path
NEC 250-50(a)(1)[1999]
Underground gas pipes
Not part of GES
NEC 250-51(a) [1999]
Gas pipes inside facility
Bonding after shutoff valve
NEC 250-104(b)[1999]
12

4-6
Facility Grounding Standards

NEC
25 Ohms or supplement
NEC 250-56 [2002]
Health Care
IEEE Std. 602-1996 (White)
Section (10.4.5.2)
No more than 10 ohms
5 Ohms or less preferred
Industrial Plants
ANSI/IEEE Std. 141-1986 (R1999)
(RED)
Section 7.5.2
1 ohm or less for substations
5 ohms or less for industrial plants
Sphere of influence
Radius equals length of buried rod
13
Facility Grounding Ground Rods
14

4-7
Resistance Measurements
3-Point Fall of Potential Single Point Measurement
15
Effects of Soil Moisture & Temperature
8' Ground Rod Resistance 8' Ground Rod Resistance

10,000 1,000
1,000
Ohms
Ohms
100
100
10
10 0 10 20 30
10 30 50 70 5 15 25
20 40 60 80 % Moisture Content by Weight
Temperature in F
16

4-8
Ground Ring
Ground ring
NEC 250-81 [1996]
NEC 250-50(d) [1999]
NEC 250.52(A)(4) [2002 - 2005]
Buried at least 2.5' (762mm)
At least 20' long
No smaller than No. 2 gauge
Augmented ring
Driven rods
Surface radials
Bond to structural steel
At corners
At regular intervals
17
Concrete Encased Electrode

Concrete encased electrode
Ufer Ground
Ground rod in foundation (GRIF)
Encased in at least 2 inches (50.8mm) of
concrete
Reinforcing bar may be bonded together by
the usual steel tie wires
At least 20 feet (6.1m) of zinc galvanized
conductor or steel reinforcing bar not less
than 1/2 inch or 20 feet of bare No. 4 copper
conductor
NEC 250-81-1996 & NEC 250-50(d) [1999] &
NEC 250.52(A)(3) [2002-2005]
Required use - NEC 250.50 [2005]
18

4-9
Ground Rod in Foundation
19
Electrically Conductive Concrete
Conductive components
Carbonaceous particles & metallic compounds
Uses
Deicing & snow melting of roadways & bridges
Ground plane effects in data centers & barns
Reducing electrolysis in grounding systems
Reducing earth resistance in grounding systems
Increasing surge current capabilities
Enhanced screen room control (Tempest)
20

4-10
San Earth Enhanced Concrete
21
Common Facility Power Systems

Single phase
240/120
Three phase
480/277 & 208/120
22

4-11
Power/Grounding Variations
Floated wye
Ground referenced
voltages vary with leakage
currents
Floated delta-delta
Ground referenced
voltages vary with leakage
currents
Corner grounded delta
One leg at earth potential,
others at phase-to-phase
potential
23
Wye Service Grounding Variations
Ground fault protected

>150 volts to ground
>1000A
Resistance grounded
Resistance or impedance
Chosen to protect against an
arcing ground fault
24

4-12
Impedance Grounded Service
480/277Vac service
Greater than 150 volts to
ground & more than
1000A
No neutral connected loads
Maximum response is
1200A and 1 second
Ground referenced
voltage during faults
25
Delta/Delta Service
Floated Delta Service

Absence of solid ground
reference allows ground
referenced voltage
fluctuations
Load related fluctuations
usually within voltage
envelope of service
Utility related fluctuations
reflect primary voltages
Lightning transients create
severe dv/dt
26

4-13
Common & Problematic Service
Three phase delta voltages (240 delta)

Single phase voltages (240/120)
High leg delta (crazy leg, red leg etc.)
27
Hi-Leg Measurements
28

4-14
Phase-to-Neutral & Phase-to-Phase
29
Safety Grounding System
Equipment grounding conductor

Grounds exposed metal and cabinets
Starts at the neutral-to-ground bond
Must be run in same conduit as phase/neutral
conductors
May use conduit
Connected to electronics dc & logic reference
30

4-15
Grounding Issues
Grounding conductor size Conduit instead of

Is bigger better? grounding conductor
Transformer grounding Screw thread
Ground loops Clamp
"Isolated" grounds Compression sleeve
Flexible
31
Low Frequency Ground Current - 1
LEGEND: 1
LOAD CURRENT A
NEUTRAL RETURN CURRENT
GROUND
SUB-PANEL
UTILIZATION
BUILDING EQUIPMENT
ELECTRICAL
SERVICE
TRANSFORMER LINE
2
NEUTRAL
GROUND GROUND
N-G
BOND
C B D
SUB-PANEL
EARTH GROUND
(MAIN BUILDING ELECTRICAL GROUND)
32

4-16
LEGEND: 1
LOAD CURRENT A

GROUND
SUB-PANEL
UTILIZATION
BUILDING EQUIPMENT
ELECTRICAL
SERVICE
TRANSFORMER LINE
2
NEUTRAL
N-G GROUND GROUND
BOND
C B D
SUB-PANEL
EARTH GROUND
(MAIN BUILDING ELECTRICAL GROUND)
33
LEGEND: 1
LOAD CURRENT A
GROUND
SUB-PANEL UTILIZATION
BUILDING EQUIPMENT
ELECTRICAL
SERVICE
TRANSFORMER LINE
2
NEUTRAL
GROUND GROUND
N-G
BOND
C B D
SUB-PANEL
F E
EARTH GROUND
(MAIN BUILDING ELECTRICAL GROUND) "ISOLATED" GROUND,
GROUND ROD, COLD
WATER PIPE, ETC..
34

4-17
LEGEND: 1
LOAD CURRENT A
GROUND
SUB-PANEL UTILIZATION
BUILDING EQUIPMENT
ELECTRICAL
SERVICE
TRANSFORMER LINE
2
NEUTRAL
GROUND GROUND
N-G
BOND
C B D
SUB-PANEL
F E
EARTH GROUND
(MAIN BUILDING ELECTRICAL GROUND) "ISOLATED" GROUND,
GROUND ROD, COLD
WATER PIPE, ETC..
35
Neutral-to-Ground Voltage
NEC fine print note
210.19(a) FPN No.4
Branch circuits sized for
maximum 3% drop with total
5% drop for feeder and branch
circuit.
120 Vac
5% drop = 6 volts
3 volts lost in supply and 3 volts
lost in return per phase
Polyphase systems N/G can
reach 5 volts (3*1.73 = 5.2)
36

4-18
High Frequency Ground Currents
Sources
Transients from load
switching
Surge voltages and
current from lightning
Electromagnetic
interference
Radio frequency
interference
37
High Frequency Interference Current - 2

Interference caused by refrigeration motor
Affected RS-422/485 circuit and upset POS system
38

4-19
Facility Exposure to Lightning
39
ANSI/IEEE C62.41-1991
Location C
>10kV
>10kA
Location B
6kV Impulse or Ring
3kA Impulse
500A Ring
Location A
6kV Ring
200A Ring
40

4-20
Storm Problems - Lightning
41
Facility Grounding & Lightning

Lightning treatment
Bond ground terminals to GES
NEC 250-106 [1999 - 2005]
Air terminal conductors and
ground terminals are not to be
used in lieu of intended GES
NEC 250.60 [2005]
250.106 FPN 2
6' (1.83m) clear air spacing
to conductive metalwork or
3' (0.92m spacing through
wood, concrete or brick)
NFPA 780-2004 (4.21.2) provides
calculation for clearance from
down conductors due to high
voltage & ionization
42

4-21
Lightning Protection System Grounding
43
Referencing Issues
44

4-22
Separately Derived Sources

Neutral continuity is the key
determinant. If the neutral is
interrupted or switched then the
source is probably separately
derived.
If separately derived then the

source must be bonded to the
system (BGES).
Autotransformers (voltage
changers) are not separately
derived.
45
Bonding Dual Power Sources

Dual power sources used to
ensure redundancy.
Dual sources can be affected by

ground skew. Ground skew
refers to voltage differences
between sources.
Bonding the sources together as

well as bonding to the BGES
helps reduce ground loop
currents through equipment
powered from the dual sources.
46

4-23
AC & DC Sources
AC & DC sources must also be
bonded to the BGES to reduce
common mode potentials in
equipment powered from the
sources.
Supplemental DC return bonds

to ground cannot be placed at
equipment. This causes
unwanted DC current flow
throughout the facility.
47
DC Bus Grounding
A = Isolated grounding
DC return grounded
independently
Voltage differential possible
between AC power and dc
system
B = Contiguous grounding
DC bonded to ac grounding means
48

4-24
Common Mode Problems
AC reference?
DC reference?
Potential between
systems?
49
Separate DC Grounding Conductor
DC grounding tied to main

facility grounding
DC grounding conductor
run independent of ac
conductors
Attempt to prevent cross-
talk between ac and dc
conductors
50

4-25
Multiple DC Reference
Extra dc reference points turns grounding into a dc path
DC current flows everywhere (inversely proportional to the dc
resistance values).
51
Signal Reference Ground

& DC Systems
52

4-26
Signal Reference Ground

& AC Systems
53
Misapplied Signal Reference Grid
Attempt to reference
equipment independently
of facility grounding.
Violates NEC.
SRG not bonded to BGES
per NEC 645.
SRG serves as sole
grounding means
independent of SRG.
54

4-27
V Power Problems
Terms for Power Problems

Glitch
Ev
ulse
en
Confusion Im p
t
???
e
Surge tag
Ou
Blink
rtion
Disto Sag
Swell
No
Transient
tc
hi
ng
Glitch
"Power Hit"
Anomaly

5-1
Voltage Tolerance Curves
Voltage Tolerance Curves

5-2
Power Problems
Events are anomalies

Event recording is dependent on the threshold settings of the
monitoring equipment and the nature of the electrical
environment.
Disturbances are undesirable consequences of events
Correlation establishes the relationship between EVENTS
and equipment DISTURBANCES. Single correlation is not
conclusive -- it may be "coincidence!"
Power Problems are a consequence of disturbances --
a set or class of disturbances.
Power Problems Depend On:

Nature and source of event
External (source)
Internal (load)
Susceptibility of load to the event
Load does not react...no problem
Load reacts...activity / process interruption
Effect on process or activity
Stops the activity / process
Easy "work around"
Cost sensitivity to this effect
BIG $$$
No real identifiable costs...can not justify $$$ to mitigate problem

5-3
Power Problems
Source
Internal or external
Utility or load
Coupling
Direct
Induced
Characteristics
Low Frequency
High Frequency
Power Problems - Coupling
Directly conducted
Electromagnetically coupled or induced

5-4
Power Problems: Low Frequency
Variation of amplitude Types of event:

near power system Swells (surges)
frequency Sags & brownouts
Important Characteristics Dropouts & outages
Magnitude, Duration and Frequency variation
Source
Power Problems: Frequency
Not usually a problem How do power monitors

with utility - a "stiff" measure frequency?
source Cycle-by-cycle
Typical problem sources: Averaged over a multi-
Engine generators cycle sample
UPS systems
Small, remote or isolated
power systems
10

5-5
Typical RMS Voltage Disturbances
11
Power Problems: Utility

capacitor switching
Circuit breaker operation
and grid switching
Arcs and line fault
clearance
Lightning and storms
12

5-6
Storm-Related Problems - Lightning
13
Storm Related Event
14

5-7
Power Problems: Facility
Loose connections
Overloaded circuits and
transformers
Wiring errors
Ground loops (low and
high frequency)
15
Facility Power Problems
Breaker trip & fuses blow on motor start-up
16

5-8
Facility Power Problems-2
ATS operation during motor start-up
17
ATS Re-transfer to preferred source
18

5-9
Good Start-up!
19
ATS Wiring Error!!!!
20

5-10
Power Problems: Equipment
Equipment turn on/off

Equipment current
distortion
Phase-angle controlled
loads
Low immunity to
disturbances
21
Load Related Events - 1
Load related event--load

"turn-on"
V & I = Load
22

5-11
Load Related Events - 2
23
Load Related Events (Harmonic Eval.)
24

5-12
Induction Motor Response to Outage
25
Equipment Response to Notch
26

5-13
Sub-cycle and Other Disturbances
27
Transient Modes
Normal mode One mode often converts

AC line to line to another through:
AC line to neutral Circuit voltage drop
Telco tip to ring Capacitive coupling
Common mode Mutual inductive coupling
Any line to local ground
Differential ground mode
Between physically
separated grounds
28

5-14
Interference Modes
L L L
v
N N N
v
G G G
v
Measurement Normal Mode Common Mode Longitudinal Mode

Techniques
Voltage Line-to Neutral or Neutral-to-Ground Imbalance between
Differential Phase-to-Phase conductors or
another reference
point
Current Phase or Neutral Line & Neutral Multiple Conductor

Current Summation or Summation
Ground Current
29
Power Problems: High Frequency - 1
Important characteristics
Peak voltage, current &
energy
Rise time (dv/dt, di/dt)
Phase angle
Frequency of occurrence
30

5-15
Transients
Transient sources
include
Lightning
Utility
capacitors
Switching
User
load switching
Equipment operation
ESD
31
Transient Effects
Damage
AC power supplies
Data, telephone and
communications
interfaces
Disruption
Data loss
System crash
Degradation
Minor damage which
surfaces later
32

5-16
Transients
Transient Propagation
Obeys circuit laws
Current flows in circuit Transient generator Load
Capacitance may
complete circuit
Transient Protection
Basics
Block
Current block
Series high impedance Transient
generator Load
Current divert
Parallel low impedance
33
Placement of Surge Suppressor
Line
Meter
Neutral
6'
20'
34

5-17
Surge Suppressor Performance
Let through 6' of Wire

At the suppressor
With 6' of wire
With 20' of wire
20' of Wire
35
Common Electrical Problems
Wiring errors Ground loops

Electrical system Leakage
Data, telecommunications Neutral/ground bonds
& network Transients
Overloaded circuits Switching
Lack of power Lightning
management Electrostatic discharge
Harmonics
36

5-18
Electrostatic Discharge
Causes:
Triboelectric (rubbing) effects
Separation and accumulation of charge
Results:
High voltages (up to 50 kV)
Spark discharges
High dV/dt and dI/dt
37
Electrostatic Voltages
ACTIVITY LOW (<20%) HIGH (>65%)

HUMIDITY HUMIDITY
Walking across carpet 35,000 V 1,500 V
Walking over vinyl floor 12,000 V 250 V
Worker at bench 6,000 V 100 V
Handling vinyl envelopes 7,000 V 600 V
Picking up poly bags from 20,000 V 1,200 V
bench
Movements on urethane 18,000 V 1,500 V
padded chair
38

5-19
Electrostatic Discharge
Avoidance & control:

High humidity (>50%)
Conductive materials and
flooring
Protective clothing and straps
Ionizers
Equipment immunity &
hardening
Keyboards, mice & human
interface
Ground, shield & suppress
AC suppression rarely effective
39
Gaussmeter
Measures flux density

Gauss or Teslas
Milligauss & MicroTeslas
Problems arising from
flux density
CRT waver
Induced current flow in
data cables
Easy to use
Single axis vs triaxial
40

5-20
Solutions for EMF Problems
Correct the source

Attenuate harmonic currents
Fix wiring errors
Move the affected equipment
Shield the source or the receiver
Mumetal
Steel sheets
NoRad flux control systems
Change affected equipment
Change CRT scan rate
41
Diverting Magnetic Fields
TA2 TA2
STEEL
STRAY FLUX
SHEET
42

5-21
VI Power Conditioning
Power Conditioning
Provides improved power quality to load by:

Separating circuits of sensitive loads
Establishing controlled reference grounds
Conditioning power with a treatment device
Providing alternative source of electrical energy

6-1
Cascaded Protection
Uses multiple shunt protectors

Uses blocking impedance
Power system wiring
Power system transformers
Filter or transformer power conditioners
Power Treatment Devices
Voltage regulators Transformers

Ferroresonant Isolation
Tap switching Low impedance
Surge protective devices conditioner
Lightning arresters & Ferroresonant
surge suppressors Uninterruptible power
Filters sources (UPS)
Motor generators On-line
Off-line
Line interactive

6-2
Surge Protection
Lightning arresters
Primary and secondary devices
Applied on utility up to PCC (watt-hour meter)
Surge suppressors
Applied in facility beyond PCC
Service entrance
Incorrect installation may detract from performance
Distribution system
Point-of-use
Arresters & Shunt Suppressors
Use non-linear shunt

elements
Varistor
Spark gap or gas tube
Silicon-controlled rectifier
(SCR)
Suppression diode stacks

6-3
Non-Linear Shunt Elements
High "off" impedance

Clamping
Low "on" impedance
Rapid transition between
Voltage
states System
Low to moderate
"headroom"
Current
Metal Oxide Varistor
Best overall modern device

Strengths:
Good clamping and headroom
Excellent durability
Sub-nanosecond switching
Weakness:
Low voltage devices not
effective
High capacitance

6-4
Suppression Diodes
Applications: special power

and data protection
Strengths:
Excellent clamping and
headroom
Moderate to good durability
Sub-nanosecond switching
Weaknesses:
Low voltage devices most
effective
High capacitance
Gas Tubes
Good choice for special data

protection applications
Strengths:
Excellent clamping
Good to excellent durability
Microsecond switching
Low capacitance
Weaknesses:
Overshoot on fast wavefronts
Not auto-resetting
10

6-5
Component Service Life
Service Component Service Degradation

Damage Varistors & diodes:
Caused by thermal Small change in leakage
overstress: current
Exceeding surge energy Not limiting service factor
rating Gas Tubes:
Exceeding rated voltage Electrode erosion
AC overvoltage Rupture
Wiring errors
Accidents
Utility problems
11
Dedicated Circuit
ELECTRICAL
SERVICE
TRANSFORMER
U IR IR
T HOT L
I O
120 VOLTS 114 VOLTS
L A
I D
NEUTRAL IR IR
T
Y
0 VOLTS 3 VOLTS
GROUND
12

6-6
Surge Suppressor Specs ("Standards")
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) Std. 1449

Commercial Item Descriptions (CIDs)
Performance
Endurance (reliability)
Application
Safety
Certification
13
Surge Suppressors (TVSS)
Nonlinear response to
excessive voltage
Clamping depends upon
energy handling
Device configuration
determines protection
mode
Response time based
upon MOV or SAD
14

6-7
Filters
Normally adds LC
components to TVSS
May or may not have
sine tracking
N/G usually weaker
performance
Adds RF attenuation to
clamping
15
Isolation Transformers
Isolate common-mode only
Common-mode coupled by inter-
winding capacitance
Capacitance may be reduced by
design Line Load
Normal-mode couples
magnetically
Limited normal mode attenuation
Inductance and load determine
attenuation
Common mode attenuation via
coupling capacitance
Shields or screens improve
attenuation
16

6-8
Ferroresonant Voltage Regulators
Transformer operates in
Primary Section of
saturated mode Primary
Winding
Core
LC filter produces Magnetic

Shunt
sinusoidal output voltage Air Gap
Shielding may improve Output

Winding
Secondary Section of
common mode Core
performance
Resonating
Winding
17
Tap Switching Voltage Regulators
Control of voltage taps

SCR
Triac Electronic Control
Tap Selection
Relay
0.5 cycle response time
Line Load
Continual tap changing
Ground
18

6-9
Low Impedance Conditioner
Uses low-impedance
isolation transformer
Varistor suppression on
primary
Line Load
Filtration on secondary
N-G bond controls common-
mode isolation transformer Ground
Sine-tracking output filters --

low pass filter
Ground Impedance
19
Motor-Generator
Isolates load
mechanically
Provides some dropout
ride-through
20

6-10
Uninterruptible Power Supplies
Provide backup AC power from storage

batteries
Automatically power load on loss of utility
source
May also suppress and condition power
21
Ideal UPS
Source Input: UPS Output:

Disturbed (transients & Undisturbed (suppressed
switching) & no switching)
Discontinuous Continuous
Unregulated Regulated
< 100% reliable 100% reliability
UTILITY
UPS
LOAD
22

6-11
Real UPS
Reliability <100% (MTBF)

Discontinuous
Off-line switch output transfer
On-line switch bypass
Non-sinusoidal output
Poor or no regulation
Poor or no suppression
23
UPS Modes of Operation - 1

On-line (Static UPS)
Inverter drives the load, rectifier/charger powered by utility
Load switched to utility bypass on inverter overload
Output usually filtered, conditioned and regulated
Output usually transformer isolated
Bypass possible source of problems
UTILITY BYPASS LOAD
HOT HOT
RECTIFIER INVERTER
+
NEUTRAL - NEUTRAL
AC DC DC AC
GROUND GROUND
24

6-12

Off-line (standby)
Inverter normally off
Utility supplies load
Load source switched when utility lost
Output may be suppressed but not conditioned
Output not usually transformer isolated
Transfer switch possible source of problems
UTILITY LOAD
HOT HOT
TRANSFER
NEUTRAL SWITCH NEUTRAL
GROUND GROUND
RECTIFIER INVERTER
+
-
AC DC DC AC 25

Line interactive
Inverter on but unloaded
Output suppressed, conditioned and regulated
Output may be transformer isolated
UTILITY LOAD
HOT HOT
TRANSFER
NEUTRAL SWITCH NEUTRAL
GROUND GROUND
RECTIFIER + INVERTER
-
AC DC DC AC
26

6-13
Inertial and Flywheel UPS
27
Diesel UPS
28

6-14
Diesel Generator
29
UPS Issues
30

6-15
Separately Derived UPS Gear

Continuous neutral bonded
to the output of the UPS
eliminates the need for
grounding/bonding to the
system (BGES).
The ganged bypass in which

both the hot and neutral are
switched makes the UPS
separately derived in both
normal mode and inverter
mode and the output must be
bonded to the BGES.
31
Isolated UPS Systems
Isolated bypass or
isolated output make the
UPS systems separately
derived in both normal
and battery powered
operation.
32

6-16
Sinusoidal Output
Waveform quality affected by output filter network

Inverter stability affected by stored energy and dc
transfer
33
PWM Inverter Output

Pulsed Voltage
LC Filter
Integrates pulsed voltage into
sinusoidal voltage.
Capacitor maintenance
Annual checks for filter balance with
individual replacements as required.
After 5-7 years of service capacitors
should be replaced.
Voltage stress and pulsed current
are leading causes of capacitor
failures.
34

6-17
Load Demand Effects
Current pulls UPS

inverter output filter out
of tune
Current magnitude
limited by inverter/filter
35
Load Harmonic Effects
6 pulse current from load

interacts with UPS inverter
output impedance
5th order harmonics in load
current cause peak output
voltage waveform
Increase in peak voltage
leads to increase in RMS
voltage levels.
36

6-18
UPS Input Current Harmonics

Light Load
Distortion too high

ATS will not function
500kVA UPS
27kVA; 24kW
0.7 PF (W/VA)
Current
28 leading
Harmonic distortion
61% THD
7th order = 54% THD
37
UPS Input Current Harmonics

Moderate Load
Same UPS - more load

500 kVA UPS
126kVA; 119kW
0.92PF (W/VA)
Current
22 lagging
Harmonic distortion
12% THD
7th order = 7% THD
38

6-19
Power Factor Correction (PFC)
39
PFC Startup & Run Current
AC Wall Outlet
Top figure - equipment startup
Bottom figure - normal
operation
Start-UP Oscillation
85 amperes peak-to-peak
7.7kHz
Some Loads wake up in a bad
mood! This is one of the
reasons that many data centers
do not allow any work during
prime hours.
40

6-20
PFC & UPS Interaction 2
Voltage THD = 14%; Current THD = 147%

Current transitions from about 5 amps to over 20 amps
Severe oscillation due to PFC interaction with UPS
41
UPS & PF Corrected Data Center 1
500kVA UPS
480 volt output feeds
transformer based PDU
throughout data center
Data center load is all IBM
file servers with the same
power supply
If load current stays near or
below 300 amperes then the
output remains stable
42

6-21
UPS & PF Corrected Data Center 2
When load current increases

above 300 amperes then the
output become unstable with
pronounced oscillation
Problem caused by time base
interaction of the UPS and the
data center equipment.
More load diversity throughout the
data center would be beneficial.
UPS manufacturer changed
voltage regulation response to
solve the problem
43
Inverter Output Noise
Problem: Shields of output

transformer bolted to
varnished surfaces
Shield grounding problem
allows inverter pulse-width-
modulation noise into output
Correcting shield grounding
reduces output noise
Blue trace after shield
grounding
Red trace original
44

6-22
24 Volt & Pseudo sine Standby UPS

Normal operation shows small waveform breakup &
transient voltage
UPS inverter operation shows large ringing transients at
end of each voltage pulse.
45
UPS Considerations
Specifications Maintenance
Input (distortion & power Battery testing, monitoring
factor) & alarm
Output (waveform & Battery replacement &
filtering) servicing
Reliability (MTBF) and Management &
reparability supervision
Holdup time
Suppression &
conditioning
Acceptance testing
46

6-23
PQ SolutionsDo Not Have to be

Expensive
Determine your equipment's sensitivity to various
power events and the impact on your operation.
Is the sensitivity of the equipment associated with the
entire unit or just a subsystem.
In many cases it may be possible to add an inexpensive
device to increase the hold-up time for the line relays.
Drop-out or time delay relays can protect 3-phase loads from
single phasing
Understanding the problem that you are trying to
resolve is key to implementing cost effective solutions.
47
The Cost of Power Quality Solutions

INCREASING COST
Customer Solutions
4 - Utility 3 - Overall 2 - Controls 1 - Equipment

Solutions Protection Protection Specifications
Inside Plant
1
Feeder or
Group of 2 CONTROLS
Machines
Utility
Source
3 MOTORS
4 OTHER
LOADS
Source: Electrotek Concepts, Inc.

48

6-24
VII Network Protection
Problem of Networked Computers --

Differential ground voltage
Transient
Arrives here first

7-1
Differential Ground Voltage Solutions
Reference grid (computer rooms)

Fiber optic networks
Twisted pair networks (10baseT)
Ferrite cores
Over-voltage protectors
Grounding Inductance
High Frequency Interference

Measurement
Signal voltages small and mingled with noise
Voltage probe insertion may hurt signals
Currents much larger, easier to measure
Couple using high-frequency transformer
Measure using digital storage oscilloscope
Some applications, use spectrum analyzer

7-2
Controlling Network Interference
OVP Protectors (SAD)

Filters (ferrite cores -- shunt capacitors)
Ferrite Cores
Ferrous metal baked in

ceramic fixture
Functions by creating
high frequency losses
Inductive & resistive
characteristics

7-3
Filter Pin Connector
Normally use capacitive elements internally

Specify desired level of capacitance
Some designs add series inductance
Data Cable Protectors
Silicon Avalanche
Diodes
MOV Components

7-4
5 Pin Protector (Classic)
Gas tube OVP

Sneak current coils
Protects
Tip to ground
Ring to ground
5 Pin Telco Protectors (Variations)
10

7-5
5 Pin Hybrid Protector
Gas tube
Silicon Avalanche diode & low capacitance diodes
Capacitors
11
High Frequency Interference Measurement
12

7-6
High Frequency Monitoring
13
High Frequency Monitoring / Scatter Plot
14

7-7
High Frequency Interference Current

(facility ground interference)
15
Communications Media Sensitivity
Most sensitive: RS- 232, Thinnet & similar single-

ended unbalanced systems
Less sensitive: RS 422 & similar balanced systems
Better still: Signal transformer or opto-isolated
systems (10 Base-T)
Best: Non-conducting media, fiber-optic and radio
16

7-8
Data Line Shielding
Shields effectively conduct Electrical Code Data Line

high frequency current Safety Issues
Shields do not effectively On entering building:
limit effects of low Shields require grounding
frequency current Listed protectors must be
Must be grounded BOTH used
ends Where there is:
Or - ungrounded ends Exposure to lightning
MUST be protected Exposure to power lines
Suppression may also be
needed
17
Shield Grounding
1kV ESD Pulse -- Shield

Grounded (normal
conditions)
1kV ESD Pulse -- 2" Shield

Pigtail (shield drainwire)
18

7-9
AC & Communications Grounding
Very Bad!
yNEC 2002 AC
POWER TELCO
y250.56, 800.40 & 830.40

CATV
Code compliant,
Single point is the
but still bad!
preferred
application AC
TELCO POWER TELCO
AC
POWER
CATV
CATV
19
20

7-10
VIII Safety
WARNING #1
Performing power quality investigations in and around

energized equipment, exposed electrical buss work ,
and inside confined spaces can be dangerous.
Testing and inspection of energized equipment should
only be performed by qualified individuals familiar with
proper safe work-practices.

8- 1
WARNING #2
Follow all appropriate safety rules and procedures

Company
NFPA / NEC
OSHA
Appropriate state and local work rules
Potential Safety Hazards

Follow applicable safe work
practices and lockout
procedures
Familiarity with application,

installation and operation of
various diagnostic equipment
Use approved clothing and

protective equipment
Ensure that all tools and

equipment are in proper
working order and condition
4

8- 2
Safety Equipment / Apparel

Rubber gloves rated at 600v/20kv
Leather protectors
Hard hat
Hearing protection
when appropriate
Safety face or eye protection
UV rating
Long-sleeved shirts (Nomex or Indura
flame-resistant clothing) worn while
working on or near 0-600 volts
Specialized safety equipment for high
voltage and other hazardous
environments
Never Assume a Circuit is Dead

8- 3
Jewelry / Surroundings / Conductor / Neutral
Typical Body Current Paths

8- 4
Effects of Electric Shock

Applied to skin (Macroshock)
6+ Amps: Sustained myocardial contraction followed by
normal rhythm. Temporary respiratory paralysis. Burns,
if small area of contact.
100 - 300 mA: Ventricular fibrillation. Respiratory center
intact.
50mA: Pail, fainting, exhaustion, mechanical injury.
Heart and respiratory function intact.
16mA: "Let go" current, muscle contraction
1mA: Threshold of perception; tingling.
Applied to Myocardium (Microshock)

100uA: Ventricular fibrillation.
10uA: Recommended maximum leakage current.
(Blank)
10

8- 5
IX Planning & Performing a

Power Quality Survey
What is a PQ Survey?
A forensic activity (investigation).

It is much like investigating the scene of a crime.
Gather evidence
Interview witnesses
Surveillance (monitoring)
Review the evidence and surveillance data
Present your findings
"Arrest the guilty!"

9- 1
Reasons for a PQ Survey

Normal reason is a loose
forensic activity (problem
investigation)
Estimating effects of
electrical changes
New equipment or changes to the
distribution system
Effects of Harmonics
Governmental regulations
Baseline and maintenance
ISO9000 Compliance
procedures
Survey Justification
Money, Manpower & Survey must provide a

Test Equipment ROI
Labor required to perform Immediate problem
the survey resolution
Use of expensive Energy management cost
equipment reduction
Disruption of normal Management
activities participation in survey
goals

9- 2
The Six Steps to a Successful PQ Survey
1 - Plan / Prepare
2 - Inspect (Survey)
3 - Monitor
4 - Data Analysis
5 - Key Findings & Recommendations (the Solution)
6 - Implementation & Verification
Why have a Written Survey Plan?
Some surveys have continued for months without

tangible results because they were not well planned.
Complex facilities, multiple monitors and data
collection systems require a formal plan for the activity
to be brought to a successful completion.

9- 3
When a Written Survey Plan May Not be

Needed
Simple uncomplicated monitoring activities may not
require a formal written plan, but all the same steps will
need to be considered (at least informally) for the
activity to reach a satisfactory conclusion.
Survey Objectives
What are the objectives for the activity?

What is to be accomplished?
Is it measurable? (Deliverables)
Objectives must be clear, well defined and most
importantly: accepted by the individual (organization)
requesting the survey

9- 4
Examples of Survey Objectives

Solve an equipment performance problem
Identify and correct sources of interference
Determine overall electrical environmental quality
Determine capacity for a facility
Predict the impact of harmonic loads (IEEE519)
Establish an electrical environment "baseline" for a
facility (ISO9000)
Determinants of the Scope of Activities
Size of the facility Number and length of

Complexity of electrical event logs
system and equipment Access to restricted
Quantity of monitoring areas or equipment
equipment Specialized options (RF,
Duration of monitoring current, temperature,
program humidity, etc.)
Quantity and complexity Involvement of staff and
of monitor data administrative support
10

9- 5
Power Monitor Placement
Classic placement Multiple monitors

Service Entrance(s) Improves quality of data
Transformers Speeds-up the
Distribution -- feeders and investigative process.
panelboards Service entrance, load
center, utilization equipment
Point of use -- branch
circuits, equipment Additional monitors can be
rented for between $500
and $1000 / month.
11
Verify Survey Plan

Is the objective clear and
measurable?
Is the quantity and placement of

monitoring equipment clear?
Are personnel and responsibilities

assigned?
Is the length of the survey

established?
Is the data collection system (event

logs) defined and ready for testing?
12

9- 6
Equipment Event Logs

Things to include in the EVENT LOG
Operator / Location / Activity
Record of normal operating cycles
Record of equipment anomalies
Record of environmental anomalies
Design log to make the data collection as easy as possible.
Use alarm relays, control switches to aid in time stamping
events.
13
Preparing for the Survey
Documentation and data collection

Site history
Equipment/activity event log(s)
Service/repair history
Tools and equipment
14

9- 7
Site History
Has the system or equipment ever worked

satisfactorily?
When did the problems start?
Time of occurrence for recurrent problems
Look for patterns
Failure symptoms or hardware failures
Someone somewhere knows what parts were replaced
Electrical service and configuration
wye-wye or delta-wye
15
Site History - 2
Inventory of major loads in the facility

Operating cycles for major loads in the facility
Recent equipment changes
Renovations in the facility
Telecommunications/data-network facilities and
equipment
Recent implementation of wireless technology
16

9- 8
Monitoring Tools & Equipment

Power quality ELF & VLF field strength
Power quantity meters
High frequency Ultrasonic meter
DSO
Spectrum analyzer Video camera
ESD meters Ground resistance meter
Multi-meters (True RMS) Current probes
Thermographic recorders Current transformer
Hall Effect (d-c)
Circuit tester
17
ESD & ELF Meters
18

9- 9
Popular 1 Phase Monitoring

Instruments
Fluke 43B
Power quality analyzer
Fluke 41B
Harmonics & energy
19
Flexible AC Current Probes
20

9- 10
3 Monitoring Instruments / $2K to $6K

Ideal Model 805
Summit Technologies Power

Sight 4000
AEMC PowerPad 3945
Fluke 430-Series
Dranetz-BMI PowerGuide
4400 & PowerVisa 440
21
Portable 3 Power Quality Monitors / $7K to

$15K
Fluke 1760
Fluke 1750
Three Phase
PQ Recorder Three Phase
Power
Recorder
Hioki Dranetz-BMI
3196 PowerXplorer
PX5 (PX5-400
for 400Hz
apps.)
22

9- 11
Permanent Power Monitors / $2K to $4K +

Installation & Software
PSL PQube Electro Ind. NEXUS 1250
PMI Eagle Class Recorders
PowerLogic CM4000T Dranetz-BMI Encore
23
Monitoring Systems
Power Quality Analyzer Spectrum Analyzer
Laptop CPU /
Controller
e/w HS Modem
Energy Analyzer High Speed DSO

24

9- 12
Inspecting the Site - Visual/External

Type of electrical service (underground, aerial, low or
high voltage?)
Utility power factor correction capacitor installations
Neighboring facilities
Utility substation in the immediate vicinity
Physical location of building (exposure)
Lightning protection system
Building construction
25
Review the Electrical Service
Service entrance -- single or multiple?

How are the service entrances grounded?
Building Grounding Electrode System?
Transformer isolation?
Ground Fault Interrupt?
26

9- 13
Inspecting the Site -- Internal

Review major facility loads
and how they are controlled
Large photocopiers
Variable speed drives
UPS
Elevators / escalators
Lighting systems
Welders
Battery chargers
Air conditioning compressors,
chillers and air handlers
27
Inspecting the Site - 1
Look for obvious problems

Broken or corroded conduits
Transformers which are hot or noisy
Electrical panels with hot or loose circuit breakers
Loose connections -- EMT without grounding wires
Conduits which are hot and buzzing
Transformers or conduits near CRTs with screen "wiggle"
Coffee pots plugged in with file servers
Power cord plug/connectors showing signs of excessive
wear -- check for warm spots
28

9- 14
Inspecting the Site - 2

Talk with the
equipment/system operators
and users
Management's perception of
the problem may be quite
different from the people using
the equipment.
Listen! Listen! Listen!
Most people want to tell you
about the problem.
Learn to translate the
information into appropriate
terminology.
29
Monitoring
Power monitoring configurations

Match the configuration of the load
Monitor neutral-to-ground to record "common mode" events
Use current probes to record phase, neutral or ground
currents.
Use multiple monitors - service entrance,
distribution center, utilization equipment
Monitor threshold settings - sensitive, normal or
tolerant
30

9- 15
Identifying Problems - 1
Review monitor data

Look for events which occurred during periods of equipment malfunction
(event log entries)
Identify severe events.
Identify events that exceed equipment performance
parameters
Correlate problems found during the physical
inspection with equipment symptoms.
31
Review site history and event logs

Plot monitor event summaries
Look for trends
Compare event summaries to equipment event logs
Single Event Correlation is not conclusive
Compare event data to equipment performance
specifications
Select key events
32

9- 16
Summary Info w/Event Log Correlation
Event Log#1 X X X
Event Log#2 XX X X X
Event Log#3 X X
33
Key Event
34

9- 17
Symptom Possible Cause

I/O port failure Longitudinal CMI
Processor lockup Software / RF / ESD
Keyboard controller failure ESD
Power supply failure Surge-transient / ESD
System crash Surge-transient (voltage)
Wavy screen EMF
Clock/date reset Battery / conducted RF
Open door/cabinet halt Radiated RF
35
Writing the Report - Software Tools

Dranetz-BMI Technologies
DranView Versions 4, 5 & 6
Fluke / RPM
PAS & Scenario w/Report
Writer
EN50160 Report Writer
Flukeview
Hioki
HiView
AEMC
DataView
36

9- 18
PQ Survey Report Organization
Executive Summary
Written last after the main report is completed
Never more than 2-pages
Overview/Background
Methodology
Key findings
Recommendations
Summary
Appendices
37
PQ Survey Report Content
Quality information NOT quantity!

The purpose of the report is to identify and present
the significant information, not bury the reader in
paper.
Use summary information
Easier for people to understand
Use waveform data (graphics) sparingly to add
emphasis and support recommendations
Do not include every waveform recorded as it tends
to lessen the value of the data
38

9- 19
Be Wary and Watchful
Never assume a single cause

Peel the onion
Know your instrumentation
Don't become part of the measurement
Use equipment symptoms as a guide
Never assume the equipment is without guilt
39
Make Solutions A Priority

Inaction is costly
Reaction is costly GATHER
Too little, too late for too much DATA
Monitor on an ongoing basis
Be part of the solution
EVALUATE ANALYZE
Provide ROI SOLUTIONS DATA
Manage the facility
infrastructure
IMPLEMENT
SOLUTIONS
40

9- 20
Summary
Apply the TEST OF REASONABLENESS to all data

and information.
Know the limitations of monitoring and test equipment.
Look for the OBVIOUS.
Don't become the victim of ANALYSIS PARALYSIS.
Do the simple thing first.
41
If All Fails...Call an Expert!!!
42

9- 21

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Introduction to Power

2007-2010 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (100612)

Introduction to Power Quality:

2007-2010 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (100612)

The Electrical Environment & Power Quality

What is it? ...Quality or Reliability?

Power Quality (def.)

"Poor Power Quality" generally mean there is

2007-2010 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (100612)

Power Quality & Reliability

Power Reliability is the presence of sufficient

Power Quality - Translated

If you can achieve what you want--making

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Some Additional PQ Observations

95% of the PQ problems are on the customer

Sources of Power Quality Problems in

2007-2010 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (100612)

The Cost of Poor Power Quality

The Cost of Poor Power Quality

Paper Industry: Billinton

Source: EPRI Power Electronics Applications Center

2007-2010 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (100612)

Power Interruption Cost Calculator

The "9s" of Reliable Power

Four 9s 99.99% Factories 59 Minutes

Five 9s 99.999% Hospitals, Airports 5 Minutes

Multiple Redundancy UPS, Standby Generators

Nine 9s 99.9999999% On-line Markets 30 Milliseconds

Source: Reliable Power Meters

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Failing to "Look" Beyond the Traditional

Looking Beyond Traditional Power Quality

2007-2010 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (100612)

Why is the Quality of the Environment

What Determines Electrical Environment

Generation Climatic & Geographic Traditional

T&D Facility Wiring Electronic

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Sources of Electrical Problems

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Evaluating the Changes Over the Past

2007-2010 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (100612)

2007-2010 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (100612)

Increased Data Rates & Processor Speed

Data Rate (bps) Time Approximate

2007-2010 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (100612)

Power Supply Technology

SWITCH MODE D.C. POWER SUPPLY

The Changing Electrical Environment

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The Electromagnetic Environment

The Future of Power Quality

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The California Experience

Electric Utility Deregulation

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Electric Utility Deregulation

Vertically Integrated Regional Transmission Network

Generation Bulk Power Trader

Retail Power Marketers

Energy Service Companies

PQ and the User

2007-2010 by PowerCET Corporation. All rights reserved. (100612)