Stmcture and lVrltten Erpression

a0 Qnmom 25 iltnnrrcs
This scction is dcsigncd to measure y9* ability to recognize
tanguage tbat is appropriate for standard
written English' Thcrc arc two tlpcs of questions in this section,
iith-speciar oirections foreach t)"e.

Stnrcture
IXrectlons: Questions l-15 are incomplete sentenccs. Beneath
each sentence you will see fourwords or
phrases' markcd (A), (B), (c), and (o). choose
the one word or ptrase that best completes the $entencc.
Then, on your answer sheet, find the number of the question
*a'nu in the space that corresponds to the
let0er of the answeryou have chosen. Fill in the space
so that the letter inside tbe oval cannot be seen.

l. In simple animals, reflex movcment 5. Calculus, ---------- elegant and economical

or involuntary rcsponsc to stimuli.
symbolic systerL can reduce complex prob-
(A) behtyior mostly lcrns to simple terms.
(B) most is bebavior (A) it is an
ffmottbehavior is (B) that an
(D) the most behavior
@l'
p) is an
2. Although the weather in Martha's Vineyard
isn't ----- to have a year-round tourist 6. Canada does not require UmtU.S. citizens
session, it has become a farorite sumrner obtain passports to enter the country, and
resort.

(A) goodfy cnoiugh ({)

Mexico does neither
F) eaadenough
@ tUexico doesn,t eittrer
(C) good as enough
(D) enough good !81 neither Mexico does
(D) either does Mexico

3. According to the wave theory, popu_

lation of the Americas may have been the re-
7. The poer ----- just beginning to be
recognized as an important influence at the
sult of a number of scparate migrations. time of his death.
ltrfue
(B)
(A) lcing Walt Whitrnan
their
lDfwho was Walt Whitman
(c) that (C) Walt Whirman
(D) whose
@ watt whitman was
It is prcsumed that rules governing the shar_
ing of food influenced that the
earliest cultures evolved,

(A) that the way

b
(B) is the way
f *V;f 'J*L,;f r'r Vff
@ the way V;r L' 5 'Yl'" ; {' e }
P whicb way (14 , lVk
 v\"l;"e)
Le t- y vslb ( bc, 8 '-'F
l.r t^l^(

8. %- the fqmation of thc sun, tbc plan- 12. h$-food lestarnnts heve bo@pgpolar
cB, and ohcrstars began with tbc oadcnsa_ bccsutc nrry wcting pooplc want
tion of an interstellarcloud.
40 to car quickty and cheapty -
. (A) It acccptcd that (B) cating quictly and chcapty
(B) Acccptcd that (9 eat quickly and cheapty
!91ltis acceplod that (D) ttrc ear quickly and chcapty
(D) Ttut is accepted
13. After seeing the movie Cengennial,
9. As a general rule, the standarrd of living
----:-- by the ayerage output of each per-
son in society. (A) the book was read by many people
(B)
Jhr book nade many peopte want to rcad it
@it fixad
JPf mulry people wantrd to read thc book
(B),fixed (D) thc reading of the book inrcrested many
IC) has fixed people
(D) fixrs
14. Cart Sandhrg is also well known
10. Thc Coruumer Price Indexlists ----- . for his multivolurne biography of Lincotn.
(A)-how much costs eve(y car
tl}A.n eminent American poet
plnon much does wcry car cosr (B) He is an eminent American poet
@no*
(D)
much every car costs (C) An eminent Amcrican poet who is
how much ane every car cost (D) Dcspite an eminent American poet

di)*" Ford Theater where Lincoln was shot 15. The exarniner made us ----------- our identi-
, :.-/ fication in order to be admitted to the test "
t/
,Kar< (A) must restore center.
p) mustbe restoring
-@must .ffshowing
have been restored (if show
@) must restored (C) showed
(D) to show

Written Expression
Directiors: ln questioru 16-4O, each sentence has four undertfured words or plrascs. The forrr underlincd
Parts of the sentence are marked (A), (B), (C), and (D). Identify the one underlined word or ptrase that
must be changed in order for the sentcnce to be correcl Then, on your answcr sheet" find the
numberof the
question and fill in the space that corresponds to the letter of the 4nswer you have choscn.

tto(
16. A swarm of locusts iq resPgnsible the consumption of ggough pl.nt mrtp.ial to fecd a million

andahalfpeopte. !'l Tre-

(D)
(

17.
(A) T ryl
oyxrqfiT$q lus bocn t
6 "g*aro
puti of thc wortd for many ycars.
o
orr
ls. Ihosc of us nBl snolcc shoul
------dhaveBlungsX-raYedogp
(A) ,m
rnrf , l9v.t
19' Aftcr the team of geologlsts had drawn diagrams in their notebooks
and wrote explanations of
(A) @-
(c)
the formations which they had observed, they rcturned
to their campslte to compare nobs.
-w
20' ltRobert tGnncdy *ouro
T-iF;-tfrit --'-6
o a little longer, he probably would have won the election
]il
21. Itwas Shidey Terqple Black;#i rcprcsglted
(A) @- K'
her country in the united Nations and latcr
(D)
became an ambassador.

22' T\eprices-qt chain storcs

t 1a-,^,
if not more
(A) !!g
6t
as reasonable,
'-tr reasonable,
-'6*^""vsr\,
as those at cliscount stores.

23. important for an engineer ," k r"t"ti;*

Ti: (B)
(A)"lugTrrr CI T
a compurer.

1^avt
24, Historically then
q# *" major factions in the Republican Party-the liberals and rhe
(A) .,)? B
conscrvatives.

25' Whitman wrote Lcaves of t^ra \(r."r

Grass as a tribute to the Civil War soldiers who had laid on the

battlefields and whom he hadseen while serving as an army nurse.

-Gt-
T -Tl --tn)
26' one of the fust and g$Irrllglx the most important purposeful of a reservoir
(A) rhr-
was to conrrol
(il
@us.
(D)

27' The Qtrinese were the first ano rarpq"[rnic group ro work on the
(A) @ -6- consrrucrion of the
6i
transcontinental railroad systiem.
28. 'roe- rangp of plant life oo r mountrinsidc is rcrultlfbf diFerclps in ampcraturc and
e
---O-
procipitation*"1ffl altitudes.
t9@

29. Fven a p,rofessional psycbologist may have difficulty talking calqand logically ry Fit g*
pnoblems.

\t4o3L
30. The morc the relative humidity reading riscs, the worst the heat affects us, :-
Gr@- (q J5)
dataD6 ary extremely easy to misu$.
31. Because corrclations are not causes, statistical
(A) -,@D----(O -W
32. Irctures for the week of March 22-26 will,include the followins: The Causes of theCivil War'
(A) (B) T
Tbe Economy of the South, Battle Strategies, and The Assassinate Lincoln.
--fr
gg, g(:,.,ea.)iora

33. Despite)(ary attemprs tg introduce a universal language, notably Esperanto and ldiorn Neutral,

the eFort has met with very little success,

(D)
Lltq a
of
@gold' tn)
34. As eycry ottrer nation, the United States uscd to define is unit of currcncy, the dollar, in terms

thc standard.
re-Ft
v.r3 C Y
35. It is necessary that one mei with a judge Fefore signing the finalpapers for a diJorce.
F tn) (c) ro)
to
---6-
36. Until recently, women rglgjotbidden F{
T @ (c)
!?* Oaingyni_lg property.

3?. Agcording to the graduate catalog, student housing t gD{:Eqg $91 housing off campus'
Lq. (B) (D) @
3g. John Dewey thought ttrat ctritorer$lirLdanr beuer rhrough participating in experiences
J/er (B)
rather than through listening to lectures.
(c) (D)
 I
1'

3e. InF{dud?#Jp
@
40' re6o&
H9 trlan4
soil erocion
ffi
o,*ng paratrcl with rhc stopes of hi[s,
ftri|H
on unproductive and rotating p)
"1-pu.
 Readlng Compnehenslon

50 Quevnons 55 Dlnturrs
Dlrrcdons: In this scction you will read scveral possages. Erch onc is follqvod by a numbcr of ques-
tions about it. For questions l-50, you arc to choosc thc one bcst answer, (A), (B), (C), or (D), to cach
question. Then, on your a$twer sheet, find thc number of tbe qucstion and fiU in the spaoc that orre-
sponds to dre leuer of the urwr yor have chosen..

Answer all questions about the information in a passage on the basis of what is Srt d or imp[cd in'hat
passage.

Questions 1-10
Few men have influenced the dcvelopment of Amcrican English o the extent tbat Xoatt
Webster did. Born in \V'est Hartford, Connecticut, in 1758, his nanp has becomc synony-
mous with American dictionaries. Crraduatod from Yale in 1778, he was admittcd to thc bar
Lirc in l78l and thereafter began to practice law in llartrord Larcr, when he turned to teaching,
(5) he discovered how inadeguate the svailable schoolbooks were for the children of a ncw and
independent nation.
In response to the need for truly American textbooks, Webster publisbed A Grurnutiul
Irtstitute of the English Language. a three-volume work that consisted of a speller, s gramrnar,
and a reader. The first volume, which warr gencrally known as The Anerican Spciling Book,
( I0) was so pqpular that eventually it sold mone than 80 million copies and provided him witb a

considerable income for the rest of his life. While teaching, Webster began work on the Com-
perrdious Dicrtonary of tlu English Language, which was publishd in 1806.
h 1807 Noah Webstpr begEn his greaast wuk, An American Dicttorcry of tltc Fnglish
Language.In preparing thg manuscript, he devoted ten years to tlre study of English and its
( 151 relationship to other languages, and scven morc years to the writing itsclf. Publishcd in n*,'o
volumes in 1828, An American Dictiorary of tlw English Language has becomc thc rccog-
nized.authority for u$age in the Unitcd States. Webstcr's purpose in nriting itwas to dcmon-
strate that the American language was &veloping distinct meanings, pnonunciations, and
spellings from those of British English. He is responsible for advancing simplified spclling
(201 forms: develop instead of the British fonn dnelope; tluater and centerinsaad of tluatrc and
centre; color and honor insrcad of colour and horwur.
In 1840 Webster brought out a second edition of his dictiondry, which included 7O0fl) er'
tries instead of the original 38,000. This edition has scrved as the basis for the many revisions
that have been produced under the Webster nalne.

l. Which of the following would be the best

title for the passage?

6$,w"uster's work
JF) W rVster's Dictionaries
(C) Webster's School
(D) Webster's Life
 2. ltc rod "indcEreb" in lirc 5 cmH bcrt 7. Accordiqg !o 6c anthm, qrtd was Srcbsts'e
bc rcplecod by pnrpolc in *Tidng An Ancricn Diaiomry
(A) unavrilable oftEhglishLangrcge?
fiocrrrllve (A) Ib rceotrd b hc nccd fu rcw sdml-
(9 difficult bod$
@unsatisfacbry @f" demonstnate the distinct dovelopment
of thc English language in America
3. Wtry did Webccr wria A Grununtical
htstiute of tlu English Language? lgTo pmmotc spclling fornrs bascd upon
Britieh models
(A) Hc wantcd to suprplenrcnt his income. (D) To influence the pronunciation of the
(B) Thcrc wetr no books available after the English language
Revolutionrry War.
H" felt tbrt British books wcr not ap 8. The word'tf in lne 17 refers to
'I proFi$e fq American children. ft) language
@) mc children did not knw hol to spell. (B) usage
(C) authoity
4. Ihom which publbation did Webctcr earn a
lifctimc incoure?
@ dictionary

(A) Compcndiotts Dictiotary of the English 9. The word "distinst'in line 18 is closcst in
Language meaning to

tyf An Anurban Dictionary of the Engtish (A) new

Language lBfsimple
(C) en Arnerican Dictionary of rhe English

@fA,
: Second Edition
I-anguage
American Spetling Book
Bff".
10. According to this passage, which orrc of the
5. In how many volumes was An Anurican following spellings would Webster have ap
Dictiorury of tlw English Language pub- pmved in his dictionaries?
lished?
(A) D*elopc
(A) One volurre @) Theatrc
JA) T\po volumes 14 coto,
(C) Ttuae volumes (Dl Horwur
(D) Four volumes

6. Whcn was An American Dictionary of the

Eng lis h Lang uag e published?

(A) l817
(B) 1807
glf t828
(D) 1824
QUestions I l-Z)
'of
The San Andrcsr Fault is a fracture at thc clngnrco of two majc plrtce 0tc eadb's
crust, onc of whidr s-uppors most of the North Amcrican continent, and thc dlrcr of wbich
underlies .the coast of California md the ocean floor of the hcific. Thc htrlt qiginatcs abflt
Line six hundred milcs from the Gulf of California ad nrru north in rn ineplar linc along thc'
(5) west cosst to San Francicco, whcre it continues north fq about two hundred srorc miles be'
fore angling into ttre oomn. In plaoes, the trace of thc fault is mrrkod by a rcnch, q, in geo-
togical torms, a ri& and s.lnall ponds cdled sag ponds 0rat dot the lan&capc. lts $'eetcrn sidc
always moves north in relation to its eastern side. The lotat net slip dong thc Ssn Andreas
Fault and the length of tirne it has becn active are matten of conjecturc, but it has been esti-
(10) mated that, during the past fifteen million yea$, coastal Cdifornia along the San Adreas
Fault has moved about 190 miles in a northwesterly dircction with respcct to Nortb America.
Although the movement along thc fault averages only a few inchcs a year, it is intermi[cnt
and variable. Som segmcnts of thc fault do oot move at all for long periods of time, building
up tremendous pressur that must bc releascd. For this rsason, trGmors uE not unusual along
(I5) the San Andreas Fault, and some of them are classified as major cartbqu8kcs
It is worth noting that the San Andreas Fault passes uncomfortably closc to sevcral mqior
metropolitan aneas, including,l.os Angeles and San Francisco. In addirioo, thc San Andreas
Fault has creatcd smaller fault systern, many of which underlie the smaller towns rnd cities
along the Catifornia Coast. For this rason, Californians have long anticipated the rccunere
(20) of what thcy refer to as the "Big One," a destructive earthquake 0rat would nrea!ilrc near 8 on
the Richter scale, similar in intensity to thosc that occurred in 1857 and 1906. The effects of
such a quake would wak devastating effects on tbe life and property in thc region. Unfortu-
nately, as pres{rure continues to build along the fault, the likelihood of such an eartlquakc in-
creases substantially.

I l. What is the author's main purpose in the 14. Which of the following words best describes
passage? the San Andreas Fault?

{Ff f, describe the San Andreas Fault /it) Sraight

(B) To give a definition of a fault (B) Dcep
(C) fio explain the reason for trcmors and @nnoc
earthquakes @) Rough
(D) llo classi$ different kinds of faults
15. In which direction does thc western side of
12. The word 'briginates" in line 3 could best be the fault move?
replaced by (A) West
(A) gets wider (B) East
(B) changes direction ,gf Norttt
(D) South
)Pfbr,gtns
(D) disappears

13. Where does the fault lie?

(A) East of the Gulf of California

ffWestof the Gulf of California
f (C)t North of the Gulf of California
of the Gulf of California
@South
 16. Thc rrd tf in linc i nftrr ro 19. Aloag ttc San Andrcss Fault, ucmorr arc
(A) Suhercirco
(A) nrrrlt rnd insignific.nt
(B)om
(C).cmrt F_frrur' but dissuous
@Iru* G)t"q"cnt evcnrs
(D) vcry trnprcdicrabte
17. Thc word 'intcrmiccnt'' in linc 12 could
20. Ho*'docs thc authc &fuc thc San Andreas
bcst bc replecod by which of thc following?
Fault?
(A) drngemus
(A) A plate rhat underlies the North Ameri_
(B) prcdictablc
can crntinent
(Cluncomnon
Pnrcrack in the earth's cnrst betrnoen hvo
,O occEsimd
platcs
(C) Occasional hemors and carthquakcs
18. Tbc phresc .the Big One, refers to which
of (D) Intcnsc prcssure that builds up
thc foltoving?

@ e rerious ctrdrquskc
{B)}t" San Andreas Faulr
gf ftu Richter Scale
'(u) crtifo-i"

Qtrestions 2t-30
The body of an aduit insect is subdivided into a head,
a thorax of three scgments, and a
scgmentcd aMornen' ordinarily, the thorax
three pain of legs. one or nyo pain of
b -bff
ringr mry ettrctod b thc thtrax. Most aduh insects rril
w '6rv t*o large cumpound eyes, and
Linc two or three small simple eycs.
(5) Fc$i'r6 of the nouur pt*
Itc very helpful in classifying the many kinds of insccts. A
majority of insects have biting morth p"rtr & mandibles
as in grasshoppers and boetles. Be-
hind dlc mandibles arc the maxillac, which scrve
to dircct food into the mouth betrvocn the
jaws' A lab'mm abovc and a labium belory
are similar to ur uppcr and lowcr lip. In insccts with
srcking mouth parts' the mandibles, maxillae, labrunr,
.no iauium arc .oaih"o to pmvide a
(10) nV through which liquid can bc drawn. In a bunrerfly
m moth, the coiled drinking nrbe is
cdld thc proboccis. composbd chiefly of modified maxillac
fittcd together, nc prouoscis can
bc ext'endod to reach ncc{lrdcep in a iower. In a
rnosquito or an aphid, mandibles and maxil-
lac arc modified to sharp styletswith which the inscct.n
ail
In a houscfly, the expanding labium forrns a spongelike mouth pad
thmugh surfaccs to reach juice.
that it can us ro sramp
( 15) ova the surface
of food.

21. lVhat is the best titte for this passage?

22. What is the purpose of this passage?
(A) nn Inscct's Environment (A) To complain
The Structure of an Inscct
,pT
- (C) (B) 11o persuade
Crrasshoppers and Beerles (C) To enrertain
(D) ltre Stages of Life of an Insect
JE) To inforur
 23. Hq*'arp insccts classificd? 27. Wbat is the proboscb?
(A) By thc environnEnt in which thcy live (A) Ncctar
(B) By the food bey cat iPfnhrbc constructod of modified marillac
l9l gV the struchre of fte mouth (C) A kind of bunerfly
(D) By the number and q'pe of wings (D) e kind of flryer

24. The worrd "majority" in lirrc 6 is closest in 28. Which of the folloring have mandibles and
rneaning to maxillae that have been modincd to sharp
stylets?
@ -or" than half
@) more tban twelve (A) Grasshoppers
(C) rnore than three (B) Bufierftics
Ft:morc than one lCl Mosquitoes
@) Houseflies
25. What is the purpose of the maxillae?
(A) To bite or sting 29. The phrasc "drill through" in line t3 could
(B) To drill through surfaces to find nour- best be replaced by
ishment *t(fWnetate
_lf*To put food between the jaws (B) saturate
(D) To soak up nourishment like a sponge (C) explore
(D) distinguish
26. The author cornparcs labrum and labium to
* upper and lower lip 30. Thc word "it" in line 14 refers to
lXf
-(B) mandibles (A) pad
(C) maxillae (B) food
(D) jawb
@rousefly
lD).rnouth

Qucstions 3l-40
Interest is the sum charged for borrowing money for a fixed period of time. Principal is the
term used for the money that is borrowed, and the rate of interest is the percent per year of the
principal charged for its use. Most of the profits for a bank are derived from the interest that
une they charge for the use of their own or their depositors' money.
(5) All problems in intercst may be solved by using one general equation that may be srated as
follows:
Intcrest - Principal x Rate xTime
Any one of the four quantities-that is, intercst, principal, rat, or timc-may be found
when the otherthree are known. The time is expresscd in years. The rate is exprcssed as a dec-
' I0) imal fraction. Thus, 6 percent interest means six cents charged for the use of $l of principal
borrowed for one year. Although the time may be less than, equal to, or greater than one year,
most applications for loans are for periods of less than one ye r.For purposes of computing
interest for short periods, the commercial year or 360 days is commonly used, but when large
sums of money are involved, exact interest is computed on the basis of 365 days.

IO
l--n . r
i

31. With ?hil bpic is thir plsglgp pimrdly 36. Sfhich of the folowing qmld be e corrcct
conccraed? cxpression of an intcrcet ratc as stated in tb
(A) Profits equation for computing interest?
(B) Rarc ' (A) Four
gff1ntaexr (b.oc
'(D) Principal (cLt
32. The word "sum" in line I could bcst be re-
,@) Atlw
plaed by 37. Most applications for loans are for
l,xfamorvrt (A) one year
'(B) institution lpf less than one year
(C) custorncr (C) more than one year
(D) formula (D) 360 days

33. Thc word "fixed" in line I is closest in 38. The word "periods" in line 12 rcfers to
meaning to

.6&finite 6h-"
(B) short
l8)loans
(C) applications
(C) rcpeated (D) interest
(D) trial
39. A corrtnrcrcial year is used to compute
34. The word "its" in line 3 refers to
(A) exact int,erest
Qf,grincipal (B) intercst on large sums of money
(B) pcrcent (C) interest on a large principal
(C) rarc jDf interest for short periods of time
@) interest
40. Which of the following is the best definition
35. At 4 percent interest for the use of $l princi- of interest?
pal, horr much would one pay?
(A) Morrcy borrowed
(A) Six cents per year (B) Rate x Time
(B) Tkcnty-five cents per year
(!f Pour cents pcr year
V{ fee paid for the use of money
t(D) The number of years a bank allows a
(D) One cent pcr year borrower in order to rcpay a loan

Questions 4l-50
The protozoans, minute, aquatic creatures each of which consists of a single cell of proto-
plasm, constitute a classification of the most primitive forms of animal life.
frrey are fantasti-
cally diverse, but three major groups may be identified on the basis of their motility. The
&ne Mastigophona have one or more long tails, which they use to project themsclves forward.
The
(5/ Ciliata' which use the sarne basic means for locomotion as the-Mastigophora, have a larger
number of short tails. The Sarcodina, which include amoebae, float oirow themselves about
on their crusted bodies.

11
 ,rr

Inaddition !o thcir fqm of mvc,mcot, scvcrBl otbfffcdrcs discinimtc among tE dre

gloups of prezuns" Fr exanple, at le$t two mtclei pcrell hrvc beco idcntificd i! fu Cil-
( l0) irda, uually a hrgp nucleus drd t"sulatcs groqrth but dccompoccs dudng rcpoductioo, and a
srnallcr one that oontains thc gcnctic co& ncccssrry to genrntc the targc nucleus.
'
Prro0ozoans arc considcrEd tni-rts
becgusc, unlikc prgncorcdplants to which sorrc prc-
tozoans arc otlrcnvisc almost identical they do not live on simple organic compounds. Thcir
ccll dcmonstratss dl of drc maior characteristics of thc cells of higber animalg.
(15) lvlany spccics of potozoans.colloct into colonies, physically conneaed to cach othcr snd
responding uniformly to outside stimulac. Current resarc,h into,this phenomcnon along:with
investigations canied out with advanced micmscopcs may necessitatc a redcfinition of what
constinrtes Fotozoans, evso catling into question the basic prcmisc that they havc only onc
cpll. Neve,theless, with the cunent data available, abnost 4O,m0 specics of proozoans havc
QQ funidentificd. No doubt" as the tcchnology improves our methods of observation, bcttcr rrod-
els ofclassification will bc proposed,

41. With what topic is the passage primarily 45. To which class of pmozoans do the aftoc-
concemed? bac belong?

of protozosns (A) Mastigophora

-ldCoWAes
(B) Mastigophma (BLCiliata
(Cj Motility in prctozoans j6 stt".oin.
s of protozoans (D) Motility
@Chrn"t"risfuc
42. The word *rninute" in line I could best be 46. What is the purposc of the large nucleus in
rc,placcd by the Citiata?

(A) very common (A) It generates the other nucleus.

@) very fast
(C) very old
/Ff lrcontains tbe genetic code for the small
nucleus.
lWt'uew small (Ort regulates growth.
(D) It reproduces itself.
43. Wherc do protozoans probably Live?
47. Why are protozoans classified as animds?
tll
(B)
Water
Sand They do not live on simple organic
(C) Grass compounds.
(D) wood (B) They collect in colonies.
(C) They respond uniformly to outside
44. Wbat is protoplasm? stimulae.
(D) They may have more than one cell.
(A)-A class of protozoan
tXf ftt" substance that forms the cell of a
48. The word "uniformly" in line 16 is closest in
protozoan
meaning to
(O A primitive animal similar to a pnoto-
zoan the samc way
(D) An animal that developed from a pro-
-J.*Yrn
(B) once in a while
tozoan (C) all of a sudden
(D) in the long run

I2
49. Thr wod .thcy'' in linc 13 rcfcrs to 50. Which of thc following statcmen$
are NOT
a<fp*w*" . t'ucdprotozorns?
(B) micoscqpcs
(A) fircrc are approximatcly 40,000
(Q inrc$igdims species.
(B) Thcy rre rhc nrotlr pqimiti"c forms
(D) colonics of
anirnal life.
left0n t have r large cell and a smallcr
cell.
(D) Tlrcy are difficult to observe.

13