Gender Inequalities in Athletics

Limits Female Opportunity

Emily Barden

Nichols College

Abstract
 Gender inequality in athletics limits female opportunity. The growth of young girls

participating and engaging in sports has been far more accepted in society. This result benefits

all, no matter age or gender. From all accomplishments that women have conquered in the sports

realm, inequalities and discrimination are still prevalent today for female athletes of any age.

Whether there is a large case of discrimination, or a few vulgar remarks, the demoralizing image

and future for female athletes is impacted. Even after Title IX was passed, protection did not

mean acceptance or equality for female athletes. Especially female student-athletes where

revolting to administrative superiors who exhibited traditional minded practices was necessary to

bring change. Recognizing inequality is the first step to solving it.

Introduction

2
 Opportunities for female athletes are hindered when discrimination occurs in academic

and work environments. Most athletes begin their athletic endeavors at a young age, while in

grade school. These athletes are dependent on their parental guardians so when a young athlete is

impacted by their sport, they are not the only ones suffering from the change. How so? When a

females education is at harm because of inequalities, their path to their professional future is

also at risk and at a disadvantage due to lack of acceptance and culturally adhering to equality. A

female athletes future family is also impacted by the decisions that determine her professional

career path.

Women experience a difficulty and sometimes inability to gain leadership positions

which hinder their growth. Gender inequalities for female athletes are the source of

discrimination in professional environments, traditional stereotypes towards females, and pay

inequalities between men and women. Unrecognized privilege and unrecognized issues limit the

progression for equality in athletics. From so many unrecognized elements that are day to day

habits, sometimes society doesnt even know there is a problem. This results in female athletes

completing a remarkable event to gain awareness to reach the long process of equality.

No athlete or employee should be discriminated against because of their gender.

Opportunities for growth and lifelong passions should not be stopped because of their gender.

Discrimination in Professional Environments

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 Women are in classrooms and work spaces, which is not new to modern society. Not until

1972 were women protected in higher education when Congress passed Title IX. Title IX

brought protection, not acceptance by society or equality for women in higher education facilities

and in the workplace. Verbal abuse, unfair and unequal conditions, and lack of change at one of

the most prestigious Ivy League schools holds one of the most profound Title IX cases.

A school in Western, NY was forced to make budget cuts which resulted in eliminating

boys and girls hockey program from the school. Subsequently at a board meeting, the boys

hockey team was reinstated while they kept the girls hockey team off the schools athletic

program.1 The girls on this hockey team are kept away from the sport they dedicated time to

while the schools Assistant Superintendent was not concerned with any possible litigations or

legal trouble heading to the schools way after mistreating and disrespecting the girls hockey

program. Not only are the girls at a disadvantage from any possible collegiate experience and

athletic scholarship, the boy hockey players carry an unrecognized privilege through their life.

Female equality does not only make females responsible, it makes males responsible as

well. By holding privilege from a male superintendent deciding at females expense, these boys

will grow into men that do not recognize female inequalities as this situation can become a

societal norm to them. The discrimination does not stop at the grade school level. Verbal abuse,

unfair and unequal conditions, and lack of change at one of the most prestigious Ivy League

schools holds one of the most profound Title IX cases.

Genny Gilder, former Yale Rower, was treated so unfairly from being a female athlete like the

rest of her Ivy League team members. Female Yale Rowers experienced verbal abuse when

1 Sabo, Don. "Mens Sport Privilege: Flying under the Radar., Sports Management
Resources, 22 May 2011. Accessed 30 Nov. 2016.

4
lifting in the Yale weight room and were forced to stand outside in freezing temperatures waiting

for the male rowers to shower in the clubhouse because women were not allowed to enter to use

the facilities.2 Female rowers in the schools weight room were told this is our equipment and

was not to be used for the female athletes.3 This discrimination prohibits growth, strength, and

necessary precaution weightlifting provides for all athletes.

Administrative items put females opportunities at risk, not just participation in the sport itself.

Lack of media attention, unequal recruiting budgets, and sexist commentators on live media

hinder the representation of female athletes.4 Even from every barrier females have made;

negative backlashes still occur. Items that impact female athletes outside of the sport itself are

societal impacts that hinder female athletes progression and equality. Administrative setbacks

towards female athletes happen to employees who had to choose professional athlete or a career.

Leigh Castergine, former Division I soccer player at Penn State, worked for the New York Mets

as the first female Senior VP in the Front Office.5 Her successes for the Mets did not align with

her personal life. Her superiors were not supportive of Castergine as an unmarried pregnant

woman in 2013. After she was fired, shed taken the Mets to a lawsuit based on sexual

discrimination. One of Castergines bosses would continually look at her finger to see if there

2 Gilder, Ginny. Our Naked Ivy League Protest: "These are the Bodies Yale is Exploiting".
Salon, 2015.

3 "Introduction: The Feminism of Title IX., New York University Press. Accessed 29 Nov.
2016

4 Rhode, Deborah L. Speaking of Sex: The Denial of Gender Inequality. Cambridge, Harvard
University Press, 1997.

5 Grossman, Joanna, and Deborah Brake. "If She Dont Win Its a Shame: Female Executive
Sues New York Mets for Pregnancy Discrimination., Maurice A. Deane School of Law at
Hofstra University, 6 Sept. 2014. Accessed 5 Dec. 2016.

5
was a ring on it, the defense denied this action. The pregnancy discrimination began once

Castergine announced her pregnancy and increased once she returned after her maternity leave.

She was fired after being urged to quit. Her superiors said her performance declined and lost her

aggression after she had her child. Aggression is a common trait that is stereotypically not found

in women which relates to a liking for male presence in the workplace. Castergine already had to

make the decision of athlete or professional for her future and now was not able to continue her

endeavors with the Mets after being the first female VP. The discrimination and being told she

has changed after pregnancy limited her growth with her advanced career in a predominantly

male sports industry. Deborah Brake adds, pregnancy discrimination limits opportunities for

females who play sports and who dont; it is a societal issue for women who look to hold a

professional career.6 In sum, womens inability to gain leadership positions limit the opportunity

for women to grow in the athletic realm.7

Traditional Stereotypes Towards Females

Traditional stereotypes suggest why female opportunities are limited in athletics, such as

the need for females to take care of their family and home life, there is minimal flexibility so it is

6 Brake, Deborah. "Book Review: Getting in the Game: Title IX and the Women 's
Sports Revolution." , edited by Cassandra Jones, Marquette Sports Law Review.
Accessed 5 Dec. 2016.

7 Rhode, Deborah L., and Christopher J. Walker. "GENDER EQUITY IN COLLEGE ATHLETICS:
WOMEN COACHES AS A CASE STUDY." , Stanford, 26 Mar. 2008. Accessed 1 Dec. 2016.

6
unappealing to women, or that the husbands are not supportive of the demanding position at

stake. There is a myth that women experience mental and physical suffrage since women are the

weaker sex. These suffrages, stereotypes are said to increase once a woman starts playing a

sport that is deemed as masculine. The feminine sports are said to be tennis, golf, and

swimming. So many times, females accomplishments are compared to those of a mans which

do not line up equally. 8Historically, women did not participate in sports which means female

have had shorter time to compete and grow their talents. When a male has been competing longer

than a female has, the comparison is not on the same grounds. But these predetermined

stereotypes should not determine the truth about a female athlete or applicant.9

Modernly, there are sports that are referred as manly sports which means even though any

gender can participate, there is a predetermined connotation describing an element of the sports

like ice hockey, football, basketball, wrestling, and more.10 From the manliness of a sport, also

comes the expectation that males are better than females.

Billie Jean King, female, and Bobby Riggs, male, and both highly talented tennis professionals,

faced off in a Battle of the Sexes.11 Riggs slewed his way until the competition making gross

and nasty remarks about King and women of all saying that the best way to handle women is to

keep them pregnant and barefoot or women belong in the bedroom and kitchen, in that order

8 Flintoff, Anne, and Sheila Scraton. Gender and Sport: A Reader. , New York,
Routledge, 2011.

9 Walker, Rhode. Gender Equity in College Athletics

10 Waterhouse-Watson, Deb. Athletes, Sexual Assault, and "Trials by Media":

Narrative Immunity. New York, Routledge, 2013.

11 Greenspan, Jesse. "Billie Jean King Wins the 'Battle of the Sexes' 40 Years Ago,." History
in the Headlines, History.com, 20 Sept. 2013. Accessed 29 Nov. 2016.

7
to exaggerate up his assumed win over King. King beat Riggs. The female beat the male. Kings

said that if she didnt win, her loss would set society back 50 years. From Kings remarkable

win, she powered through the predetermined stereotypes of womens talents and the derogatory,

diminishing words Riggs shared publicly before the match.12

There are societal norms and views that downgrades female sport. Two researches look at

womens professional tennis. They claim it is soft-porn from the sport, athletes, and clothing

being sexualized.13 Viewers focus on players bodies and outfits rather than the game itself which

is not a problem experienced in mens sports. With judgements like this being made of the

content of the sport, has the ability to discourage young female tennis players and degrade

current female tennis players.

Traditional stereotypes still say that athletics suit men well from the competitive edge,

physical ability, confidence, aggression, and similar strengths.14 But limiting ways for females

and males to exercise these traits, hinders their ability to grow them. These characteristics are

also found in the workforce, especially in the business world where the male population has

dominated the work force.

Pay Inequalities Between Men and Women

12 Greenspan, "Billie Jean King Wins the 'Battle of the Sexes

13 Hutchens, Brett, and David Rowe. "Digital Media Sport Technology, Power and
Culture in the Network Society." , Routledge, 2013. Accessed 6 Dec. 2016.

14 Flintoff, Scraton, Gender and Sport

8
A difference in pay does not just mean different size paychecks every other Friday. Limitations

for education, work/life balance, travel, and other opportunities occur when there are pay

inequalities in the workplace because of gender differences.

Pay discrimination is prevalent today and not only in the U.S. In Iceland, women make

about 14-18% less than men, which means any time after 2:38pm is basically unpaid work.15 At

2:38pm, thousands of Icelandic women protested by leaving their work and marched together

visibly in the streets.16 This remarkable and strong protest is one that highlighted the inequality

of pay of Icelandic women to gain attention in hopes of making changes. The same pay struggles

happen for female athletes.

The LPGA is one of the most recognized and publicized professional sports for females, but the

pay does not align with the mens pay. In the 2015 U.S. Open, the womens winner received 45%

of what the mens winner received. This percentage decreased since 2000 where the womens

winner received 62.5% of the mens earnings.17 These statistics misalign with written suggestion

that the PGA and LPGA are more powerful together which can also create opportunity. The

collaboration between these two associations would create publicity and financial flows for the

LPGA. With opportunity like this that is suggested, minimalizing the inequality for professional

male and female golfers will become more efficient.

15 "Women in Iceland protest countrys 14 percent pay gap by leaving work 14

percent early." Pay, New York Times, 25 Oct. 2016. Accessed 30 Nov. 2016.

16 Ibid.

17 Saffer, Max. "Dollars but no sense: Golf's long history of shortchanging women."
ESPN, 8 Apr. 2016. Accessed 30 Nov. 2016

9
In the soccer realm, the Womens U.S. team is currently much more successful in regards to wins

and prestigious titles than the mens team.18 The other major argument is that the womens soccer

team has a longer season than the men. In the workplace, typically more hours worked results in

more pay, but then that wouldnt be pay discrimination. In other professional sports, some female

athletes have to look for a part time job in the offseason in order to make enough money to make

ends meet. 23-year-old Australian netball player, Caitlin Bassett, is a professional athlete who

needs to obtain a part time job in her offseason.19 The flexibility she needs in a part time position

is very demanding for the schedule for netball she must uphold. If these women left their

profession or put their time on pause, their professional life is hindered by proving a point.

18 Futterman, Matthew. "U.S. Soccer Files Defense Against Equal-Pay Complaint." , The Wall
Street Journal, 31 May 2016. Accessed 1 Dec. 2016.

19 White, Simon. "Living a dream, dreaming of a living., The Sydney Morning Herald, 26 July
2011. Accessed 5 Dec. 2016.

10
Conclusion

The first step in correcting the existing gender inequalities in athletics, start with recognizing

there is a problem. By realizing the unfair differences, society is aware of the issue and

unrecognized privilege can be diminished. Often women suffer at mens successes which enables

impacted men to live with privilege they are unaware of. Especially young boys that grow up

with unrecognized privilege, they continue to mature with an edge that they will receive more

than girls will. This occurs in athletic participation and in the workforce.

Women have been completing remarkable events to gain attention, bring awareness, and

create opportunities to bring equality in athletics. From private to public protests, athletic

competition versus the other sex, and lawsuits; action is what has to be done in order to end the

gap. A twelve-year-old wrote a letter to Dicks Sporting Goods to have one, only one, female

athlete in their 2014 basketball catalogue.20 From that letter, the CEO posted a response that

acknowledged the letter and made a promise that their publications would include more female

athletes. Small changes make a large difference.

The NWLC says to achieve equal pay, society needs to update and change equal pay laws,

increase low waged jobs, do not discourage maternity leave, provide affordable reproductive

healthcare, increase childcare availability, and remove the barriers to enter typically male-

20 Fink, Janet. "Hiding in Plain Sight: The Embedded Nature of Sexism in Sport.,
University of Massachusetts Amherst, 2015. Accessed 6 Dec. 2016.

11
dominated fields.21 By changing, updating, and surpassing societal norms with government

assistance, medical assistance, and bias structure in the work force, women will be able to make

greater strides in achieving equal pay. But these are not only the right steps to make moving

forward, these are all beneficial and effective ways to limit gender discrimination, not

opportunity.

For the transition of female protection to translate into female acceptance in athletics, there must

be no discrimination in professional environments, predetermined stereotypes of females must

end, and the pay gap must close. Female athletes carry beneficial characteristics that are learned

and amplified from sport participation that translate into positive work qualifications. Their

opportunities should not be limited in athletics or administration because of their gender.

21 "THE WAGE GAP: THE WHO, HOW, WHY, AND WHAT TO DO., National Women's Law
Center, Sept. 2016. Accessed 1 Dec. 2016.

12
Organization of the Main Paper

To continue researching the inequalities that face women in athletics, as athletes and

employees, I would look further into if changed behaviors are working. I would analyze the

remarkable events compiled throughout my researched literature to see if these behaviors

brought positive change. I would greater analyze the Yale Rowing case, Leigh Castergine vs. the

New York Mets, the Icelandic protest, and the Western, NY grade school case to see if change

was brought by behaviors that challenged the case.

Researching more literature and scholars, I would continuously think of why in the back

of my head. Why were these women discriminated against? Why did they choose to fight for

what is right? Why were they successful? Why were some events unsuccessful? By looking at

what works and what doesnt work to make positive changes from inequality issues that are

experienced, the gap will shrink and opportunities will grow for female athletes.

13
Bibliography

Brake, Deborah. "Book Review: Getting in the Game: Title IX and the Women 's Sports

Revolution." , edited by Cassandra Jones, Marquette Sports Law Review. Accessed 5

Dec. 2016.

Capranica, Laura, Maria F. Piacentini, Shona Halson, Kathryn Myburgh, Etsuko Ogasawara, and

Millard-Stafford, Mindy. "The Gender Gap in Sport Performance: Equity Influences

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Chinurum, Joy, Lucas Ogunjlmi, and Charles O'Neill. "Gender and Sports in Contemporary

Society." Journal of Educational and Social Research, MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy,

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Fink, Janet. "Hiding in Plain Sight: The Embedded Nature of Sexism in Sport." , University of

Massachusetts Amherst, 2015. Accessed 6 Dec. 2016.

Flintoff, Anne, and Sheila Scraton. Gender and Sport: A Reader. , New York, Routledge, 2011.

Futterman, Matthew. "U.S. Soccer Files Defense Against Equal-Pay Complaint." , The Wall

Street Journal, 31 May 2016. Accessed 1 Dec. 2016.

Gilder, Ginny. Our Naked Ivy League Protest: "These are the Bodies Yale is Exploiting". Salon,

2015.

14
Greenspan, Jesse. "Billie Jean King Wins the 'Battle of the Sexes' 40 Years Ago." History in the

Headlines, History.com, 20 Sept. 2013. Accessed 29 Nov. 2016.

Grossman, Joanna, and Deborah Brake. "If She Dont Win Its a Shame: Female Executive Sues

New York Mets for Pregnancy Discrimination., Maurice A. Deane School of Law at

Hofstra University, 6 Sept. 2014. Accessed 5 Dec. 2016.

Hutchens, Brett, and David Rowe. "Digital Media Sport Technology, Power and Culture in the

Network Society." , Routledge, 2013. Accessed 6 Dec. 2016.

Introduction: The Feminism of Title IX." , New York University Press. Accessed 29 Nov. 2016

Rhode, Deborah L. Speaking of Sex: The Denial of Gender Inequality. Cambridge, Harvard

University Press, 1997.

Rhode, Deborah L., and Christopher J. Walker. "GENDER EQUITY IN COLLEGE

ATHLETICS: WOMEN COACHES AS A CASE STUDY." , Stanford, 26 Mar. 2008.

Accessed 1 Dec. 2016.

Sabo, Don. "Mens Sport Privilege: Flying under the Radar., Sports Management Resources,

22 May 2011. Accessed 30 Nov. 2016.

Saffer, Max. "Dollars but no sense: Golf's long history of shortchanging women." ESPN, 8 Apr.

2016. Accessed 30 Nov. 2016

THE WAGE GAP: THE WHO, HOW, WHY, AND WHAT TO DO." , National Women's Law

Center, Sept. 2016. Accessed 1 Dec. 2016.

Waterhouse-Watson, Deb. Athletes, Sexual Assault, and "Trials by Media": Narrative Immunity.

New York, Routledge, 2013.

15
White, Simon. "Living a dream, dreaming of a living." , The Sydney Morning Herald, 26 July

2011. Accessed 5 Dec. 2016.

Whiteside, Erin, and Marie Hardin. "Routledge Handbook of Sport Communication." , edited by

Paul Pedersen 2013. Accessed 6 Dec. 2016.

Women in Iceland protest countrys 14 percent pay gap by leaving work 14 percent early." Pay,

New York Times, 25 Oct. 2016. Accessed 30 Nov. 2016.

16