Millersville

University Matthew J. Monahan

EDLD 667 and EDLD 668 February 23, 2015
April 14, 2016

SPECIAL EDUCATION COMPETENCIES FOR SCHOOL LEADERS

I. Over-Representation of Diverse Students in Special Education

a. Identify factors contributing to the over-representation of culturally and
linguistically diverse students in programs for individuals with
disabilities and implement strategies for reduction of the over-
representation.

Culturally and linguistically diverse students are over-represented in programs
for individuals with disabilities for several reasons including poverty, a low value
placed on education by some parents, and varying cultural expectations. Students
whose families live in poverty face challenges that can affect their attitudes toward
education, as well as their educational experience. Depending on the degree to
which is/her family struggles with poverty, a students physical and emotional
needs may be underserved. Students who are concerned about basic needs may
have less capacity for concern regarding their education. Because poverty can be
cyclical and linked with education, students whose families live in poverty may
include parents for whom school has low value. Parental attitudes toward school
that are indifferent or unsupportive place a barrier to learning before students.
Families that live in poverty may live in communities of common socioeconomic
status. Educational achievement may be the exception in such communities, rather
than the rule. Students who live in poor communities may have fewer role models
who have embraced schooling and achieved academic success. In addition, students
who live in poor communities may be discouraged from succeeding academically.
This discouragement may be explicit or implicit. Students may be explicitly
discouraged if community members criticize them for trying to be better than
others in the community. Students may experience implicit discouragement if, for
example, there are no high school graduates in their family. Students may feel as
though they should not be more educated than their parents or other adults in the
community.

Resources:
Understanding English Language Learner Levels: A Classroom Teachers
Guide, IU13 (Nate Jones)
Skiba, R. J., Simmons, A. B., Ritter, S., Gibb, A. C., Rausch, M., Cuadrado, J., &
Chung, C. (2008). Achieving Equity in Special Education: History, Status, and
Current Challenges. Exceptional Children, 74(3), 264-288. Retrieved from
EBSCOhost.
 Gabel, S. L., Curcic, S., Powell, J. W., Khader, K., & Albee, L. (2009). Migration
and Ethnic Group Disproportionality in Special Education: An Exploratory
Study. Disability & Society, 24(5), 625-639. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.
b. Demonstrate an understanding of over-representation of minorities in
special education so as to not misinterpret behaviors representing
cultural, linguistic differences as indicative of learning problems.

Cultural and linguistic differences that exist within American society have been
misinterpreted as indicative of learning problems. Such misunderstandings have
resulted in over-representation of minorities in special education. As a gross
overgeneralization, educators tend to be white, come from middle-class
backgrounds, and have had positive experiences in school. Teachers who come
from this background may be biased in favor of students with whom they feel as
though they have common culture and experiences. Even teachers with solid
educational motivations can be racially biased against students who they believe to
be racially and culturally different from them. Minority students, students whose
families live in poverty, and students who may not like school may have difficulty
relating to, or even trusting, teachers who they perceive to be different from them.
Teachers and students can let stereotypes, fear and ignorance affect the learning
environment in a classroom or school building. These factors can lead to excessive
discipline, or the perception of excessive discipline, of certain groups of students.
Students who are disciplined because of these factors, or because of different ways
of speaking and communicating, may be labeled as special education students
because of behavior and achievement issues. The United States has a complicated
and terrible racial history. Minority parents are aware of this history and will likely
be attentive to any perceived discrimination. Parents who believe that school
officials act unjustly will be unlikely to support the school and consider educators
enemies. Schools will have more difficulty establishing a productive relationship
with these parents than parents who are supportive of the school.

Resources:
Fiedler, C. R., Chiang, B., Van Haren, B., Jorgensen, J., Halberg, S., & Boreson, L.
(2008). Culturally Responsive Practices in Schools: A Checklist to Address
Disproportionality in Special Education. TEACHING Exceptional Children,
40(5), 52-59. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.


c. Implement universal screening of all students with periodic monitoring
of students progress in the curriculum.

In order to monitor student progress, effective interaction with families is
essential. This interaction should feature a mutual understanding of the
expectations of all stakeholders in the students progress, as well as open and
honest communication between schools and families. Information is powerful in the
sense that it can allay fears and gain buy-in from all stakeholders. The specifics of
special education can be daunting to the uninitiated. Therefore, effective
communication done openly and honestly, with the goal of understanding
expectations, can make students, parents, teachers, counselors can help avoid time
and energy wasted on fear and misunderstanding. As the school establishes a
relationship with students and parents, honest and open communication should
become even easier. The school will be more effective in communication about
goals and concepts if understands that cultures of the families that it serves. Due to
diversity of experience, socioeconomic status, race, religion, political philosophy and
other factors, school officials must be conscious of the ways in which diversity
affects the perception of special education specifically and American education in
general. This is not to suggest that schools should change goals and messages based
on audience. Because mutual understanding of expectations through open and
honest communication is the goal, consideration paid to diversity will likely make
that communication more effective. Effective communication that takes diversity
into consideration will help greatly with student monitoring.

Resources:
Eberly, J. L., Joshi, A., Konzal, J., & Galen, H. (2010). Crossing Cultures:
Considering Ethnotheory in Teacher Thinking and Practices. Multicultural
Education, 18(1), 25-32. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.


d. Distinguish between the culture of the family and the economic situation
of the family and how poverty affects families.

Economic considerations have extremely important effects on families. Whether
a family has lived in poverty for years, or an economic catastrophe has changed the
familys situation, poverty poses risks to students. Regardless of economic
considerations, however, the culture of a students family has a tremendous impact
on his or her education. The degree to which parents and siblings have achieved
educational success can influence the ways in which students view education. If a
students family places a low value on education, and has not collectively attained
educational success, the student may consider education of low importance.
Parents who place low value on education may have underdeveloped skills in some
intellectual areas. They may not view schools as helpful or may be less than
receptive to new ways of thinking or strategies from which their child may benefit.
Family members who engage in risky behavior can contribute to a family culture
that is detrimental to a student. Such risky behaviors may include drug and alcohol
abuse, violence and/or physical abuse, gambling, or sexually inappropriate or
abusive behavior. Such behaviors place a student at risk because of the potential for
them to transfer the risk to the next generation. Premature parenthood introduces
a challenging dynamic to the family culture. Parents who are young may lack the
maturity and life experience to effectively care for a child, particularly if the child
resulted from an unplanned pregnancy. Young parents may also lack economic
security, which places children at risk.

Resources:
Serbin, L. A., Temcheff, C. E., Cooperman, J. M., Stack, D. M., Ledingham, J., &
Schwartzman, A. E. (2011). Predicting Family Poverty and Other
Disadvantaged Conditions for Child Rearing from Childhood Aggression and
Social Withdrawal: A 30-Year Longitudinal Study. International Journal of
Behavioral Development, 35(2), 97-106. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.
Effects of Poverty, Hunger, and Homelessness on Children and Youth:
http://www.apa.org/pi/families/poverty.aspx


e. Identify how the familys culture and values affects how they view
disabilities.

Disabilities can affect students from every background. There are differences,
however, in the ways in which various cultures view disabilities. In some cultures
the family refers primarily to the nuclear family regarding decision-making. Other
cultures involve members of the extended family in decision-making processes. A
student receiving special education services may have a strong support system. It is
also possible that involvement of extended family members could have a too-many-
cooks-in-the-kitchen effect, meaning that additional opinions could lead to
complications designing and implementing a students program. Cultural
differences can also lead to difficulty presenting, and understanding, the labels that
exist within the field of education. The concept of special education, and the labels
used in the field, may have different meanings to different people. It may be
challenging, for example, for some families to distinguish between a learning
disability that could be helped with accommodations and a severe intellectual
handicap. The ability to openly and honestly communicate the challenges that a
student faces could be crucial for gaining buy-in from his or her family. When a
students disability manifests itself through problem behavior, the disability poses
particularly challenging problems for his or her family. The family culture may be
negatively affected by a childs behavior in many ways. A pattern of disruptive
behavior on the part of a child can put his or her family on edge as they deal with
conflict and/or anticipate the next conflict with the child. When considering
whether or not special education services are appropriate for a student the familys
experience with problem behavior could be a benefit or a challenge. It is possible
that a family might feel embarrassed by a childs behavior and become secretive or
defensive about the behavior. It is also possible that the family could feel a sense of
relief that services may provide welcome help in dealing with problem behavior.

Resources:
Tincani, M., Travers, J., & Boutot, A. (2009). Race, Culture, and Autism
Spectrum Disorder: Understanding the Role of Diversity in Successful
Educational Interventions. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe
Disabilities (RPSD), 34(3-4), 81-90. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.






f. Celebrate heritages and cultures and link directly to learning.

In order for a student to gain maximum benefit from instruction, the content and
delivery must be relevant to his/her life and experience. Students tend to perform
with greater success in subjects that interest them. Students tend to be most
interested in subjects or content to which they can assign value based on
experience. Educators who consider the diversity of their students while planning
and delivering instruction are more likely to make their subjects or courses more
relevant to students. Some elements of diversity include race, gender, religion,
socioeconomic status, family background, community standards, and common
experiences. To increase relevance, educators should consider the examples that
they use in class to explain content and the method of delivery for content. For
example, teachers should consider the diversity of a class and/or student body
when choosing activities in which to engage students and film clips to use as
instructional tools. Because so much instruction is skills-based, many activities
exist, or can be created, that increase relevance for students. To increase relevance
by considering diversity is to instill a sense of belonging, self-confidence and pride
in more students. Students, teachers, and the school community at-large benefit
when students perceive that their education is for them, rather than for others.
One purpose of education, as an element of citizenship, is for students to learn in
settings that celebrate and encourage diversity. Because of the insight, perspective,
and diversity that students of minority races and cultures can offer, students can
learn much from minority students. More generally, students are individuals. Each
student approaches education from his/her experiences. Therefore regardless of
race, gender, religion, socioeconomic status, or any other cultural indicators,
students have much to learn from each others diversity of experience.

Resources:
Damm, R. J. (2006). Education through Collaboration: Learning the Arts while
Celebrating Culture. An Elementary School--University Partnership Provides
Valuable Multicultural Music Education Experience for Elementary Future
Educators. Music Educators Journal, 93(2), 54. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.


g. Incorporate stories and resources from many cultural and ethnic
traditions.

For better or worse, history has been written by the victors. Victors can refer
to those who have won battles, elections, popular opinion, or whose actions or
beliefs have been vindicated by history. This term can, and often does, refer to those
individuals and groups who have enjoyed privileged status in societies. Throughout
most of the history of American society, the victors have been able-bodied,
heterosexual, white, Protestant, men. This has had the affect reducing marginalized
people to the margins of history and school curricula. A common complaint about
the teaching of history is that it involves too many dead white men. Some of that
story is unavoidable because several white men, who died long ago, framed the
Constitution of the United States, and much curriculum focuses on American history.
However, teachers of history should embrace the challenge of teaching history as
ever changing and ever evolving. The agency of many individuals and groups must
be taught to get the story right, and to make the story relevant. An effective way in
which educators can make instruction more relevant to students is to give students
more ownership of their education. One way in which educators can give students
ownership is to provide students with choice through student-centered instruction.
Encouraging students to master skills using examples, or content, of their choosing
builds relevance. Another way in which educators can increase relevance is to
invite students to incorporate stories from their own lives and experiences.
Student-driven projects that ask young people to research their family histories or
cultural heritages bring curricula alive for learners.

Resources:
Find individuals from various cultural backgrounds that have contributed to
the field of study; ie - A Modern History of Blacks in Mathematics:
http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/madhist.html



h. Build on students strengths when teaching literacy skills to language
minority students.

Students whose primary language is not English may struggle in American
schools because the primary language of instruction is English. Schooling is difficult
for many students who speak English exclusively, but the language barrier for ESL
students can be extremely challenging. Students who may not yet be fluent English
speakers or writers struggle to simultaneously learn and apply English in school
settings. ESL students who are fluent English speakers may give the impression that
they understand the language well. However, conversational language is a separate
skill from cognitive language and academic writing. A student may understand
English when he or she hears it spoken, and may have the necessary skill set to
respond verbally. Such a student may struggle when it comes to cognitive language
he or she lacks the requisite skills to sound words our or associate new vocabulary
with known words or phrases. Worlds that are not commonly used outside of an
academic setting, like photosynthesis, legislative, or denominator will be
difficult for ESL students. This challenge must be compounded for students whose
primary language is not Latin based. Assessing the progress of ESL students is a
challenge for school leaders due to several factors that may complicate outcomes.
Using an English writing sample may not be valuable in the assessment of ESL
students who are new to a school. A writing sample in the students native language
could be quite helpful in assessing his or her baseline abilities. Of course the
student will ultimately need to be assessed on his or her ability to read and write in
English, but the baseline provided by native language skills will likely be insightful.




Resources:
Chang, P. (2010). Rethinking Literacy Instruction to Non-LEP/ESL-Labeled
Language Minority Students. Literacy Teaching & Learning: An International
Journal of Early Reading & Writing, 15(1/2), 137-155. Retrieved from
EBSCOhost.


i. Directly use best, evidenced-based practices for teaching students from
diverse backgrounds.

Some effective practices for teaching students from diverse backgrounds include
cooperative learning, direct instruction in comprehension, and family support
programs. The primary goal when using cooperative learning is to gain cognitive
depth. In this model the teacher facilitates learning, but students collaborate and
guide the instruction. This practice helps students work in groups to solve
problems in ways that require the application of English skills. ESL students benefit
from this model because of that application piece. The whole skills of
communication and problem solving become more important in this practice than
details like grammar and spelling. The primary goal of direct instruction in
comprehension is comprehension itself. Too much instruction around reading can
take away from comprehension. Therefore a balance must be struck between
reading and comprehension. These skills are obviously not mutually exclusive, but
rather improve each other. Educators should not, however, place so much of a
premium on reading skills that comprehension becomes secondary. When parents
are actively involved in a students education, all stakeholders benefit from this
involvement. It can be a challenge, however, to get parents actively involved. In
some cultures parental involvement in school may not be the norm, and when
schools contact parents there may be an assumption that that contact is the result of
a students misbehavior, or failure in some way. Discipline may be authoritarian,
and physical, in other cultures. Educators who seek parental support from parents
with these cultural backgrounds may experience unintended consequences if
parents believe that they must reach their children through physical means.

Resources:
Caldern, M., Slavin, R., & Snchez, M. (2011). Effective Instruction for
English Learners. Future of Children, 21(1), 103-127. Retrieved from
EBSCOhost.






j. Implement processes that successfully prevent inappropriate placement
and ensure that the opportunities for educational achievement to
minority students equal those offered to the majority group.

To best serve the needs of minority students, schools must implement processes
that prevent inappropriate placement and preserve opportunities for educational
achievement. When placing foreign students who are not native English-speakers,
the first designation that schools should make is English as a Second Language
(ESL). This distinction is crucial because it implies expectations of the student,
while recognizing certain challenges. For example, the students reading and
writing abilities in English will be hindered by the fact that he or she is attempting
to simultaneously learn English and apply skills in a school setting. Therefore,
schools typically elect to grade ESL students on effort in English during their first
year of study in the United States. This is case in which it would benefit the student,
and the school, to obtain a writing sample in the students native language to gauge
reading and writing ability. Although ESL students will experience the challenges of
a language barrier in all subjects, mathematics poses less of a barrier than English.
Because of the diminished content barrier, ESL students are commonly still tested in
math during their first year. During their second year, students may be tested in
both English and Math. When addressing equal opportunities for educational
achievement, it is important that teachers, guidance counselors, and administrators
clearly understand that opportunities that are available, and promote those
opportunities to all students. If a particular demographic of the student population
tends not to take advantage of an opportunity, it would be helpful for educators to
reach out to all students who may benefit, especially if those students are
underrepresented.

Resources:
Klingner, J. K., Artiles, A. J., Kozleski, E., Harry, B., Zion, S., Tate, W., & Riley, D.
(2005). Addressing the Disproportionate Representation of Culturally and
Linguistically Diverse Students in Special Education through Culturally
Responsive Educational Systems. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 13(38)


II. Prevention and Early Intervening

a. Connect general education curriculum, compensatory and special
education in providing high quality standards-based
instruction/intervention that is matched to students academic, social,
emotional and behavioral needs.

 Students have varying academic, social, emotional and behavioral needs. It is the
responsibility of the school district to connect general education curriculum,
compensatory and special education to match those needs. The district must align
curriculum in ways that go along with the grades and academic programs of
students. When necessary, the school must implement supplementary programs. In
order to do so, schools must screen each student to identify his/her academic needs.
Schools are required to reasonably modify school programs for the purpose of
accommodating special needs students on an individual basis. It is crucial for
schools to screen students in ways what take care to avoid false positive predictions
of students at risk, particularly regarding student populations that are
overrepresented in special education programs. Once student needs are identified,
the school must apply intervention programs that simultaneously meet the
students needs while maintaining the integrity of the curriculum. The
exceptionality of each special needs student must be diagnosed and appropriate
placement must be determined. When behaviors are identified which impede
student learning, the school must address such behaviors with behavior plans. An
example of a program through which such barriers to learning may be identified and
addressed is the Student Assistance Program (SAP). The SAP program, which spans
grades K-12, strives to both identify and address barriers to learning using school-
based and community-based resources. Students may receive additional academic
support, school-based counseling through a guidance counselor or social worker.
When necessary students may be referred to community based professionals to
assist with mental health issues, drug and/or alcohol dependency, or other barriers
to learning.

Resources:
Mellard, D. F., Stern, A., & Woods, K. (2011). Focus on Exceptional Childern.
Focus on Exceptional Children, 43(6), 1-15. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.


b. Demonstrate high-quality instruction for all students, through scientific
research and evidence-based practice to produce high rates of learning
for all students.

It is the responsibility of the school to educate all students who reside in the
school district, to maintain discipline and order in the school system, to preserve the
educational environment, to ensure the safety of students, and to produce high rates
of learning for all students. High quality instruction must be evidence-based and
supported by scientific research in order to promote high rates of learning.
Meaningful standards of learning, developed at the state and district levels, provide
direction as to what students should be able to do as a result of high quality
instruction. Therefore it is essential that the schools core curriculum match
learning standards. Schools must provide and implement intervention programs for
students with special needs to ensure that they achieve high rates of learning. Such
intervention programs must be based on sound research and delivered by the
school with integrity to promote positive outcomes. A key element of the integrity
of such intervention programs has to do with who teaches intervention groups.
Qualified teachers should be administering intervention programs and teaching
intervention groups. Teachers aides, or other support staff, should not be the
primary deliverers of instruction. The school must also closely consider when
students receive intervention. The question of when may refer to the grade level, or
age, at which a student receives intervention. It may also consider the frequency of
intervention on a weekly or daily basis. Effective interventions that produce high
rates of learning for all students must consider the size of intervention groups.
Smaller intervention groups are appropriate for some students with particular
academic needs. In addition, a students Individual Education Program (IEP) may
specify an appropriate student-to-teacher ratio for that student to learn effectively.

Resources:
Hoover, J. J., & Love, E. (2011). Supporting School-Based Response to
Intervention: A Practitioner's Model. Teaching Exceptional Children, 43(3),
40-48. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.


c. Implement universal screening of all students with periodic monitoring
of students progress in the curriculum.

In order to gauge student learning, schools must implement universal screening
of all students, with periodic monitoring of students progress in the curriculum.
Universal screening falls in Tier 1 of the Response to intervention (RTI) model of
intervention. Effective classroom instruction with a viable general education
curriculum provides educators with regular opportunities to screen all students and
monitor their progress in key disciplines such as reading and math. Two examples
of progress monitoring programs at the elementary level are Dynamic Indicators of
Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS), and Diagnostic Reading Assessments (DRAs).
In some schools the progress of all students in the areas of fluency and
comprehension is monitored through DIBELS. DRAs, which span grades K-2, seek to
understand whether or not a student is a complete reader. In some schools release
time is provided for young students to participate in DRAs. An example of a
progress-monitoring program for math at the elementary level is Rocket Math. This
program assesses the basic math skills of young students quickly, while providing
opportunities for students to practice math skills on a regular basis. The
development of benchmarks for skills and content at all grade levels provides
regular intervals at which students are screened and have their progress evaluated.
Such benchmarks should be linked to state and district standards, based on sound
scientific research that promotes sound instruction and high rates of learning.

Resources:
See Mellard, D. F., Stern, A., & Woods, K. (2011) in competency IIa.


 d. Provide interventions for struggling learners provided at increasing
levels of intensity and matched to individual student need.

Schools are responsible for providing interventions for struggling learners at
increasing levels of intensity and matched to individual student need. Schools must
be familiar with the methods by which student needs are assessed, as well as the
types of interventions that are available. The Response to intervention (RTI)
framework for student intervention is a widely used model by which schools,
consistent with federal law, integrate educational problem solving and provide for
individual student needs. The RTI system functions effectively when the focus is on
preventing academic and behavioral difficulties in students. RTI employs a three-
tiered intervention structure. Each tier features appropriate interventions. Tier 1 is
defined as effective classroom instruction with a viable general education
curriculum. This can include reasonable modifications to curriculum or instruction
for the purpose of avoiding more intense, expensive, or disruptive intervention.
Tier 2 is designed to provide interventions to students who do not respond well to
general instruction, or who are predicted to be at risk. Determination of student
risk is made through a screening process designed to identify students who may be
at risk, or who may struggle to achieve academic or behavioral outcomes. In
general, students are moved from Tier 1 to Tier 2 based on screening data. It is
extremely important for those conducting the screening to take care to avoid false
positives, particularly in students whose demographic factors represent an
overrepresentation in programs for students with disabilities. While this tier does
not necessarily imply a different curriculum, instruction at this level is more intense
than general instruction. Tier 3, the most intensive level of instruction in the RTI
model is specifically defined as special education or highly individualized
instruction. All tiers in the RTI process feature progress monitoring. The purpose of
progress monitoring is to determine student growth and/or improvement. Further
decisions about intervention are informed by progress monitoring.

Resources:
See Mellard, D. F., Stern, A., & Woods, K. (2011) in competency IIa.


e. Implement an integrated system of assessment and data collection for
identification of students struggling to meet academic and behavioral
expectations.

Schools must implement an integrated system of assessment and data collection
for identification of students struggling to meet academic and behavioral
expectations. The Response to intervention (RTI) framework for student
intervention is a widely used model by which schools, consistent with federal law,
integrate educational problem solving and provide for individual student needs.
The RTI system functions effectively when the focus is on preventing academic and
behavioral difficulties in students. RTI, a standard treatment protocol, focuses on
reading and/or math at the elementary level. At the secondary level, RTI may focus
on a specific discipline like reading. However at the secondary level, RTI may also
fall under interventions for academics in general. Research indicates that RTI can
take various forms in the areas of assessment and data collection. For example,
some schools conduct benchmark testing for all students in grades K-3 three times
each year to assess word identification, comprehension, and fluency. Other students
conduct school-wide screening three times per year to identify at-risk students.
These schools coordinate the screening tests with several weeks of progress
monitoring. Students who are not meeting academic or behavioral expectations in
Tier 1 may be moved to the more intensive interventions of Tier 2. Students who
fall short of academic or behavioral expectations with Tier 2 interventions may
benefit from highly individualized instruction, or special education, in Tier 3. It is
important to note that most RTI models are sequential in that students participate
in Tiers 1 and 2 before moving to Tier 3.

Resources:
See Mellard, D. F., Stern, A., & Woods, K. (2011) in competency IIa.


February 29, 2016

f. Monitor students learning rates and levels of performance and use that
information in ongoing problem solving and decision-making.

One way in which school districts monitor student performance is through
common assessments. Such assessments may be state mandated, like Keystone
Exams at the high school level, or locally formulated to gauge student performance.
The state collects and distributes data from mandated assessments. Local districts,
and individual departments and teachers, can collect data from local assessments.
Review of data by building leadership, as well as teams or academic departments,
must review the data. Data gained through common assessments may be used to
determine which students may need remediation or acceleration to succeed in
academic programs. Remediation may be approached on an individual student
basis or, if needed mandated by the school to serve groups of students who have
failed exams or are at risk of failing common assessments. Schools may also use
data gained through common assessments to determine whether or not gaps exist in
curricula. Data may be used to guide department, or grade level, work in curriculum
mapping. If the data indicates that students have performed at low levels on certain
content or skills assessments, those elements may receive more focus in curriculum
writing and mapping. Data gained from common assessments may also inform
decisions about the size of instructional groups. Schools may determine that
instructing students in larger or smaller groups may serve them better based on
prior performance. Differentiated instruction is important in addressing the needs
of learners. Schools may learn, using data, the ways in which differentiation can be
used as an answer to ongoing problem solving, and inform decision-making.

 Resources:
See Mellard, D. F., Stern, A., & Woods, K. (2011) in competency IIa.


g. Determine which students need additional help regarding the intensity
and likely duration of interventions, based on each students response to
instruction across multiple tiers of intervention.

In order for interventions to serve the purpose of striving to student success,
teachers must have opportunities to review student data individually and as a
team. Team members must include regular education teachers, special
education teachers, building leadership, guidance counselors, parents and the
students themselves. Interventions reviewed by the above mentioned
stakeholders might include diagnostic interventions such as fluency building,
phonics instruction, and check in/check out. Students who struggle with the
basic functions of language may benefit from a re-teaching, or more intensive
focus, on phonics. Students who have mastered basic functions, but have trouble
working with language may benefit from a re-teaching, or more intensive focus,
on fluency in reading and writing. A check in/checkout (CICO) process may
benefit student a student whose academic performance, and/or ability to
complete academic tasks has been inconsistent. This deliberate process requires
the student to check in with each of his/her teachers on a daily basis to ensure
that he/she has a grasp of what work has been assigned, with the intention of
supporting that student so that he/she does not fall behind. In addition, the
check in /check out process asks teachers to give daily feedback regarding the
students behavior. This serves the purpose of holding the student responsible
for his/her behavior, as well as asking teachers to think about student behavior
deliberately. Patters of behavior that may be problematic, even though they may
not warrant a disciplinary referral, may become evident through this process.
The CICO process gives parents/guardians opportunities to help their children
based on regular academic and behavioral feedback.

Resources:
See Mellard, D. F., Stern, A., & Woods, K. (2011) in competency IIa.


Practical Application:
Are teachers provided the opportunity to review student data as a
team? Who are the members of the team and what role do they play?



h. Participate in school wide approaches to intervention and effective
instruction.

 Schools implement a wide variety of approaches and programs in efforts to
ensure effective instruction and intervention. At the secondary level peer
tutoring, mandatory Keystone examination remediation, and flex time are
examples. Peer tutoring affords students who are struggling academically, or
have questions about specific skills and/or content to meet with fellow students
who have excelled academically and have volunteered to be of assistance. This
student-to-student dynamic may be more helpful to some students than the
teacher-to-student dynamic. It also provides the high-functioning student
occasions for enrichment through he teaching process. Students who have failed
Keystone examinations, or who are at risk of failing based on data, may be
enrolled in mandatory remediation with teachers of specific subject areas. This
approach, which may be reactive or proactive, targets specific student areas of
need and is intended to give students a higher chance for success on subsequent
exams. Flex time can be an extremely useful means by which teachers can
deliver intervention and effective instruction because of its potential for
differentiation. Students who are struggling academically may sign up to work
with teachers in subjects that have posed challenges, or teachers may require
students to spend the flex time working on skills or content. Flex time may also
provide a host of opportunities for enrichment through clubs and seminar
courses. Clubs meeting during flex time have regular time throughout the week
during which to meet. Teachers can also teach seminar courses about particular
academic interests to interested students voluntarily. At the elementary level
teachers and students can provide effective instruction and intervention through
WIN time. WIN is an acronym for What I Need. This helps students develop
academic skills and content, while also strengthening students abilities of self-
advocacy because students are active participants in deciding what their areas of
focus should be. Teams of teachers may meet, with or without building
leadership, to determine areas of weakness for individual students or groups of
students.

Resources:
See Mellard, D. F., Stern, A., & Woods, K. (2011) in competency IIa.


i. Demonstrate evidenced-based practices for use in both the special and
regular education settings in the school.

Regular education and special education students benefit from evidence-
based practices and instructional techniques. Special education students benefit
from work with case managers. Case managers are teachers certified in special
education who manage a students Individualized Education Program (IEP),
provide academic supports, and serve as a liaison between students, families,
teachers, building leadership and the district. Resource rooms may be included
among the academic supports that a special education teacher may provide. A
special education students IEP indicates which accommodations that he/she
will receive in order to remove barriers to success. A student may receive pre-
 prepared notes so that he/she can follow a class session more effectively
without attempting to listen and write simultaneously. A student may benefit
from adaptations to assessments aimed at making that assessment more fair
based on the students ability level. Such adaptations may include a less
distractive environment than the regular education classroom, the option of
having assessments read aloud, the use of a calculator in math, fewer options on
multiple choice questions, and testing in a small group setting. Additional
accommodations may include a larger font or fewer problems or questions per
page. Regular education and special education students may also benefit from
classes co-taught by a regular education teacher and special education teacher.
This dynamic is designed to promote student success by improving the student
to teacher ratio. Also students benefit from having both a teacher with strong
content and skills knowledge in a subject and a teacher familiar with needs and
learning styles of students designated as special education.

Resources:
See Hoover, J. J., & Love, E. (2011) in competency IIb.

III. Effective Instructional Strategies for Students with Disabilities in Inclusive
Settings

a. Identify effective instructional strategies to address areas of need.
Scaffold instruction to maximize instructional access to all students.

Schools employ a wide variety instructional strategies to ensure effective
instruction and intervention. At the secondary level peer tutoring, mandatory
Keystone examination remediation, and flex time are examples. Peer tutoring
affords students who are struggling academically, or have questions about
specific skills and/or content to meet with fellow students who have excelled
academically and have volunteered to be of assistance. This student-to-student
dynamic may be more helpful to some students than the teacher-to-student
dynamic. It also provides the high-functioning student occasions for enrichment
through he teaching process. Students who have failed Keystone examinations,
or who are at risk of failing based on data, may be enrolled in mandatory
remediation with teachers of specific subject areas. This strategy, which may be
reactive or proactive, targets specific student areas of need and is intended to
give students a higher chance for success on subsequent exams. Flex time can be
an extremely useful means by which teachers can deliver intervention and
effective instruction because of its potential for differentiation. Students who
are struggling academically may sign up to work with teachers in subjects that
have posed challenges, or teachers may require students to spend the flex time
working on skills or content. Flex time may also provide a host of opportunities
for enrichment through clubs and seminar courses. Clubs meeting during flex
time have regular time throughout the week during which to meet. Teachers can
also teach seminar courses about particular academic interests to interested
students voluntarily. At the elementary level teachers and students can provide
 effective instruction and intervention through WIN time. WIN is an acronym
for What I Need. This helps students develop academic skills and content,
while also strengthening students abilities of self-advocacy because students are
active participants in deciding what their areas of focus should be. Teams of
teachers may meet, with or without building leadership, to determine areas of
weakness for individual students or groups of students.

Resources:
Gibson S. Coaching Conversations: Enacting Instructional Scaffolding.
Mid-Western Educational Researcher [serial online]. Winter2011
2011;24(1):5-20. Available from: Education Research Complete,
Ipswich, MA. Accessed July 19, 2011.
Brown C, Broemmel A. Deep scaffolding: Enhancing the reading
experiences of English language learners. New England Reading
Association Journal [serial online]. June 2011;46(2):34-39. Available
from: Education Research Complete, Ipswich, MA. Accessed July 19,
2011.

b. Scaffold instruction to maximize instructional access to all students.

Instructional scaffolding provides clear direction, purpose, measures to keep
students on task, clarifies expectations, assesses, offers feedback, directs
students to valuable resources and reduces issues associated with only one
route to success. Differentiated instruction that provides scaffolding is designed
to result in more favorable learning outcomes for students. Differences between
delivery of instruction to regular and special education may be based on a
students Individualized Education Plan (IEP) or 504 plan. Students with
accommodations to their education plans must receive those accommodations to
provide a Free and Appropriate Public Education (FAPE). Such accommodations
may include seating arrangements close to the point of instruction, checks for
understanding, verbal redirection by the teacher, or directions of assignments
chunked into smaller sections. When assessing student performance students
may take tests in small groups, have tests read to them, or extended time for the
assessment. Delivery of instruction and assessment of student learning in
special education may take into account various learning styles (i.e. auditory,
visual learning styles). Educators must also consider the varying ways in which
students may be able to demonstrate learning, which may or may not be a more
formal or traditional assessment such as an examination. Teachers of special
education students must also take into account any formal behavior plans
developed by teams of teachers, guidance counselors, school administrator and
parents to ensure the students academic success.

Resources:
See resources IIIa.

 c. Monitor student progress to provide mediated scaffolding and increase
academic rigor when appropriate.


In order to gauge the effectiveness of measures that a school takes to
implement scaffolding instruction, it is necessary to monitor student progress.
At times it may be appropriate to increase academic rigor. One way in which
student progress may be monitored is by the administration of pre-tests and
post-tests to measure student learning of a particular chapter, unit, or
curriculum. Pre and post tests may be used to determine student knowledge of
content or skill. Some teachers may chose to implement pre-tests and post-tests
as elements of their Student Learning Objectives (SLOs) for an academic year as
well. At the elementary level, students may be briefly pulled out of class to
demonstrate progress. For example, a student may be pulled out of class quickly
to demonstrate understanding of a few math problems. Benchmark assessments
are also ways in which schools monitor student progress. Keystone Exams
assess student progress in Math, Science and English Language Arts. Schools
allocate considerable amounts of time and resources to ensuring that students
show progress on state-mandated benchmark examinations. Less formally,
individual teachers may monitor student progress regularly in classroom
settings. Checks for understanding may include a brief thumbs-up/thumbs-
down response to a yes or no question. Teachers may also chose to employ a
ticket out the door to monitor student progress. If a student is falling behind
the school may implement some remediation on his or her behalf. Such
remediation could be in the form of extra time with a particular teacher, peer
tutoring, or a more formal school mandated remediation. The goal of such
remediation would be to bring the student up to speed on content or skills.

Resources:
Bertin, J., & Narcy-Combes, J. (2007). Monitoring the Learner - Who,
Why and What For?. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 20(5),
443-457.

d. Provide feedback to students at all levels to increase awareness in areas
of strength, as well as areas of concern.

Feedback regarding student strengths and areas of concern is essential to the
educational process. Educators provide learning opportunities for students
during class sessions and through extending activities on a daily basis, and most
of these learning opportunities afford educators opportunities to offer feedback
to students and parents/guardians. Districts increasingly use technology to
make students and parents/guardians aware of the expectations for learning
opportunities. Online resources, such as Google calendars, Schoology, and
district websites have calendar options that can be accessed via the internet.
Many of these tools provide avenues through which teachers may be reached for
clarifying questions or other help. Many districts have online grading systems,
 including gradebooks, which may be accessed by students and
parents/guardians regularly for a glimpse into the students progress. Schools
may also issue official grade reports quarterly as a formal notification of a
students progress. Report cards, which become part of the students academic
record provide regular feedback. Districts may also issue interim grade reports
to give feedback about student progress in classes half way through a quarter.
Official school reports have built-in ways in which teachers can communicate
with students and parents/guardians through comment codes based on the
students strengths or areas of concern. Based on the feedback given in these
ways, teachers may adjust instruction to meet student needs, parents/guardians
may adjust their involvement in the students educational process, and students
may adjust their focus and/or efforts to achieve positive outcomes. Special
education students will have an annual review of Individualized Education Plans
(IEPs) to provide feedback and plan for the students academic program going
forward.

Resources:
Eric Zhi-Feng, L. (2007). Developing a personal and group-based
learning portfolio system. British Journal of Educational Technology,
38(6), 1117-1121.

e. Strategically align standard based curriculum with effective
instructional practices.

Korchnak (2012) states Education is the concern of the federal government,
a function of state government and the responsibility of local government.
Therefore state standards of education are issued by the Pennsylvania
Department of Education (PDE) and implemented by local school districts. It is
the responsibility for the local school district to be aware of state learning
standards for students and to implement them into the development of
curriculum so that teachers may align instruction to standards-based curricula.
While the curriculum of a particular subject is developed at the local district
level, much of the true development of curriculum occurs through conversations
and collaboration at the building or department level. More specifically, a
department leader, or subject area facilitator, under the direction of a building
administrator, facilitates much of the conversation regarding curriculum
development. However, the conversations are largely between teachers of
specific subjects, with an eye toward state standards. The materials used to
guide the conversation are lists of state standards, content outlines, lists of skills
which students should learn and master and examples of learning opportunities
through which teachers have had past successes. Many districts have access to
curriculum writing and tracking software like Rubicon Atlas that allows teachers
to input standards, skills, learning opportunities, and pacing information.
Teachers certainly have access to this software and districts may choose to give
parents/guardians, or the community at large, access to the curriculum maps as
well so that people understand what students are expected to learn through
 public education. Teachers, then, use the curriculum map as a planning guide for
units and individual lessons.

Resources:
Review: http://www.pdesas.org/Standard/Views
Korchnak, Lawrence C., Case Law and Common Sense, 4th Edition,
Pennsylvania: Educational Services Publishers (2012) p.xi

f. Identify and implement instructional adaptations based on evidence-
based practices (demonstrated to be effective with students with
disabilities) to provide curriculum content in a variety of ways without
compromising curriculum intent.

To best educate students of all ability levels schools must identify and
implement instructional adaptations based on evidence-based practices. They
must do so in ways that provide curriculum content in a variety of ways without
compromising curriculum intent. When providing academic and behavioral
supports to students with disabilities, the instruction should be different but not
less. Some ways in which instruction for students with disabilities may be
differentiated are to adapt learning opportunities for them. These adaptations
should take the learning style of the student into account in planning and
implementation of instruction. When learning styles are identified and
acknowledged positive outcomes are more likely to follow. Students with
disabilities may receive directions that are simplified, or have academic tasks
broken into chunks or segments with opportunities for check-ins at various
points. Teachers may also provide more, or different examples when explaining
content or directions to ensure that students understand the purposes, and
processes, of tasks. Whereas standard instruction may require students to
approach a concept in an in-depth manner, students with disabilities may be
asked for focus on key concepts to ensure that they can demonstrate learning
and understanding. They may also be asked to produce evidence based on fewer
sources, or a modified measure of evidence. In a co-taught course groups of
students may work with a teacher while other students work independently, or
in groups without the direct guidance of a teacher. Co-teachers may plan and
implement instruction collaboratively to best provide for the needs of students.

Resources:
Parsons, S. A., Davis, S. G., Scales, R. Q., Williams, B., & Kear, K. A.
(2010). How AND WHY TEACHERS ADAPT THEIR LITERACY
INSTRUCTION. College Reading Association Yearbook, (31), 221-236.
Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

g. Analyze performance of all learners and make appropriate modifications.

 In order to analyze performance of all learners and make appropriate
modifications, it is necessary to monitor student progress. At times it may be
appropriate to increase academic rigor. It is necessary for educators to
determine what works best for students, and then adapt instruction based on
those determinations. Schools may administer pre-tests and post-tests to
measure student learning of a particular chapter, unit, or curriculum. Pre and
post tests may be used to determine student knowledge of content or skill. Some
teachers may chose to implement pre-tests and post-tests as elements of their
Student Learning Objectives (SLOs) for an academic year as well. At the
elementary level, students may be briefly pulled out of class to demonstrate
progress. For example, a student may be pulled out of class quickly to
demonstrate understanding of a few math problems. Benchmark assessments
are also ways in which schools monitor student progress. Keystone Exams
assess student progress in Math, Science and English Language Arts. Schools
allocate considerable amounts of time and resources to ensuring that students
show progress on state-mandated benchmark examinations. Less formally,
individual teachers may monitor student progress regularly in classroom
settings. Checks for understanding may include a brief thumbs-up/thumbs-
down response to a yes or no question. Teachers may also chose to employ a
ticket out the door to monitor student progress. If a student is falling behind
the school may implement some remediation on his or her behalf. Such
remediation could be in the form of extra time with a particular teacher, peer
tutoring, or a more formal school mandated remediation. The goal of such
remediation would be to bring the student up to speed on content or skills. Such
modifications are implemented with student success in mind.

Resources:
See Mellard, D. F., Stern, A., & Woods, K. (2011) in competency IIa.

h. Design and implement programs that reflect knowledge, awareness and
responsiveness to diverse needs of students with disabilities.

Schools must design and implement programs that reflect knowledge,
awareness and responsiveness to the diverse needs of students with disabilities.
Students who have failed Keystone examinations, or who are at risk of failing
based on data, may be enrolled in mandatory remediation with teachers of
specific subject areas. This strategy, which may be reactive or proactive, targets
specific student areas of need and is intended to give students a higher chance
for success on subsequent exams. Students with disabilities may also benefit
from work with paraprofessionals. Paraprofessionals may assist students with
test accommodations, help students stay focused in the classroom and provide
an extra set of eyes on a struggling student. Flex time can be an extremely useful
means by which teachers can deliver intervention and effective instruction
because of its potential for differentiation. Students who are struggling
academically may sign up to work with teachers in subjects that have posed
challenges, or teachers may require students to spend the flex time working on
 skills or content. At the elementary level teachers and students can provide
effective instruction and intervention through WIN time. WIN is an acronym
for What I Need. This helps students develop academic skills and content,
while also strengthening students abilities of self-advocacy because students are
active participants in deciding what their areas of focus should be. Teams of
teachers may meet, with or without building leadership, to determine areas of
weakness for individual students or groups of students. Students who struggle
academically may benefit from a re-teaching, or more intensive focus, on
phonics. Students who have mastered basic functions, but have trouble working
with language may benefit from a re-teaching, or more intensive focus, on
fluency in reading and writing. A check in/checkout (CICO) process may benefit
students who may be at risk for academic failure.

Resources:
See Mellard, D. F., Stern, A., & Woods, K. (2011) in competency IIa.

i. Use research supported methods for academic and non-academic
instruction for students with disabilities.

Research-supported methods for instruction of students with, and without,
disabilities are valuable to the educational process. One such research-
supported method is Willard Daggetts Rigor and Relevance Framework. This
framework encourages teachers to plan and implement instruction that
encourages D Level thinking, which is both highly challenging and highly
engaging for students. Students of all ability levels benefit from this type of
instruction. Teachers may also employ the use of pretests and posttests to gauge
student learning for all students. Students with disabilities may benefit from
additional measures to encourage their academic success. Some measures may
amend the ways in which students with disabilities take notes, including closed
notes. Closed note taking provides students with an outline of information,
which students fill in as they participate in the class. They may then plug in
information as appropriate rather than attempting to write down notes while
listening and participating. Another note taking option is for the teacher to
provide a student with copies of the notes ahead of the class session, or at the
beginning of the class session. This may give a student time to either review the
notes ahead of time so that the class session clarifies the notes, or to pay
attention to the class session more closely because they are not concerned with
writing notes. Teachers may also provide students with disabilities adjusted
expectations that are appropriate for their ability level and academic needs.
This could include chunked instructions, a focus on main ideas rather than
details, or other modifications to instruction, tasks, or assessments.

Resources:
Use Hoover, J. J., & Love, E. (2011) in competency IIb.




j. Develop and implement universally designed instruction.

Universal Design for Learning is a theoretical framework that guides the
development of curricula that meets the needs of all students. One component of
this new paradigm focuses on the development of accessible interactive
curriculum materials. These materials would engage the learner in new and
empowering ways that align to their unique approach to learning. These
materials an be altered and scaffolded based on learner needs and cognitive
style. This framework welcomes student-centered learning methods such as
Mass Customized Learning and Project-Based learning. Methods like these give
students a real degree of voice and choice in their own education, allowing
possibilities for more rigor and relevance. Instructional scaffolding provides
clear direction, purpose, measures to keep students on task, clarifies
expectations, assesses, offers feedback, directs students to valuable resources
and reduces issues associated with only one route to success. Differentiated
instruction that provides scaffolding is designed to result in more favorable
learning outcomes for students. When assessing student performance students
may take tests in small groups, have tests read to them, or extended time for the
assessment. Delivery of instruction and assessment of student learning in
special education may take into account various learning styles (i.e. auditory,
visual learning styles). Educators must also consider the varying ways in which
students may be able to demonstrate learning, which may or may not be a more
formal or traditional assessment such as an examination. Teachers of special
education students must also consider any formal behavior plans developed by
stakeholders in a students academic program.

Resources:
Review: http://www.pdesas.org/Standard/Views

k. Demonstrate an understanding of the range and the appropriate use of
assistive technology (i.e., no tech, low tech, high tech).

To achieve his or her potential for academic success, a student may benefit
from assistive technology. Such technology does not necessarily even imply
the use of a gadget. For example, it may be helpful for a student to sit in an area
of the classroom close to the point of instruction to assist with vision or hearing
deficiencies. Educators may also rely on some visual and body language cues to
determine if a student requires simple assistance. An example of a low tech
assistive technology may include a simple magnification device. Another low
tech assistive technology could be the material printed in a large font, or a large
font textbook. Higher tech assistive technology can include a wearable
microphone and receiver device that has the effect of amplifying a teachers
voice for an individual student. Now that many students have access to
 computer technology in schools, such as iPads, they may individually zoom in on
images on their individual screens. Most electronic devices have accessibility
options available to make use easier for individuals with disabilities. Students
with disabilities may also benefit from technology that assists with other basic
communication and/or spelling. The appropriate use of assistive technology
centers around providing a level educational environment for students with
disabilities. These technologies allow students to participate more fully in the
classroom setting. In addition, these technologies can help provide a more
accurate account of student ability and learning on assessments than may be
possible without assistive technology.

Resources:
Stumbo, N. J., Martin, J. K., & Hedrick, B. N. (2009). Assistive
technology: Impact on education, employment, and independence of
individuals with physical disabilities. Journal of Vocational
Rehabilitation, 30(2), 99-110. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

l. Demonstrate efficient differentiated instruction and an understanding of
efficient planning, coordination, and delivery for effective instruction
required for inclusive settings.

Differentiated instruction is the planning, coordination, and delivery of
instruction that meets the needs of all students. Differentiated instruction is
important in addressing the needs of learners. Schools may learn, using data, the
ways in which differentiation can be used as an answer to ongoing problem
solving, and inform decision-making. Differentiated instruction does not only
impact inclusive settings. Because it is designed to address the needs of all
learners, differentiated instruction can be a goal for all educators in all settings.
Co-teaching may be extremely beneficial to the differentiation of instruction,
especially for students who may require more individualized instruction or who
have accommodations specified in an Individualized Education Program (IEP).
When co-teachers, typically one from a subject area and one special education
teacher, plan instruction together it can enhance the educational experience for
students. Planning that benefits from the gifts and talents of two professionals
working together provides opportunities for multiple ideas, perspectives,
teaching styles, and reflection. When co-teachers have the benefit of working
together on the same course multiple times, they can hone their craft together in
very beneficial ways. On the other hand, when co-teachers do not have the time
to plan collaboratively, if they feel uncomfortable with certain content areas or
teaching styles, or when the process is disrupted by scheduling changes, the co-
teaching dynamic is far less effective.

Resources:
van Garderen, D., & Whittaker, C. (2006). Planning Differentiated,
Multicultural Instruction for Secondary Inclusive Classrooms.
Teaching Exceptional Children, 38(3), 12-20. Retrieved from
EBSCOhost.