CHEMISTRY
mwhl th nta
rhFfo, ngdhik nghwit eh mwhl
gagLJ ntbghUf y.
bk vgJ Rzhf, fk, r Mait
Fl j fyj xU nt fyit.
fh vgJ bk, kz, WfUff,
Mait fyj fyit.
.. (ghid FnshiuL) Ff, th, ,
isahL bghikf nghwit sF
shoFfsh Mdit.
sho ehfh fh bghUf bghjh
Mad WF sho tifia rhjit.
eF Jfshd kz, Rzhf, nrhoa nf
Ma nt bghUfsh cUthdnj fzho.
fzho kLnk 100 rjj kWRH bragL
bghU.
nrh nrhoa iAuhirL vw bghUis bfhL
jahfgLwJ.
gU bro g brYnyh vw ntbghU
csJ.
gU, rz, njfh eh iyf, gL iy, fg
iy nghwit aif iyf.
ghal, ieyh, nuah nghwit braif iyf.
o tiff, fW, nguN nghw bghUf braif
iyf _y jahfgLwd.
- X ma ts
xbthU ML kh 22 nj cyf dij
bfhlhLnwh
Ka df
o cyf ygu d - ut 2
o cyf fhLf d - kh 21
o d - Vu 22
o cyf RWNH d - #& 5
o aif Mjhu d - mnlhg 5
o aif ghJfh d - etg 25
Kj mnlhg tiuyhd ehf ah KGtJ
gutyhf mf kiH bgh.
jehL yfhf mnlhg kW etg khjf
kiHia bgW.
kiH ilfhj jh ghiytdK, mf kiH bghit
bgW tlHF khyfS ah csd.
bghJthf ah tl gF mf ms kiH
bgh fhzgL.
_W Ka efshd J, fif kW ukuh
kakiy njh _ uL gF ygu
ghwd.
2025- fLikahd gwhFiw ah
bgUgF VgL vd vrfgLwJ.
jHf muR ehonyna Kndhoahf kiH nrf
lij mKgLsJ.
Ff gu btik w xia uggjh gFJ toj _y ilj atouhF. j
gghiw KGtJ btik wkhf njhWwJ.
gfo F yhUF nghJ ywkhf
bj. jF fhuz thd y wij
ggnj MF.
tlah csmidJ MWfS akiy cs
ggiwf Unj njhWwd.
tofl: fl iu uhah Fj 1.
fna tofl Kiw vdgL
jiy rL gut: xU flJ r tna fliu 2.
ntfkhf brYJnghJ mr EJisf iu
kL btnaW. bgUghyhd cfis,
Compiled by Rex Christopher
jhJfis jLJ W L. jehL muR jiy
rL gut Kiw _y fliu FouhF
lij JtsJ.
N fliu FouhF l :J ah cs
fbga ciu FouhF l MF.
tlbrid UJ 35 .. bjhiy cs N
mUnfs fhLg uhk mikfgLsJ.
j l 600 nfho %gh bry 60 Vf gugs
WtgLsJ. 8600 jiy rLgut
glyfis, fliu Fouhf khw gagLJwd.
l _y 273 a l fl iu
ehbshWF 100 a lbrid cs Rkh
5 yr kfSF njitahd Foiu mgnj j
Ka nehfkhF.
be c FouhF l : N lij mLJ
brid Fo tHf kW f mfW
thafhf be ciu FouhF lij
908.28 nfho %gh bjhlsd. l _y
ehbshWF 100 a l eiu fl
UJ J vLf aY. brid kf e
njitia brtjfhf be l UJ
Fo 40 .. u bfhLtugLwJ.
UJ bgwgL bghUf FahdJ nu
MF.
bgUfl f mf ms iu bfhLsJ
uhvgJ th iyahF
fliu Fouhf khWtjF braifKiw c
iu FouhF l gagLwJ
xU eh xU kj Fof, Jitf, rikf cl
ey guhkf vd FiwjJ 50l iu
gagLJwh vd Ia ehLf rig bjwJ.
f mf c jikia bfhl fl rhfl j
fl cuwJ. Vbd cs mf cjik
fhuzkhf vj xU dnkh myJ fQF
bjaToa th cdnkh c thH KoahjthW
csJ. xU kjDF j bjaiy vwhY Tl,
j rhfl Gjh mt _f khlh.
gyhf nk jgh.
cy iwJs ms 4%ah csJ.
X MoF xU kjDF ilF ms
ah 133tJ l csJ. ah L
Jf Toa ts Xuho 1897 rJu. ms
csjhf fzlgLsJ.
kGit bfhL kj fid RjgLJ
aftiwKiw ah totikfgLsJ.
kj f f Fiwjs nrF Egnk
JthF. j Kiw ftiwia gagLJtJ,
ifahStJ vaJ kW RfhjhukhdJ. kjff
KGtJkhf ktsF njitgLw vUthf
(btnf) khwgLwd.
iwa cy mfF e njitF gghiw
_y ilF iu Fouhf gagLJtnj xU wj
thF.
ato ikahf Ugjh g ma
MtffY, kUJt MtffY gagLwJ.
N fliu FouhF l - Utq khtl
be fliu FouhF l - fhu khtl
rhj} miz - Utzhkiy khtl
___________ UJ bgwgL bghUf FahdJ
nu MF. ( / brthuf).
___________ f mf ms iu bfhLsJ
(bgUfl / Fs)
1

3. ___________ vgJ th iyahF (kiH / uh)
4. __________ iu Fouhf khWtjF braifKiw
c iu FouhF l gagLwJ (fl / MW).
eik Rs gUbghUf
mQfS _yTWfS f ad. tiw
nendhl vD myfh msfyh. (1 nendhl =
10-9 l)
kf _y TWfSF ilna cs <ir
mf vgjh _yTWf f f beUfkhf
mikJsd.
mGj _y lbghUf totij khWtJ
fod.
gUbghU ehfhtJ iy shkh
btggLjgl th iy.
gUbghU Ijh iy ngh-IO
fhlnl - mf F%lgl lbghU.
ut cs _yTWfSilna cs <ir
k bghUf csij l Fiw.
thf _yTWfSilna cs <ir f
Fiw. mjdh _yTWfSilna cs ilbt
f mf. k kW ut iyfSl
xLnghJ thfis f vjhf mGj Ko.
e o gagLJ vth
milfgLsJ k bgnuha th (LPG)
rahd ilia njbjLf.
1. _W iyf UF xnu bghU ________ (, f,
fzho).
2. _yTWfSF ilna f Fiwthd ilbt
cs gUbghU ________ (k, ut, th).
3. 1 nendh l vgJ ________( 10-10 , 10-9 , 10-12 ).
4. th _yTW ilna cs ir kijl
________ (Fiw, mf).
5. ________iy Fl bfhss bfhlJ. Mdh
tot ilahJ (k, ut).
gUbghUf kW mj jikf
I (gT) cUFj vgJ x aa khw
kbghUis (fu) btggLJ nghJ neuoahf
th iyF khW fF gjfkhj vW bga.
xU iH s rhu ghbghGJ iH
Nnl, ufhrkhf xia cGnghJ iH
njhw khwij fhzyh. rhu ghtij
Wdh iH KUj njhwij bgWwJ.
J xU aa khwkhF.
k bghUis btggLJ nghJ utkhf
khWwJ. vLJfhlhf, gfoia
btggLdh uhf khWwJ. jF cUFj vW
bga.
iu bjhlJ btggLdh bfhJ uhahf
khWwJ. jF Mahj vW bga.
uhia Fu brjh uhf L khWwJ. j
fF Fj vW bga.
iu nkY Fjjh gfoahf khWwJ. jF
ciwj vW bga.
JU of kW M# f mta.
fhu bga ntWbga
fha iAuhirL Rl Rzh
Compiled by Rex Christopher
CHEMISTRY
bkGF vj vgJ xU nt khwkhF. bkGF
vnghJ mj _yTWf fay th kW
M#dhf khw milwJ.
glhRfis btoj, fhjijnah, kuijnah
vFnghJ, fG khw nt khw.
fhff kW gHf cs thrid, w kW
Rit Mat fhuz mt ~dh nrkf
Ugnj MF. ~dh nrkf janeh kW
ytifahd Wnehfis jLF jikilaJ.
fhfisnah gHfisnah bto J neu fh
itF nghJ gG wkhf khWwJ. fh kW
gHf cs ~dh nrk vw ntbghU
fh cs M#Dl id J bkyh vw
- mf gG w bghUshf khWwJ.
J bl cs FJdh mU mikJs
U 7 l sij 6000 vil
bfhlJ. J 1600 MLfSF K flglJ.
ts fhy flJ Tl, j U W
JUofiy. cy gy gF cs Mthsf
j jikia g M brJshf. j _y,
af 1600 MLfSF KUnj cnyhf
bjhEgij bjJ itJsij fhLwJ.
fg bgUgF Ugh bragLsJ. fl
fg jFnghJ, mj moghf _sJ.
cUis fl mf ms c csJ. vdnt fg
bgUgF JUoJ bghUshjhu nrjij
iswJ.
my vw thij ml vw y bkh
brhUJ vLfgLsJ. brh bghU
vgjhF.
jhtufUJ yF fUJ bgwgL
myf fk myf vdgL.
vYir my csJ.
gh yho my csJ.
Fghdf fhngh my csJ.
M kh my csJ.
cz brgjF iAnuhFnsh my e
iuig RuwJ.
f - ( mo my)
jfh - (M[h my)
uhir (lhlh my)
vW ( gh my)
iAnuhFnsh my (HCl)
fjf my (H2SO4)
ie my (HNO3).
vyh myfY lbga brajf iAu#
ma csJ.
nrhoa iAuhirL (vnrhlh) kW bghlha
iAuhirL (vbghlhR) nghw fhuf mF
jik cilait.
fiu fhufSF mf vW bga. fha,
nrhoa, bghlha Mat iAuhirLf
mfRF vLJfhLfshF. it fiu
fhuf MF.
mf vw thij muh brhUJ tjjhF.
j bghU kurhg. j rhg nrhoa kW
bghlha fhgndLf UF.
2
 CHEMISTRY
bghlha iAuhirL fho bghlhZ
fha iAuhirL W Rzh
nrhoa iAuhirL fho nrhlh
bka iAuhirL my

fhu bga fhzgL bghU

fha iAuhirL Rzh
Mnkha iAuhirL fzhoia Rj br bghU
nrhoa iAuhirL bghlha iAuhirL nrh
bka iAuhirL bka ghk

wfhof my mj w fhu mj w
k t y
~dhj wkwit st
kr kr brft
% rhW st kr
t KilnfhR rhW t gir
bghJthf gagLjgL aif wfho k itl C jahf
MF. J r UJ jahfgLwJ. rika nrhlh jahf
t k jh fhufiur bjhLnghJ ywkhf cz kW Fghdf Ritia Tl
khWwJ.
fhuf t k jhis y wkhf khW.
y k jhis my bjhLnghJ tghf
khWwJ.
fhuf iAuhirL maia bfhlit.

kr xU aif wfho
fhuf, Milf goJs fiw kW vbz
Rfis mfw gagLwJ.
kj cl cs brf (DNA) o M ngh
my csJ. it brf brafis
fjf my nt bghUf mur vW
miHfgLwJ.
fLgLJwJ.
ujf cl flikigF cjwJ. uj mndh
cy mf tik f my ~Snuh r my
myf csJ. MF (HFSO3).

bfhG bfhG my csJ. t myjikia Fiwf Kakhf gagL

bghU xW gh MF.
myf rhuij eF flj ToaJ.
fk myf gaghLf bghJthf xU myK fhuK eLiyahf id
<LgLnghJ cUthF ma nrkfns c MF.
czit gjgLj
c gaghL
my bga cUthF c c bga
iAnuhFnsh my FnshiuL nrhoa FnshiuL fhg FnshiuL bg FnshiuL
ie my ienu nrhoa ienu, fhg ienu, bg ienu

c bga gaghL
kj clYF
fha ghng
fha yhnl
kj cl uhf af
bgu rng
nrhoa FnshiuL
L gaghL
nrhoa FnshiuL czit bflhk ghJfhf kW Ritia Tl
nrhoa ig fhgnd Fghd kW buho
nuwgl bghlha mYa rng. jiu ikgLj
bjhrhiy gaghL
nrhoa fhgnd ryit nrhlh jahf

Compiled by Rex Christopher 3

 CHEMISTRY
fhg rng bfh
bghla ienu btokUJ jahf
ekJ t iAnuhFnsh my RuwJ. gh vgJ k bfhG, uj kW nrj
fyitahF.
vW foF nghJ gh myij njhD
brYJwJ. jdh t kW f VgLwJ. jk fa Jffns mQfshF.
Jjehf fhgnd(fhyik) bfhL njg _y xnu tif myJ btntW tif mQfsh Mdit
njhD brYjgl my eLiyahfgLtjh _yTW MF.
FzkhwJ. Jtiu W gbdL jkf(118)
1. myf ________ Rit bfhlit (fr / ). flagLsd.
2. bkGFt vj ________ khwF cjhuz MF tW 92 jkf aifY jKs 26
(aa / nta). jkf Mtf braif KiwfY jahf
gLwd.
3. bghJthf fhufis, myfis fla
Jtiu 112 jkf kLnk IUPAC (International
gagL aif wfho ________ ( k /
dhj ). Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) mfhutkhf
FpL btlgLsd.
vj kW Rl kj cl iw VwjhH 99 MW jkfshY
(M#, fhg, iAu#, ieu#, fha kW
beU vgJ ntfkhf eilbgW xU M#ndw vj
ghgu) ju 1 kw jkfshY cUthdJ.
idahF.
ml kW f cs Kakhd jkf
vjYF fhW mta iAu# kW akhF.
xU vbghU va njitgL Fiwj gr btgiy miw btg iy bkF kW nuh, 30C
vbtgiy vdgL. a kW fha Mait kkhf Uwd.
vbzdh g va Toa ia Eiughid 92 jkf 72 jkf cnyhffshF.
(~nghik) bfhL mizf ntL. rhu 16 myJ 17 jkf kLnk mnyhffshF.
rhjdf kW mikf Vgl Toa ia, l cnyhfnghf v.fh. nghuh, f, brkha
fhg ilMirL myJ fhg bluhFnshiuL nghwitahF.
gagL mizf ntL. fdh gJ cs 20 GfhL M# mnkrh fho
Vglh fhgil Mi[ilnah myJ fhg cUthwJ.
bluhFnshiuLianah gagLj. jF khwhf xU (m) njfuo jfij 80 nyhl(50 ik)
iu gagLdh m, fhaK VgL. sF fahf l Ko.
y vbghUf fnyh kL
ekJ cl cs fhg msit bfhL 9000
vbghU fnyh k (Kcal/Kg) bgYF ik ugyh.
ku 4,000 itu Kidia bfhL btl Koahj bghUis
Tl caa ththd brdh nyriu gagL
yf 7,000
btlKo.
ff 8,000 xU ruhr kj cl 250uh c csJ.
kbzbz 10,300 mf cUFiyia bfhl 3410C bfhl cnyhf
lldhF.
bgnuh 11,500
FpL vgJ xU jkij FF va totkhF.
aif th 8,000 -12,000 #h n#f bga 1813 My FpL vGJfis
j th 3,000 - 6,000 gagLJ Kiwia ttFjh.
iAu# 34,000 y jkf bgaf Kakhd ehL / fbgw
ma mPf /w/
nj 13,340 uhzfjhghu/nfhf nghw Kiwfis bfhL
nj kW <nj aif th MF. bgalgLsd
ut bgnuha th vgJ nuhng (15%) kW U rigo, U kW rg 7 : 4 vw j
nlid (85%) fyitahf nrJ, mGj csd.
utkhfgl th MF. xU nrk cs gFbghUfis aa
nj kW <nj fyj vth rhz vth (nfhg th) Kiwgo f ayhJ
MF. xU nrk xU Fl cUFiy kW bfhiyia
eik Rs jkf kW nrkf bgUwJ.
eh RthF fhW abghU mW. Mdh mJ nrk gf, mj gF bghUf
gntW thf fyitahF. gfUJ khWgLwd.
jkf bga FpL

nghuh (Boron) B

fhg (Carbon) C

~q (Fluorine) F

Compiled by Rex Christopher 4

 CHEMISTRY
iAu# (Hydrogen) H jkf y / nuf
FpL
bga bga
mnaho (Iodine) I nrhoa nea Na
ieu# bghlha nfa K
(Nitrogen) N
U ~bgu Fe
M# (Oxygen) O fhg Fu Cu
t mb#l Ag
ghgu (Phosphorus) P
nfhL Mu Au
rg (Sulphur) S bkF iAuhu Hg
by sg Pb
btndoa (Vanadium) V
o nld Sn
nua (Uranium) U Mok oa Sb
ll c~gu W
mYa (Aluminium) Al

nga (Barium) Ba bga FpL bga cUthd j

bga (Beryllium) Be mbka Am mbkfh ehL

nuha Eu Inuhgh ehL
k (Bismuth) Bi
m~u nehg
neha No
nuh (Bromine) Br (ma mP)

nfhgh mnaho I Cjh w

(Cobalt) Co
bkF Hg fl bga
fha (Gallium) Ga
qnlha Pu qnlh (nfhf)
a (Helium) He beoa Np beo (nfhf)
a (Lithium) Li nua U nud (nfhf)

ah (Neon) Ne

fh (Silicon) Si

Mfh (Argon) Ar

Mr (Arsenic) As

Fnsh (Chlorine) Cl

Fnuha (Chromium) Cr

fha (Calcium) Ca

fha (Cadmium) Cd

bka (Magnesium) Mg

khfR (Manganese) Mn

Compiled by Rex Christopher 5

 CHEMISTRY
nrkf bga FpL bghJbg ntbga gFbghU gaf
a f
H2O iAu# Fouhf kW
kW fiughdhf
mnkhah NH3 M# gagLwJ.

FSnfh e mwhl
C6H12O6
cz Ka
iAnuh Fnsh my gF twJ.
HCl nrhoa
rhjhuz nrhoa , iw
kW
r my c FnshiuL nghwit
H2SO4 Fnsh
bflhk
ie my ghJfhf
HNO3
gagLwJ
nrhoa iAuhi[L NaOH f,
fhg,
lhf,
bghlha iAuhi[L iAu#
KOH rfiu Rnuh gHrhWf
kW
jahf
bghlha FnuhikL M#
K2CrO4 gagLwJ
aizF
fha fhgnd CaCo3
nrhoa, rhjdf,
buho nrhoa ig iAu#, ng l
bghlha fhgnd KCo3
nrhlh fhgnd fhg kW jah nf,
M# buho ja
bka fhgnd MgCo3
gagLwJ
fha Mi[L CaO nrh
nrhoa, ikahah
iAu# bguhi[L H2O2 ryit nrhoa
fhg kW f fod iu
nrhlh fhgnd
M# bkuhf
nj CH4 gagLwJ
<nj C2H6 ryit
bjhY,
nrhoa FnshiuL NaCl fha,
fha U
ryit M#
M ehahf,
uh# uhtf xU gF HCl + _W gF HNO3 kW
FnshiuL Fo
Fnsh
bghlha FnuhikL RfY
K2Cr2O7
gagLwJ
bghlha bgkhfnd KMnO4 bk kW
Rl fha
fha fzho
r c CaSo42H2O Rzh kW
MirL jah
M#
gagLwJ
vr c MgSo47H2O
fha Rtf
k Jj CuSo45H2O a fha iAu# btis
Rzh iAuhi kW mogjF
sh M gh CaSo4H2O rL M# gagLwJ
fha, Rzfo
mo my CH3COOH Rzh fha
fhg kW jahf
f fhgnd
M# gagLwJ
f il Mi[L SiO2
xU nrk cUthF nghJ btgij btLjnyh nuf jJtPh blkhoa gUbghUf
myJ cRjnyh fwJ mQfshyhdit vd Tdh.
ghiw, jhJf nghw cuw _yfUJ bgwgL nuf bkh mQ vw brhYF cilf
nrkf fk nrkf MF. rhW: Rzfo, Koahjit vgJ bghUshF.
gF, rika nrhlh nghwit. bghUik mah (ytha 1774) : aa
jhtuf, yFf nghw cUs _yfUJ myJ nta khw _y iwia cUthfnth
bgwgL nrkf fk nrkf MF. rhW: uj, myJ mfnth KoahJ.
bkGF, vbz, rfiu nghwit. khwhj (bus 1779) : xU a nt nrk,
xU jk iza Toa wnd izw MF. vKiw jahfglhY m cs jkf xU
Fl khwh iw j jh ToUF
mQ mik lhl mQ bfhif : #h lhl (1803-1807)

-10
mQf cUt f ait. mit10 m (1A) mjKs mQ bfhifid ga va
FLnth. fUJfis RUfkhf btlh.

Compiled by Rex Christopher 6

 CHEMISTRY
xbthU gUbghUS f a f Koahj btLwd. j bghU xU jiks
Jffshd mQfsh clhfglit. bghU MF.
mQfis Mfnth myJ mfnth KoahJ. nfhLO (1886) vw ma mP nuhlhfis
xU jk mQf ah vyh tifY xnu fljh.
khahfnt UF.
btntW jkf mQf vyh tifY mogilJff gf
btntwhfnt UF. iw -mQ iw myF x
Jff
khWgl jkf mQf xWl xW (m..m) Rik
Fl, va kW KG v j izJ vyuh(e) 0.00054 m..m. -1
nrk mQfis (_yTWf) cUthF.
ntidf<LgL f a Jf mQthF. nuhlh(p) 1.00778 m..m. +1
iknf ~ghunl rhu vgJ mQf vw
Jffsh MdJ vd fhodh. yf kW bgnuha
1891M ML mayhJ ehL aayhs #h{ #h LPG - kkhfgl bgnuha th
nlh nlh vgt mQf vgit yf, bgnuha kW aif th. midJnk
vyuhf vW Kbkhjh. jifa Muhna xwhf nrJ ijgot vbghUf vW
1897M ML n#.n#.jhr mQ miHfgLwd.
mogilJffis fla ttFjJ. 1774 M ML ah KjKj yf njho
1878 r a F% vgt wfFHhia vLfglJ.
bfhL nrhjid nkbfhSnghJ, uL cnyhf yf cg ah _whtJ l csJ.
thfSF ilgl gF fQF ygL cy ilF yf 2/3 ghf mbkfhY,
tif xfiwia mtuh fhz KojJ. it irdhY csJ.
F%ff myJ vthff (nfnjhL rJ yfUJ ilF yf mf ms
ff) vdgL. rg UF.
aif ekF mj bfhilvdbtwh fhW xU vbghUf cs iAnuhfhg fh cs
fljh bghUshf bragLtnj MF. J M#Dl ntid tjh bghUf vwd.
ghif, fhW xU wj flahf js btg mfgL nghJ vbghUf cs
bragoUjh vghuhj gdh cUthF W ntiz s gLtjh mfkhd btgMw
bgh Tl e midtiu rhu ghrYF btahwJ.
cgL UfTL. id (gG yf) 25 Kj 35% fhg csJ.
Mnya ma mP n#.n#.jhr vyuh Lk yf (bkyf) 46 Kj 86% fhg
kW Inrhnlhfis fLojh. csJ.
fQF ydhfhj ff rigL JgLnghJ Muir(fod yf) 87-97% fhg csJ.
mij cftJ fQF ydhF ffshf (MuiroUJ mf btg Mw ilF).
yf gF bghUfS mj gafS
yf gF bghUf gaf
yf th rika vththf
mnkhah ut cuf jahf
Jf fhg fyf gagL th
ff vbghUshf, v~F jahj Fiwghdhf
be, tzR, ehj cUil kW
fjh
btobghUf jahf
1000 . yf UJ ilgit : 1. 700 . ff Fit, <uh, bgah, uZah, bknfh kW mbkfh
2. 100 mnkhah nghw ehLf mf ms bgnuha cg br
3. 50 fjh 4. 400 3 yfth ehLfshF.
eh xU eh brytF yf cUthf Mu ah bgnuhakhdJ m[h, F#uh, Kig
MLf MF. (kfuhZuh) kW nfhjht, UZzh(Mu khy),
jhtufS, yFfS, wj mfgoahd fh(jehL) MW gLiff ilwJ.
mGj kW btg fhuzkhf mit bgnuhakhf bgnuha Rf vgJ bgnuha gF
khd. bghUfis dfhtoj fy _y
bjLgnj MF.
gF bghUf gaf
bgnuha th Lf vbghUshf
bgnuh thfdfSF vbghUshf
kbzbz mL kW b# khd vbghUshf
Or fduf thfdf vbghUshf
ca vbz ca bghU
vbghU vbz fg kW iya vbghUshf

Compiled by Rex Christopher 7

 CHEMISTRY
ghu bkGF bkGF kW thr jahf
Lbk bgL kW rhiyf nghl
bgnuha kW aif thUJ gy gaDs 78 %ieu# 78 %ieu#
bghUfis bgw Kotjh mtiw bgnuh bff
vdyh. itfis ikah iHf, gh 20 %M# 16 % M#
kW sho nghwit jahfgagLwd.
0.03 %fhgilMi[L 4 %fhgilMi[L
aif thUJ bgwgL iAu# th cuf
jahf gagLwd. Jnghw ahghuahd f js <ugj Fljf ms <ugj
gntW gafis bgUgjh bgnuhaij fhia
fU jf vd miHfgLwJ.
th iw rjj
j ntf bgnuhaij gagLdh 2,050 M
ML bgnuha KGtJ JL. ieu# 75.50 %
rJ ygFf jhtuf kFnghJ, rhfil
ff UJ aif th cUthwJ. yf M# 23.20 %
RuffY bgnuha zWfY aif th Mfh 1.0 %
csJ. aif th 90% nj csJ.
uh, uh#jh, kfhuhZouh kW Muunjr fhgil Mi[L 0.046 %
(nfhjht, UZzh), jehL (fh bllh gFf) ah fFiw
khyf mfkhd ms aifth ilwJ.
mGjgl aif th (CNG) vgJ mf mGj a f Fiw
nrffgL th. Mdh kkhfgl aif th k iyikyhd xUgojhd fyit - cnyhf
(LNG) vgJ ca Fj iy cs k. CNG fyitf
Fiwj bry jahfgLwJ. k iyikyhd xUgojhd fyit - fyj
aif tsf ilF fhy MfAh
yf 148 tUlf th iyikyhd xUgojhd fyit fhW
k - k gygojhd fyit - rfiul c
vbz 40 tUlf fyj fyit
aifth 61 tUlf k - k gygojhd fyit - gfol
nrj fyit
jhtu vbzfshd nrhah vbz, MkzF
vbz, kffhnrhs vbz, Nafh vbz, th iyik gygojhd fyit - if fyj fhW
gU vbz, bec vbz kW ug k iy UJ xU bghU neilahf th
bfhil vbzUJ gnah Or jahfgLwJ. iyF khWtJ gjfkhj vdgL.
jeho fajhW, Muhthbkh, gyl kW gjfkhj Kiw mnkhaFnshiuil, rhjhuz
Fokfy Ma lf fhwhiyf csd. cUJ bjLfyh.
Na Mw 1) Na vbuhgh 2) Na btg_o gjfkhF aila kf : fu, ehj,
3) Na fy Ma _W tiff bgrh my, mnaho, mnkha FnshiuL.
gagLjgLwd. bg k bfhiy 353 K
iAu# xU wj khW vbghU MF. iAu# blhY k bfhiy 384 K
mfkhd btg Mw csJ. bg, blhY kf bfhiy ntWghL 31 K
eik NJs gUbghUf ikahditah? MF.
k, k, kW th vgJ aa iy kL
mogilahF rahd ilia njbjLJ vGJf.
jk, nrk kW fyit vgJ ia mogilahF. 1. eh gagLJ bg cs vGj cj gF
xnu tif gF bghUf mla a bghU, uL uhig vD bghUsh MdJ. j uhig
myJ mjF nkgl Jha bghUf fyit vd __________ nrj fyitahF. (fhgD fkQ,
gUbghUfis U tifgLjyh. fkQ ieu#D)
iAu#, M# Mat gfUJ 2. a vgJ xU nrk. iAu# 11.19% kW
gf KY ntWgLwd. M# __________ vw iw j csJ.
a midtUF bjj xU a bghUSF (88.81%, 31.81%)
rhwhF. 3. ehza vgJ k k nrj fyit tif
xWF nkgl tifahd Jffis bfhLs fl if vgJ __________ nrj fyitahF. (th
, jhJf, knghw bghUf fyitahF. k, k th)
4. gUbghUfYs gFbghUfis gntW
fh 0-5%<ugjK, fl 3.5% -30% tiuc
tifahd Kiwf ikgLjgLwd. k
Ufyh.
fhiw __________ vw aa KiwF cgL
xU nrkkhF.
f Ko. (d thiy toj, thiy toj,
cs jkfshd H kW O iw j 1 : 8 gjfkhj)
MF. 5. U JUoj vgJ nta khw. J nghW
fhW xU fyitahF gfo cUFj vgJ __________ vdyh (aa
k fhW -1960C Kj -1830Cbtgiy viyF khw, nta khw).
bfhwJ.
cGfgL RthrfhW btlgL RthrfhW

Compiled by Rex Christopher 8

 CHEMISTRY
6. kbziz U fyj fyitia f Fnsh d mQiw kilaJ. Vbd
__________ Kiw cjwJ. Fnsh-35 cs mQf 75% - K kW Fnsh -
(thiy toj, d) 37 cs mQf 25%- K csd.
7. rhjhuz c mnkha FnshiuL fyj vdnt Fnsh mQ ruhr mQiw = {75/100x35
fyitia f __________ cjwJ (gjfkhj, }+ {25/100x37} = 35.5
wgF Kiw). mbkf mayh T.W. r, btntW
lfUJ nrffgl by (fha) khf
mQ mik mQiw btntwhf Ugij fljh

2
Mgh Jff vgit A&a maf He . xj mQv kig ntWgl iw v
xU Mgh Jf iw, X vyuh iwiangh kfis bfhl xnu jk mQf
8000 klF mf. Inrhnlhf vW miHfgLwd.
Mgh Jff irntf VwFiwa 2 x 107 /beho.
jk Inrhnlh FpL
UjnghL ``mQfU aa jij vd
miHfglh. mQ mik Muhfhf 1908M iAu# nuhoa 1H
1

ML nehg gid bgwh. oOa

2
1H (myJ)
ngh (1885-1962) : blkh cs nfhg 1D
2
3
nAf ngh 1885 M ML mnlhg 7M nj ooa 1H (myJ)
3
wjh. khbrl gfiyfH UjnghLl 1T
gahdh. ngh bfhif, ed aayhd Fnsh - 35 35
17cl
Fthl bfhifF mogilahf mikjJ. 1922 Fnsh 37
aaYfhd nehggir bgwh. Fnsh - 37 17cl

1932 n# rh vD mayh bga fhg -12 6C

12

cfUit, Mgh fuh jhdh. btnaa Jff fhg 14

fhg -14 6C
uhf vW miHfgld. JffSF
235
Rik VJ iy. nua - 235 92U
nua
uhf vif = iwv - nuhlhf nua - 238 92U
238

vif (mQ v)
nuh jk uL tifahdInrhnlhfis
uhf Rikaw Jff, mjhtJ eLiyahd bgWsJ. nuh - 79 (49.7%) , nuh- 81 (50.3%)
Jff
ujnrhif neh ir, U-59 Inrhnlh
iAu# mQit ju, Vida mQf cfU gagLwJ.
uhf l bgWsd.
KfGJfHiy neh irF, mnaho-131
xU uh iw, VwFiwa xU nuhlh Inrhnlh gagLjgLwJ.
iwF rk.
nfhgh-60 Inrhnlh, Wneh ir
uhf vif ntWgL xnu jk gagLwJ.
mQf, Inrhnlhf vdgL
f kUjt ghgu-32 Inrhnlh gagLwJ.
uhD mQ gF bghUshfnt fUjgLwJ.
fhg -11 Inrhnlh _is Ezh irF
nuhlhf : it neRik cila Jff. it gagLwJ.
xU mQ cfUD csd.
v ndw cs vyuhf Fl
vyuhf : it vRik cila Jff. tlghijf cfUit R tUwd. it
Jff cfUit tlghijf R tUwd. MLf vwiHfgLwd.
uhf : it eLiyahd, Rikaw Jff. _whtJ tlghij KGikahf u Kdnu
Jff cfUD csd. ehfhtJ tlghij vyuhf ug
X mQ nendw bgw nuhlhfS, v bjhlFwJ. J Fthl vf
ndw bgw vyuhfS csd vwiHfgLwJ.
X mQ mQ viz, cfU cs X mQ bttlghij lbgWs
nuhlhf vif (myJ) cfUit R vyuhf nt izf gF twJ. j
tUw vyuhf vif vd tiuaWfyh. vyuhf izw vyuhf vdgL.
X mQ iw mj cfU iwia bghWnj a mQ (mQ v = 3)
mikwJ vyuh g
iw v( A ) = nuhlhf vif + uhf (n =1 ) K M = 2 vyuhf
vif (n =2) L M = 1 (jKs vyuh)
xU Fpo nk cs v, iw viz cs bttlghij L MF.
v mQ viz FLwd. bttl vyuhf vif = 1 vdnt, a
ieu# jk mQv 7, iw v 14 v iw mQ izw = 1 MF
1
viz mQ viz 7N 4 vd Flyh.
vil Fiwthd mQf cfU iyjikF, ntrkghL
xU nuhlhDF xU uh vw j nghJkhdJ. xU jkUJ kbwhU jkF vyuhf
vil mfkhd, fdkhd mQf cfU gkhwgLtjh, ndw bgw maf
iyjikF, nuhlhf vifia cUthwd.
bghWJ mf vif uh j
+
nrhoa ma (Na ) xU XuQ ne ma mF.
mikwJ. vdnt xU cfU iyjikF
uh-nuhlh jnk mogil fhuzkhf -
qiuL ma (F ) xU XuQ v ma MF.
mikwJ.

Compiled by Rex Christopher 9

 CHEMISTRY
bgUghikahd XuQ v maf bgaf-"IL" bkhjkhf xgJ brFjhd bjhFf csd. mitI
vw bdhLl Kowd. Kj VIII tiu kW {a bjhF vd
xU nrk bgaUJ, m nrk mls vlgLsd.
ne kW v maf viffis Tw ilklkhf bkhj VG bjhlf l bgWsd.
ayhJ. Kj _W bjhlfS Kiwna 2,8,8 jkf j
gymQ ma bjhFf cs nrkf uggLsd. it FWbjhlf vW
majik bfhlit MF. miHfgLwd.
mnkha ma vgJ xU gymQ mabjhF fhu cnyhffsha nrhoa, bghlha, ehza
+
cila ne ma MF. J NH4 vd FlgLwJ. cnyhffsha fhg, t, nfhL MatWl
bkFu ma Hg2
2+
vw _yTW uilahf kLnk nrJ xnu bjhF l bgWsd.
fhzgLwJ. 0
fha X cnyhf. j cUFiy 29.8 C. Mfnt,
bgUghikahd gy mQ ma bjhFf bga kj cl btgiy cUF ailaJ.
bdhLf "I" myJ "V" vd Kotilwd. nfhL, shod nghw cnyhff, UlD
JfhW fLofgLs 13 a nrkf M#DlD idtiy. j fhuzkhf,
91% nrkf fhg mla nrkf MF. (xU nyhff Mguzf bra gagLwd.
a vgJ gJ yr). Uoa cnyhf Ul iu id wid,
kjdh nkbfhsgl Kj ntid vj fhWgLgo wJ itjh g v gig
id'' bgWsJ.
mnyhffSF vLJfhL rg, ghgu, nuh,
jkf Mtjd tifghL fhg
1789M ML yhtha Kj Kj jkfis cnyhf nghfSF vLJfhL f, b#kha.
cnyhff kW mnyhff vd uL fshf bkFia ju Vida w cnyhff midJ
tifgLdh. kf.
1817M ML n#hAh c~fh nlhgd cnyhff mf flJ w gilaJ t
mayh jkfis Kik mLFfshf MF.
tirgLdh.
mnyhff uhig kL flJ ailaJ.
1863M ML, #h y mayh a
bfhif mogil jkfis tirgLdh.
miw btgiy kkhf, f Fiwj cUFiy
cila cnyhf bkF MF.
Kiw yo vk vd miHfglJ.
jkfis mtmQiwf VWtir
0
3300 CI l mf cUFiyia bgWs cnyhf
ll MF.
tirgLJnghJ, vlhtJ jk Kj jk
gfSl xJsJ. f vilFiwj cnyhf a. iw
rgh iwia nyhf bgWsJ.
1864M ML nyhj nka mayh, btntW
jkf mQ iwf kfis mt f mf vil cs cnyhf Ma. nyhf,
mQgUkfSl bjhlgL tiugl tiujh. iwia ngh 22 klF mf iw bfhlJ.
nkY, Uig ngh 3 klF mf iw cilaJ.
UZahit rhj o thndh bkl
ntayh 1869M ML Xus KGikahf midJ jk tir mltiz, xU bjhl lUJ
jkfis KjKiwahf tirgLdh. mtuJ tykhf cnyhff braw FiwwJ. nkY, jk
fUJ mogil, jk tir mltizia tir mltiz xU bjhF, nkUJ Hhf
cUthdh. cnyhff braw mfwJ.
jkf aa gfS, nta gfS U, mYa, f kW nfhgh Ma
mt mQiwf mogil Mtjd khw cnyhff mla cnyhffyit mnfh MF.
milwd. it fhjf jahf gagLwd. rhjhuz
fhjij l mnfh 25 klF mf fhj jik
bkl mltiz vL bjhFf brFjhf
cilaJ.
mikJsd.
brFjhd tirf bjhFf vd, ilklkhd
urfyit vgJ X cnyhffyit MF. l
bgWs cnyhff bkF xU cnyhf MF.
tirf bjhlf vd miHfgLwd.
bga gFbghUf gaf
jis fhg Mf, #d kW fj rlf jahf.

btfy fhg iyf kW au ghff jahf.
o
gwhR o by rhjdf kW Fo FHh cg bjh cnyhffis cUfhk
izf.
JUofhj U ghyf, fllf, L rhjdf kW rika ghuf cUthf.
v~F fhg
Fnuha
f
ll
Compiled by Rex Christopher 10

ouhY mYa
fhg
khfR
bka
1 Kj 100 nm mss mQf, _yTWf kW
bghUf rhj many nendh ma MF. 1
nendh l = 10-9 l.
xU nendh l vgJ xU l s xU a (
10-12 ) xU myF cs sF rk MF.
rhjhuz ffis l iuthf bragL,
wthj cUts a ffis totikfyh.
ffa gfis (FHh bghf) jahgj _y
kUJt Jiw gagLjyh.
CHEMISTRY
Mfha khd rhjdf, nkhlh thfdf, fg fL bjh kW Mf
jahf.
btg jhfty bghUf manrkfns MF.
maf cUa iyY fiufgL nghJ
kLnk rhuij flJwd.
fiurf
cik fiurfSF vLJfhL rfiu fiur.
Tk fiurfSF vLJfhL gh.
bjhffSF vLJfhL Rzh fyit.
Tk Jff J xahdJ gL jW iyna
olh isvdgL.

ntizf
bjhlJ xGyh iy aF TkJf
afnk bus af.
1916, .v. iz w vyuh
bfhifid btl. jF vk vW bga.

cik fiur, Tk fiur kW bjhff gfis xLj

gf cik fiur Tk fiur bjhf
Jff ms (A0)
-10 1 A0Kj 10 A0tiu 10 A0Kj 1000 A0tiu 1000 A0nk
1 A0=10 m
xF jik gFas xF xfh jik
njhw
bfhlJ jik bfhlJ bfhlJ
Jfis ghfToa Enzh Enzhah kLnk
fzh ghf aY
w _yK bjtiy ghf aY
fiur jik xUgojhdit gygojhdit gygojhdit
guthJ myJ gu
Jf gu jik v gu bkJthf gu
jik mwJ.
xia jw
jw is xia jw br xia jw brahJ
brahJ
j fiur: vj xU fiur, fiubghUis fiuF il-MirL fiuJ cUthd bjoa fiur. 2)
fiughdhf bragLwnjh, mfiur j fiur 36 uh nrhoa FnshiuL c, 100 uh
vdgL. (v.fh) rfiu fiur. fiufgl bjoa fiur. 3) CO2it fiuJ
ilj bjoa fiur.
uw fiur: vj xU fiur, iu ju, w
utkhdJ fiughdhf bragLwnjh, mfiur, fyJs ieu#, bjoa fiurYF aif
uw fiur vdgL. bg, <j, CS2Kjyhdit fhL cjhuz.
uw fiughDF wj cjhuzf. m bjoa fiur : Fl btgiy bjoa
bjlhj fiur : fiughndhL xL nghJ Fiwj fiuriyl mfkhd fiubghUis bfhl fiur
ms fiubghUis bfhl fiur bjlhj fiur m bjoa fiur vdgL.
0
vdgL. fiur, fiubghUis bjL iy 100 uh j 36 uh nrhoa Fnshiuil 25 C
mil tiu nrf Ko. v.fh. 5 uh, myJ 10 uh btgiy fiuJ bjoa fiuriy cUthF.
myJ 20 uh c, 100 uh j fyj fiur. fiubghU, fiugh a iyia bghWJ
bjoa fiur : vj xU fiur xU Fl ms fiurfis 9 tiffshf fyh.
fiugh, nkY fiubghU fiua Koahnjh,
mfiurny bjoa fiur vdgL. (v.fh.) 1) fhg-
fiubghU fiugh v.fh.
k k cnyhf fyitf
k k rfiu fiur
k th if
k k ghyhil fo
k k gh
k th nkf
th k jif

th k nrhlh
th th a - M# thfyit(Mfl _Fj gagLwJ)

Compiled by Rex Christopher 11

 CHEMISTRY
200 C btgiy fhg rngo fiuw 20.7 5. xU fiur Jff Enzh tna bjtjdh
uh. mfiur _________ vdgL.( cik fiur,
Tk fiur )
y ma cf fiuw
6. Uko fiur cs cWf vif. ( xW /
ma c fiuw (/100 ) uL )
NaCl 36 uh 7. Mfl KJ Fgtf RthfgagLJ
NaBr 95 uh thfyit _______________
NaI 184 uh ( a- M#, M# - ieu#).
NaNO3 92 uh 8. kzgu xU Fl msF nk ieu#id
jD bfhsKoahiy _________ vdgL.
fiuwid ghF fhuf (1) btgiy (2) (bjoa iy, bjlhj iy )
fiubghU myJ fiugh jik (3) mGj
btgiy mfkhdh btg bfh is mQfS _yTWfS
fiujik mfkhF. Mg IO vw b#k ehL mayh
btg cid, fiujik FiwwJ. 2
fbgw E = mC , vw rkgho _y sf Ko.
ma cghdJ, mafiugh v fiu. E = btahd Mw m= iw, C= x ntf.
thua kfiur mGj mfgh fiujik mQ vgJ ntid <LgL fa JfshF.
mfF. v.fh. CO2 th ua Fghd. xj mQ viz ntWgl iw viz bfhl
kL xU jk btntW mQf, Inrhnlhf
- m vdgL. v.fh. 17Cl35, 17Cl37
1. iu fiugdhf bfhl fiur j fiur MF.
xj iw viz ntWgl mQ viz bfhl
fhgilrigil fiuighdhf bfhl fiur
btntWjkf mQf Inrhghf vdgL.
_________ MF. ( j fiur, fiur )
v.fh. 18Ar40, 20Ca40
2. c fiuw 100uh j 36uh MF.
20uh c fiufglh bjoa iyia xj uh vif ntWgl mQ viz,
mila D vjid uh c njitgL. (16 uh) ntWgl iw viz bfhl btntW
3. uL utf xbyhW fiukhdh jkf mQf Inrhnlhf vdgL. v.fh. 6C13,
14
mutf _________ vdgL. ( ulw fygit, 7N
ulw fythjit ) xU jk cs xU _y T vjid mQf
4. Na x E tF #d tna tUnghJ, mj csdnth mJnt, mjk mQfL v MF.
ghij bjtj fhuz x _________( uggh,
jwyh )
xU _yT cs
mQfL v v.fh
mQf vif

XuQ _yTW 1 a, ah, cnyhff

<uQ _yTW 2 iAu# (H2), Fnsh (Cl2), M# (O2)

_tQ _yTW 3 Xnrh ( O3)

gk mQ _yTW >3 ghgu ( P4), rg ( S8)

mQfL v = _yTW iw /mQ iw TLif id vLJfhLf

2 x M ml = x _yTW iw 2Mg + O2 2MgO (bka + M#
bka Mi[L)
STP th nkhyh gUk k = 22.4
C + O 2 CO2 (yf vj)
(myJ) 22400 f.br.
2H2 + O2 2H2O (iAu# vj)
xU jk x mQiw vgJ mjk X
mQ iwF fhg 12 mQ 1/12 ghf
ijWj id vLJfhLf
iwF cs jkhF. CuCO3 CuO + CO2 (jhu (II) Mirlhf ijWj)
2Pb(NO3)2 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2 (fha MirL,
mnthbfnuh v k 6.023 X 1023. ieu# ilMirL kW M# cUthj)
CaCO3 CaO + CO2 (Rzh f ijWj)
nt idf
(NH4)2Cr2O7 Cr2O3 + N2 + 4H2O (mnkha
bt, fh cs iAu# rigL idJ ilFnuhnk ijWj)
bt rigL (Ag2S) cUthjyh bt bfhY
f mf btgiy mnkha il Fnuhnk
w kFwJ.
cldoahf ijW, uhl gir w th
Rl Rzh Ul idJ j Rzhig cUthwJ. x vkiy btogij ngh njhwkgjh
(fha iAuhiril) cUthFwJ. J xU btg J nt vkiy vdgLwJ.
c id.
l bga id vLJfhLf
ryit f nt thghL CaCO3 Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu
Pb + CuCl2 PbCl2 + Cu
Compiled by Rex Christopher 12
 CHEMISTRY
uil ij id vLJfhLf (uil U fhuJt myF vLJfhLf : H2SO4,
lbga id) H2CO3
Na2SO4 + BaCl2 BaSO4 + 2NaCl KfhuJt myF vLJfhL : H3PO4
CuSO4 + H2S CuS + H2SO4
fhuJt vgJ xU _yTW my cs
xU ntid M# nrfgLjnyh myJ lbga braToa iAu# mQf
iAu# fgLjnyh myJ vyuhf vifia Fgjh. v.fh. mo my
fgLjnyh fGnghJ mj id M#ndw ehF iAu# mQf UjhY xnu xU
vdgLwJ. iAu#id kLnk lbga bra Ko. vdnt,
2Mg + O2 2MgO (M# nrfgLwJ ) J xU fhuJtKilaJ.
H2S + Br2 2HBr + S (iAu# fgLwJ )
- cnyhf fhgndLf myJ cnyhfigfhgndLf
Fe2+ Fe3+ + e (vyuh fgLwJ ) fhujik bgUgjh myJl idJ
xU nt id iAu# nrfgLjnyh myJ fhg ilMiril btna cig iu
M# fgLjnyh myJ vyuh VfgLjnyh jUwd.
fGnghJ mj id xLf vdgLwJ. fjf my (nt bghUf mur) fh fyf
2Na + H2 2NaH(iAu# nrfgLwJ ) kW gy nrkfis jahg gagLwJ.
CuO + H2 Cu + H2O ( M# fgLwJ ) ie my trha cukhf gagL mnkha
Fe3+ + e- Fe2+( vyuh nrfgLwJ ) ienu vw nrkij jahf gagLwJ.
M#ndw vgJ M#id Vw, iAu#id ftiwfis ik gLJ bghUshf
Fj, vyuhid(fis) Hj iAnuhFnsh my gagLwJ.
xLf vgJ M#id Fj, iAu#id Vw, lhlh mykhdJ rikanrhlh xU gF
vyuhid(fis) Vw. bghUshF.
M#ndwK, xLfK nrnj ftjh VgL bgrh my c(nrhoa bgnrhna)
id M#ndw xLf id vd miHfgLwJ. czbghUfis ghJfhf gagLwJ.
M#ndw eh rhL cz bghUfY X fhW milfgl ghdf fhgh my
vkiw isit clhFwJ. bfhG kW gagLwJ.
vbz cs cz bghUfis mf neu fhuf t k jhis ykhf khWwd.
itUFnghJ mit bfL Lwd. it bfl
Ritia Jehwij jUwd. J Fghf fhuf dhjDl st wij, bk
nfhil fhy j, kW btbz Mat MuRl kr wij jUwd.
fhzgLwd. vbz kW bfhGf nrhoa iAuhirL nrh jahf gagLwJ.
M#ndwkilJ JehwKs bghUfshf fha iAuhirL folfSF
khWwd. btisaogjF gagLwJ.
btg c idF vLJfhL : N2 + 3H2 2NH3 bka iAuhirlhdJ tW cghijfSF
+ btg kUjhf gagLwJ.
btgbfh idF vLJfhL : 2NH3 + btg mnkha iAuhirL Jf cs vbz
N2 + 3H2 fiu kW Rid f gagLwJ.
M vw My thij ml vw y vyh cnyhffS nrhoa iAuhirLl
bkhUJ bgwglJ.ml vw y idtJ iy. v.fh. Cu, Ag, Cr.
bkhUJ bgwgl M vw My thijF
fiur pH- njhuha k
Rit vW bghU.
Ritia bfhl vYir rhW, fho kW
vYir rhW 2.2 2.4
uhir rhW Kjad myjik cilait. jfh rhW 4.1
myf y k jhis tghf khWwd. fh 4.4 5.5
myJl dhj nrFnghJ wkwjhf, kj c 6.5 7.5
bk MuR nrFnghJ st wkhf o gagLJ mnkhah 12.0
csd.
_yf UfToa myf
pH- k 6.9 MFnghJ kj cl F, Uk
kW q t jhfF MshwJ. kj cl
M kh my pH 5.5Mf UFnghJ Wneh cUthF brf
vYir my njh cl cthH VJthwJ.
uhir lhlh my xU Mnuhakhd kj clYs njh pH
jfh M[h my 4.5UjJ 6 Mf UF.

fho mo my e t RuF ut pH k ljl 2

MF.
j yho my
kj uj pH 7.35UJ 7.45Mf UF.
fk myfSF vLJfhLf : HCOOH, uj pH k 7.4 MF.
CH3COOH (tik Fiwj myf)
c pH rhjuhzkhf 6.5UJ 7.5F UF.
fk myfSF vLJfhLf : HCl, HNO3,
e gfYs vdhk vD btisglykhdJ e
H2SO4 (tF myf) clnyna f fodkhd gFahF. J fha
xU fhuJt myF vLJfhLf : HCl, HNO3 ghng vw nrkdhyhdJ. J fiutiy.
Compiled by Rex Christopher 13
 CHEMISTRY
e th pH 5.5-F nH FiwnghJ j vdhk ehfhtJ bjhl (mQ v 19-36) J xU l bjhl.
mfgLwJ. gfis RjgLj gagL gbdL jkf csd(bghlha UJ
ggirf bghJthf fhujik bgUgjh mit lh tiu).
mfgoahd myij eLiyah gijit
jLwd.
IjhtJ bjhl (mQ v 37-54) J xU l bjhl
Y gbdL jkf csd (UoaUJ
u gHf fhujikila kY, m brdh tiu)
myjik bfhl kY, fU eLiy jik
bfhl kY mfkhf iswd.
MwhtJ bjhl (mQ v 55-86) J f l bjhl.
KguL jkf csd. (aUJ
kiH pH ljl 7 MF. nulh tiu)
uil cfSF vLJfhL bghlhZ gofhu. VHhtJ bjhl ( mQ v 87-118) MwhtJ
rhjhuz c (NaCl) e mwhl czY, czit tirianghynt KguL jkfis
ghJfhgY gagLwJ. bfhoUfKo. Mdh Jtiu UgjhW
ryit nrhlh (Na2CO3) fod iu bkuhf khw jkf kLnk IUPAC-M mffgLsd.
gagLwJ, Lf RjgLJ bghUshf jk tir mltiz 18 bjhFf csd.
gagLwJ. Kj bjhF jkf fhu cnyhffshF.
rika nrhlh (NaHCO3) buhonrhlh jahf ulh bjhF jkf fhuk cnyhff
gagLwJ. buhonrhlh vgJ rika nrhlh vdgLwd.
lhlh myK nrj fyitahF. J nf kW
buhofis bkikahf khWwJ.
bjhFf 3-12 tius jkf iliy
jkf vdgLwd.
ryit (CaOCl2) FoYs ghOahfis
mf gagLwJ, gU kW d Jfis
bjhFf 1, 2 kW 13-18 tius jkf rhjhuz
jkf myJ Ka bjhF jkf myJ
btSf gagLwJ.
uJt jkf vd miHfgLwd.
gh rhJ (CaSO4.H2O) Kj vYfis
xlitf kW iyfSfhd thfis
bjhF 16 cs jkf (bghnya ju)
rhnfhb# FLg vdgLwd.
bra gagLwJ.
bjhF-17 cs jkf nAnyh# FLg
vdgLwd.
jkf Mtjd tifghL
Jtiu 118 jkf ma gLsd.
18 bjhF jkf caa thf myJ
kjthf vdgLwd.
bA b# nkhny vw My aa
tYe (1887-1915) X-ffis gagL jkf
bjhF 3 xU gFahf sF yhjidLf kW
MoidLf ciliy jkf vd
mQ vfis fljh.
miHfgLwd.
1912 M Mo nkhny vw My aa mP
X cnyhfij mntf vyuhfis bfhL jhF
IUPAC-ah mfhutkhf mfgLs W
jk mQ v 112 bfhl nfhbgua (Cn112).
nghJ btnaW X-ff mbtiz
UD Jtiu fL ofgLs jkf 118.
msjjh
nkhny jkfis mt mQ vf(z)
mfyf cUthf 22 nfu jf ga gLjgL.
22 ghf jfK, 2 ghf jhuK csJ. 22/24 x
mogilnyna tifgLj ntLbkd Tdh.
100 = 91.6%. mjhtJ 91.67% ikahdJ.
X mQ mQ v vgJ cfU cs
nuhlhf myJ bttlghij R tU jf ikia nfu vw myfh Fnwh.
vyuhf vifahF. 1 uh jfij 2 nyhl uF bka fahf
ed Mtjd mltiz ehF bjhFfshf Kiwna lKo
s,p,d kW f vd fgLsd. fk (Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O) kW ghi[
Kj bjhl (mQ v 1 kW 2) J f FWa (Al2O3,2H2O) Mait mYa fkfshF.
bjhl. uL jkf kL csd (iAu# mYa jhJ ghi[ MF.
kW a ). Fe uj t w (nkhFnsh) Uig
ulhtJ bjhl: (mQ v 3-10) J FWa bjhl. bfhLsJ.
vL jkf csd. (aUJ ah Ca vY, gf f Ka gFtwJ.
tiu)
Co itl B-12 cs cnyhf MF.
_whtJ bjhl (mQ v 11-18) J xU FWa
bjhl. Y vL jkf csd. (nrhoaUJ
Mg jhtu gira cs cnyhf MF
Mfh tiu)
MirL jhJ fhgnd jhJ nAiyL jhJ rigL jhJ
ghi[ fhyik (ZnCO3) iunahiy (Na3AlF6) dgh
(Al2O3.2H2O) (HgS)
Fiu(Cu2O) kh (CaCO3) ~gqgh (CaF2) fdh (PbS)
nAkil(Fe2O3) bkdir (MgCO3) Ah t (AgCl) U igiu (FeS2)
if(ZnO) liu(FeCO3) ghiw c (NaCl) sL (ZnS)

Compiled by Rex Christopher 14

 CHEMISTRY
mYa jhJ bga rkghL 3. midJ fk nrkfSF mogilahd jk
_________ bjhF csJ.
ghi[ Al2O3.2H2O
(14tJ bjhF / 15tJ bjhF)
iunahiy Na3AlF6 4. jhJUJ cnyhfkhdJ yhgfukhdjhf
bfhul Al2O3. bjLfgLwJ. mYakhdJ ghi[oUJ
bjLfgLwJ. J ______vd miHfgLwJ.
j ml ie my, mYaJl (jhJ / fk).
idtiy khwhf mYa nk MirL 5. jf vw jkkhdJ nrkkhf ilgJ iy. J
gly cUth mj idgL Mwiy jLwJ. fhW myJ Ul idtJ iy. J _________
fhg jhJf rkghL iy csJ. (jjiy / nrj iy)
6. cWgLJj: fhg ghufis
1. fhg igiu CuFeS2 ikgLjgliy v gir w gok
2. Fiu myJ % fhg Cu2O njhWwJ. fhuz: j gokfhd fhuz fhu
jhu fhgnd.
3. fhg sh Cu2S
m) cWgLJj fhuz uL r. M)
dhgF ik : 1. nfnjhLa bka fhg cWgLJj r fhuz ray.
jfL 2. MndhLkhR fyj fhg 3. gFfj my 7. r~igL jhJit mlf gagL Kiw _______ (
fyj fhg rng fiur Eiu j Kiw / p Kiw)
jhu cUF iy 1356C 8. U cnyhf gu J ntW cnyhfij Rtjh
JUoj UJ jLfyh. j U J
U jhJf rkghL
Jjehf Jfis bkajhf dh mjF _________
1. nAkil Fe2O3 vW bga.
( Jjehf Kyh Rj / tzR moj / vKid
2. nkdil Fe3O4 ghJfhj )
9. vj cnyhf ghjurJl nrjhY mjF urfyit
3. U igiu vW bga. gFfis milgjF gagL
FeS2
urfyit _________ ( Ag-Snurfyit / Cu-
Snurfyit )
nAkil xU MirL jhJ.
fhgnd jhJit mj Mirlhf khw cfj Kiw fhgD mj nrkfS
fhyh NH tWj.
b#kia nrj nta mP nAhy vgt
rigL jhJit mj Mirlhf khw cfj Kiw mnkha randL vw fk nrkUJ, ah
fhWs NH tWj. vw fk nrkij KjKj nrhjid rhiy
U _W tiff : thU ( 2% - 4.5% ms jahjh.
fhg), njU ( <0.25% ms fhg), v~F ( 0.25% - fiy caj itukhdJ gof wntWik tot
2% ms fhg) bfhl fhg MF. nfh} itukhdJ 105 nfu
urfyit vgJ bkF, t, o nghw itu MF (21.68 uh).
cnyhff fyitahF. gFfis itu cs xbthU fhg mQ kw ehF
milfgagLwJ. fhg mQfSl izW, fod Kgkhd
fhg cnyhffyitf : jis (Cu,Zn), btfy mikig cUthFwJ.
(Cu,Sn,Zn), Jgh btfy (Cu,Zn,Sn,Pb), b#k uhig mnyhfkhF. Mdh j izwh
bt (Cu,Zn,Ni) vyuhf _y rhuij flJ jikaJ.
mYa cnyhffyitf : fhg kbwhU wntWik tot ~ MF.
ouY(Al,Mg,Mn,Cu), bkdha (Al,Mg) J fhgJ to 60 fhg mQfis bfhljhf
U cnyhf fyitf : JUofhj v~F fhzgL (C 60).
(Fe,C,Ni,Cr), f v~F (Fe,C,Ni), ll v~F C2 H6 O vw _yTW thOEgho vjdhY (C2 H5
(Fe,W,C) OH) ilbk <jU (CH3-O-CH3) fhg nrkf
cnyhffyitahfYF vLJfhL JUofhj kha mikfshF.
v~F xj ntgf bfhl fknrkf CH2 vw
U J Jjehf Kyh RtjF ehfKyh bjhFah ntWgL.
Rj vW bga. mnf = CnH2n+2
xU cnyhfij kbwhU cnyhf nk rhu m = CnH2n
_ RtjF Kyh Rj vW bga. mif = CnH2n-2
kL
gF m m bghJ bga IUPAC bga
1. ed jk tir mltiz bjhlfS, CH2 = CH2 v <
bjhFfS csd. tirfS, bjhFfS Kiwna
CH3CH = CH2 buh nuh
m) ilkl bjhlf, brFJ tirf (bjhFf).
M) brFJ tirf (bjhFf) ilkl bjhlf. CH3CH2 CH = CH2 a- o 1 p
2. _whtJ tir 8 jkf csd. mt
CH3CH = CHCH3 b- o 2 p
vjid mnyhff csd?

Compiled by Rex Christopher 15

 CHEMISTRY
mif bghJ bga IUPAC bga khUJ miuglhj bghUf FUiz, jL, G,
HC CH mo <ij tL Matiw rj Kiw bjLfyh.
H3C C CH bk mo buhig kzUJ ffis f rj Kiw gagLwJ.
H3C C C CH3 il bk mo 2 -il fhjjh ftugL xU bghU fyit gFahf
H3C - CH2 C CH v mo 1 - il Ujh, mjid bjLF Kiw fhj Kiw
id bra bjhFF vLJfhL :MfAh OH vdgL.
nlh C= O gS f fhjfisna gagLJnwh.
MoiAL CHO fhgh my COOH fiuahj kfis, xiw l kbwhW
MoiALf _yTW thghL fdkhd gF bghUfis bfhl fyitfis
_yTW thghL bghJbga IUPAC bga bja itj, bjaitJ Wj, tofLj
Kiwfsh fyh.
ghkhoiAL bkjnd
HCHO
zkbghUS, utbghUS fyj fyitia
CH3CHO mlhoiAL vjnd mirahk itJ, ut mo kbghUis
goa brj bjaitj MF.
CH3CH2CHO nuhadhoiAL nuhgnd bjaitj fyit xUJ, bjthd
utbghUis kL kbwhU fyDF fzho
CH3CH2CH2CHO n-ouhoiAL lnd
F cjl khWj bjaitJ Wj
vdgL.
HCOOH - gh my tofLj Kiw tojh tna Kfit
nrffgL to vdgL. tojhnyna jF
CH3COOH - mo my
kz frL vdgL.
vjdh myJ v MfAh myJ MfAh
xU kij btgjh Mahf khW Kiw Mahj
vgJ MfAhf FLgnyna f Kakhd
vdgL.
nrkf xwhF.
xU l fl Rkh 3.5uh c fiuJsJ.
<oYs tnl kW irnk Ma behf
rfiuia vjdhyhf khWwd. fl eh cQ c kL yhk 50-F
nkgl fkf csd.
vjdh fiur 95.5% vjdhiy 4.5% iu
bgWsJ. J v rhuha vd miHfgLwJ. RH Mahj kW MRU kkhj
Mait kiH tUtjF fhuzkhf mikwd.
vjdh vjdh myJl mlH2SO4 (id)
Kiy v vjndhnail iu jUwJ. fUUJ rfiuia jahFnghJ tofLj,
MfAh kW fhgh my t idah Mahj, gofkhf nghw gy j Kiwf
cUthd nrk vl (gHrh kz bfhlJ) gagLwd.
vdgLwJ. j idia vuhFj vd fyit cs nyrhd khRfis f Vw Kiw
miHnwh. Wj.
bkjdh fu bkjndyhf (ghkhoiAL) fyit cs bghUf msit mogilahf
M#ndw milJ brfYs gFfSl bfhl j Kiw rj.
ntfkhf id wJ. gHrhW jah, rhUJ ijfis f Vw
bkjnd brYs nuhlhshrij Kiw tofLj.
NLgLJnghJ Kil bfogLtij ngh bfoahf cig fl UJ F Kiw Mahj.
khWwJ. nkY bkjdh f eufis ghJ
FULjikia cUthFwJ.
w, ms, tot ntWgl k fyitfis
F Kiw ifah bjbjLj.
mo my bghJthf gy tif gHfY
fhzgLwJ. t Rit j
bgnuh, kbzbzUJ mJUil
(ehj) tiu VwFiwa 86 tifahd bghUf frh
mydhnyna MF.
vbz vD fyitUnj bjLfgLwd.
vjdh my fhoia (f) jahf
gagLwJ.
fhW gy thf nrj fyitahF.
bghUfis j
cz bghUf fygl yhjit vgij cW
brJ bfhs mkh Kiu gagLwJ.
ifah bjbjLj, Wj, rj kW fhj
Kiwf nghwit k fyitfis F
KiwfshF.
fhfid bjLj ifah bjbjLjYF
cjhuz.
fyit cs bghUf nyrhdjhf Ujh mtiw
Wj Kiw fyh. trhf, gjWl Toa
jhaij Wj Kiw bjLg.
xnu fyit cs gF bghUf gUk ms
ntWglh mtiw rj Kiw f Ko.

Compiled by Rex Christopher 16