FACULTYDIRECTORY(HTTP://OGLETHORPE.

EDU/FACULTY/) |

MOODLE(HTTPS://MOODLE.OGLETHORPE.EDU/LOGIN/INDEX.PHP)

Michael K. Rulison
(http://sites.oglethorpe.
edu/mrulison/)
Professor of Physics

Chapters 11-13: Jovian/Outer Planets

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/jovians-

2i211ze.jpg)

http://hawastsoc.org/ (http://hawastsoc.org/)

http://www.physics.purdue.edu/astr263l/SStour/jupiter.html
(http://www.physics.purdue.edu/astr263l/SStour/jupiter.html)

The planets of the outer solar system are very different from those of the inner solar system. The four
Jovian or giant planets are much larger and the distances between them are much greater than the
terrestrial planets. Also these planets are accompanied by extensive ring and satellite systems.
To an outside observer the outer planets would be regarded as the important part of the solar system,
with the tiny chunks of rock and metal in the inner solar system an insignificant feature of the overall
system.

An Overview of the Outer Planets

Census
There are four planets in the outer solar system; the four Jovian planets Jupiter, Saturn Uranus, and
Neptune. Pluto, which is more like one of the satellites of the Jovian planets than the Jovians
themselves is now classified as a dwarf planet. There are five officially recognized dwarf planets:
Ceres, and the four plutoids Pluto, Makemake, Haumea, and Eris.

Jupiter and Saturn are so large that even at their great distance they appear as bright as the brightest
stars. These two planets were known to the ancients, who clearly regarded them as important, given
the names bestowed. Uranus and Neptune were discovered following the invention of the telescope, as
was Pluto.

Each of the giant planets has a system of satellites and rings, many only recently discovered by
spacecraft observations of the outer solar system. There will doubtless be further additions to this
group of objects. Saturn has a complex ring system plus 62 known moons (53 named). Jupiter has 64
moons (50 named) and a faint ring. Uranus has an intricate system of narrow, dark rings, and 27
satellites (all named). Neptune has a set of faint rings and 13 moons. Pluto has four known moons.

Chemistry of Outer Solar System

The composition of bodies found beyond the asteroid belt is very different from that found in the
terrestrial bodies and their satellites. Beyond about 4 AU water ice was able to condense, and was thus
available as a raw material in addition to the silicate rocks and metals found in the inner solar system.
Being composed of hydrogen and oxygen, two of the most abundant elements in the universe, a great
deal of water ice probably formed. Beyond 10 AU additional types of ices could also condense, but in
smaller amounts than water ice.

Considering the solar nebula from which the solar system formed as a whole, the materials available to
form a planet are as shown in the table.

Material Percent by Mass

Hydrogen (H) 77

Helium (He) 22

Water (H2O) 0.6

Methane (CH4) 0.4

Ammonia (NH3) 0.1

Rock and Metal 0.3

A second significant difference is the result of the greater separation of the planets and the
accumulation of massive cores of rock and ices. The developing cores of Jupiter and Saturn became
large enough that they were able to attract and hold the hydrogen and helium from large volumes of
the solar nebula before it dissipated. Uranus and Neptune captured much less hydrogen and helium,
resulting in their smaller size and different composition.

With the large amounts of hydrogen available in the outer solar system, this is a reducing
environment. Any oxygen present is combined with hydrogen to make water, and so it is unavailable
to form oxidized compounds with other elements. Thus the compounds which are found in the
atmospheres of the outer planets are hydrogen-based: methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), ethane (C2H6),
and acetylene (C2H2), as well as other complex hydrocarbons.

Exploration
Only four spacecraft have explored the outer solar system, all from the US. Exploration of this region
presents a number of difficulties. The spacecraft must be extremely reliable, since the flight times are
years or decades. The craft must also be fairly autonomous, since the light-travel time to the outer
solar system is several hours. The spacecraft must carry their own power sources since the sunlight is
too weak to power the craft through solar cells. Heaters are needed to keep instruments at proper
operating temperatures. Powerful radio transmitters and large antennae are needed to relay data
back to Earth.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/outermiss-17yjvby.gif)

Pioneers 10 and 11 were launched in 1972 and 1973 as trailblazers to Jupiter, with the primary
objectives of determining whether the asteroid belt could be negotiated without damaging collision
with small particles, and also the hazards of radiation in Jupiters magnetosphere. While the asteroid
belt was successfully crossed, the high energy plasma associated with Jupiter caused difficulties for
onboard electronics. This information was invaluable for the design of subsequent missions. Pioneer
10 flew past Jupiter in 1974, and sped toward the outermost reaches of the solar system. Pioneer 11
used Jupiters gravity during its 1975 encounter to steer it toward Saturn which it flew by in 1979.

The bulk of scientific studies of the outer solar system were carried out by the Voyager 1 and 2
missions, launched in 1977. The Voyager probes carried 11 scientific instruments, including camera,
spectrometers, magnetometers, and devices to measure plasma characteristics of the planetary
magnetospheres. Voyager 1 reached Jupiter in 1979 and then used a gravity assist to send it to Saturn
in 1980. Voyager 2 arrived at Jupiter four months later, and then used a different path to visit Saturn in
1981, Uranus in 1986, and Neptune in 1989.
Voyager HomePage: http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ (http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/)

Galileo HomePage: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/ (http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/)

Cassini HomePage: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/cassini/ (http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/cassini/)

Planet Spacecraft Encounter Date

Jupiter Pioneer 10 Dec 73

Pioneer 11 Dec 74

Voyager 1 Mar 79

Voyager2 Jul 79

Ulysses Feb 92

Galileo Dec 95

Cassini Dec 00

New Horizons Feb 07

Juno Jul 16

Saturn Pioneer11 Sep 79

Voyager 1 Nov 80

Voyager 2 Aug 81

Cassini/Huygens Jul 04/Jan 05

Uranus Voyager 2 Jan 86

Neptune Voyager 2 Aug 89

The Voyager craft exploited a relatively rare alignment of the four Jovian planets all simultaneously on
the same side of the sun, which only occurs every 175 years or so. Using gravity assists on each flyby to
direct the craft to the next planet encounter, all the outer planets except Pluto have been visited.

The next step is the Galileo mission, launched in 1989. Galileo will explore Jupiter, Saturn, and their
satellites. Galileo arrived at Jupiter in 1995 and deployed an entry probe into Jupiters atmosphere
before orbiting Jupiter for three years during which close encounters with the four Galilean moons will
occur.

The Cassini mission launched in 1997 will use gravity assists to eventually send the Cassini probe to
and encounter with Saturn, its moons and rings in 2004.

The Jovian Planets

The Jovian Planets
Property Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

Distance (AU) 5.2 9.5 19.2 30.1

Period (yr) 11.9 29.5 84.1 164.8

Diameter (km) 142,800 120,540 51,200 49,500

Mass (Earth=1) 318 95 14 17

Density (gm/cm3) 1.3 0.7 1.2 1.6

Rotation (hr) 9.9 10.7 17.2 16.1

Basic Properties
Jupiter Page

Saturn Page

Uranus/Neptune Page

Images and movies of outer planets and their satellites are at:
http://www.solarviews.com/eng/homepage.htm (http://www.solarviews.com/eng/homepage.htm)

Note the distances and periods of rotation from the table.

Jupiter is truly giant, having a mass that is 318 times that of the Earth, and nearly 1/1000th that of the
Sun! It is 11 times Earths diameter and 1/10th that of the Sun. Jupiters density is about 1.3 gm/cm3,
much lower than any of the terrestrial planets, and Saturn while 95 times the Earths mass, has only a
density of 0.7 gm/cm3, the lowest of any planet. It would float in water.

Uranus and Neptune are considerably smaller, being only about 5% the mass of Jupiter. Thus these
planets are intermediate between the terrestrial and Jovian planets. Their densities are 1.2 gm/cm3
and 1.6 gm/cm3, respectively. Note that in spite of their smaller mass and lesser internal compression,
these densities are greater than Saturns. Thus, their composition must be fundamentally different,
with significant amounts of materials heavier than the hydrogen and helium that compose Jupiter and
Saturn.

Appearance and Rotation

When observing the giant planets we see only the outer atmospheres, composed mainly of gaseous
hydrogen and helium. The uppermost cloud decks of Jupiter and Saturn are composed largely of
ammonia crystals. On Neptune the upper cloud deck is methane, while Uranus has no obvious cloud
deck at all (only a deep, featureless haze).
 (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/jupiter1-

2f25l7v.jpg)

Jupiter is clearly a colorful and dynamic planet. Details in the cloud patterns allow a determination of
the rotation rate of the upper atmosphere. However, this may have little to do with the spin of the
underlying planet (mantle and core), which is best found by observing the periodic variations of the
magnetic field. This rotation period is 9h56m the shortest day in the solar system.

Saturns rotation period (10h40m) is determined from variations in its radio emissions, which are
linked to its magnetic field. Rotation of the planetary magnetic fields fixes Uranuss rotation period at
17h14m, and Neptunes at 16h6m.

Jupiters rotation axis is tilted at only 3o, so there are no seasons to speak of. Saturn and Neptune are
significantly tilted (at 27o and 29o), and so experience similar seasons. Uranus has an axis tilted by 98o
relative to (solar system) north. This results in very strange seasons, with each pole alternately facing
the Sun for 40 years at a time.

Composition and Structure

Jupiter and Saturn almost certainly have interiors composed of hydrogen and helium. While these
gases have only actually been measured in the atmospheres of these planets, calculations done 50 years
ago by Yale astronomer Rupert Wildt show that these are the only two materials which could result in
planets with the masses and densities of Jupiter and Saturn. There are some uncertainties associated
with lack of knowledge of the compressibilities of liquid hydrogen and helium at the temperatures and
pressures found within these planets. Pressures are estimated to be about 1 million bar and densities
around 31 gm/cm3.

Internal structures of the giant planets are very different from the terrestrial planets. As one moves
toward the center of Jupiter or Saturn the pressures become so high that hydrogen exists first in a
liquid form and then a liquid metallic form. In the case of Uranus and Neptune, the pressures probably
do not reach sufficient levels to liquefy hydrogen.
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/intstruct-phl8mn.jpg)

The cores of each of these planets are composed of heavier materials. This is known from analysis of
gravitational fields. These are most likely the rock/ice bodies which formed before the capture of large
amounts of gases from the early solar nebula. However, the rock and ice most likely has a very
unfamiliar form at the pressures (tens of millions of bar) and high temperatures which exist at the
cores of the planets. [Rock=materials made of iron, silicon, oxygen: Ice=materials made of carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen in combination with hydrogen]

For Jupiter and Saturn the cores comprise only a tiny fraction of the total planet mass, but most of the
mass of Uranus and Neptune is this core mass. Thus the last two planets were unable to attract large
quantities of hydrogen and helium.

Note that Jupiter has nearly the maximum mass for an object composed of cold hydrogen. This
means that it is not generating energy in the way that a star does. Less massive objects than Jupiter
would occupy a smaller volume, and more massive bodies would also be compressed by the greater
gravity to a smaller volume. These more massive object which are unable to ignite as stars are brown
dwarfs or infrared dwarfs.

Internal Heat Sources

Due to their large sizes, each of the giant planets was heated significantly during formation by the
collapse of the nebular material onto the planet core. Being the largest, Jupiter was heated the most.
Additionally, large gaseous planets can generate heat after formation by slow contraction. A shrinkage
of a few millimeters per year can generate significant energy.

Nevertheless, the discovery in 1969 by Frank Low that Jupiter had an internal energy source was quite
surprising. Low used a small 12-inch telescope carried above the bulk of the atmospheres water vapor
in a NASA Lear jet. After a similar internal source for Saturn was detected, theorists calculated that
such effects were, in fact, expected.

Jupiters rate of internal energy generation is 4 X 1017 watts. This is about the same as the rate at
which Jupiter absorbs energy from the Sun. Thus Jupiters atmosphere is sort of intermediate between
a normal planetary atmosphere which obtains most of its energy from the Sun, and a stars atmosphere
which is entirely heated from below. The bulk of this internal energy of Jupiter is primordial.

Saturns internal energy source is about half of Jupiters. Since Saturn has only a quarter the mass of
Jupiter, this implies a greater rate of internal energy generation. With its lower mass Saturn should
also have less primordial heat left over from its formation. The source is thought to be due to the
separation of helium from hydrogen in the interior. In the liquid hydrogen mantle, heavier helium
drops form which then sink toward the core of the planet, releasing gravitational energy. That is,
Saturn is still in the process of differentiating! This process occurs in Saturn and not Jupiter due to the
cooler temperatures inside Saturn. In Jupiter the higher temperature keeps the hydrogen and helium
well-mixed.

Neptune has a small internal heat source, while Uranus has no measurable internal source. Thus these
two planets have about the same effective temperatures in spite of their different distances from the
sun. What causes this difference between the two otherwise very similar planets is unknown.

Atmospheres of the Jovian Planets

Atmospheric Composition

Gas Jupiter Saturn

H2 1 1

He 0.12 0.06

CH4 2 X 10-3 2 X 10-3

NH3 2 X 10-4 2 X 10-5

C2H2 8 X 10-7 1 X 10-7

C2H6 4 X 10-5 8 X 10-6

PH3 4 X 10-7 3 X 10-6

While spectroscopy was applied to the Jovian planets beginning in the late 1800s, the spectra obtained
could not be understood for some time. Initially these planets were suspected of being self-luminous,
so that their spectra consisted of emission bands. Into the 1930s many of te primary absorption bands
in the spectra remained unidentified. At this point CH4 and NH3 were identified in the atmospheres of
Jupiter and Saturn.

Initially thought to be primary components of the atmospheres, these two compounds are now known
to be dominated by hydrogen and helium. The spectral signatures of hydrogen and helium are
difficult to detect, and only after the Voyager encounters could the amount of helium be reliably
determined.

The compositions (http://galileo.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/spacecraft-atm.cfm

(http://galileo.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/spacecraft-atm.cfm)) of the atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn are
similar, except that Saturn has less helium in its atmosphere as a result of helium having condensed
and settled toward the center of Saturn, thus generating (at least a part of) Saturns internal energy.

The atmospheres of Uranus and Neptune have about the same relative abundances of hydrogen and
helium as Jupiter.

Clouds and Structure of Atmospheres

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/jupiter2-1y8kzz7.jpg)

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/saturn1-1cl8crv.jpg)

The clouds on Jupiter are constantly changing, and range in color from white to orange to red and
brown. Saturns cloud activity is similar, but relatively subdued.

At the temperatures and pressures found in the upper atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn methane
remains a gas, but ammonia is able to condense just as water vapor does in Earths atmosphere. This
frozen condensed ammonia produces clouds the clouds we see when we look at these planets. The
ammonia cloud deck marks the upper edge of the convective troposphere, with the cold stratosphere
above it.

On Jupiter and Saturn the temperature near the cloud tops is about 140 K. In Jupiters case the
pressure at this level is about 0.1 bar, while on Saturn the pressure at the cloud tops is 1 bar. Since the
ammonia clouds lie so much deeper on Saturn, they are more difficult to see, resulting in a more
uniform appearance.

In the tropospheres of these planets the temperature and pressure both increase with depth within the
atmosphere. The Galileo probe has provided the most detailed look at Jupiters atmospheric structure.

For the Galileo home page see: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/galileo.html

(http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/galileo.html)

Above the ammonia clouds of Jupiter the atmosphere is clear and cold, with a minimum temperature
of about 120 K. At higher altitudes the temperature rises again, as it does in the Earths atmosphere,
due to the absorption of UV radiation. Photochemical reactions produce a variety of fairly complex
hydrocarbons. Thus a thin photochemical smog overlies the visible clouds.
The coloration of the clouds must be due to the presence of some other chemical(s), since the ammonia
clouds would be white. These other materials may be hydrocarbons, or perhaps sulfur or phosphorus.

The structure of Saturns atmosphere is similar, although the temperatures are somewhat lower and
the atmosphere is more extended due to the lower gravity, but otherwise the two are qualitatively
similar.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/atmos-2ak2y0u.jpg)

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/nepturan-171s2r6.jpg)

The atmosphere of Uranus is featureless as seen from the infrared through ultraviolet range of
wavelengths. Theoretically, Uranus atmosphere should resemble that of Saturn and Jupiter, except
that the upper condensation cloud layer is composed of CH4 rather than NH3. Also, the absence of an
internal heat source causes there to be little convection and a stable atmosphere with little visible
structure. The troposphere is hidden from view by a very deep and cold stratosphere.

Although the atmospheric structure and effective planetary temperature are nearly the same for
Uranus and Neptune, Neptunes appearance is different. The upper clouds are composed of methane,
forming a thin cloud layer near the top of the troposphere where the temperature is 70 K and the
pressure 1.5 bar. Above this level the the atmosphere is clear without the haze found on Uranus. There
is a second cloud layer below at a pressure of about 3 bars, probably composed of hydrogen sulfide ice
crystals. The cause of this difference between Uranus and Neptune is the presence of more active
convection on Neptune due to its internal heat source. The convection currents carry warmed gases
above the 1.5 bar cloud deck, forming additional clouds about 75 km higher.
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/neptune1-266hajz.jpg)

Winds and Weather

By observing cloud patterns it is possible to measure wind speeds and track the circulation of the
atmosphere. The observed dynamics are fundamentally different from those observed in the
terrestrial planet atmospheres. These differences result from (1) much deeper atmospheres with no
solid lower boundary, (2) faster rotation rates which suppress N-S circulation patterns and accentuate
E-W patterns, and (3) with the exception of Uranus, internal heat sources contribute about as much
energy to the atmosphere as sunlight does, forcing deep convection.

On Jupiter, the main feature of the visible cloud layer is the alternation of light and dark bands parallel
to the equator and stretching around the planet. Although the intensity and position shifts slightly
from year to year, these are semi-permanent features.

Although less obvious, the underlying E-W wind patterns are more fundamental, and do not appear to
change, even over long periods of time. There is an equatorial eastward jet stream of roughly 100 m/s
(300 km/hr), with alternating eastward and westward moving streams at higher latitudes. The north
and south hemispheres are very nearly mirror images of each other. Saturns zonal winds show a
similar pattern, but with a much higher equatorial flow rate of 400 m/s (1300 km/hr).

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/zonalwind-2d0pin6.jpg)

The lighter colored zones are upwelling convection currents topped by white ammonia clouds. The
darker belts are downflowing convection regions, with darker color due to the relative lack of
ammonia clouds. It is also possible that the ability to see deeper into the atmosphere reveals the lower
lying ammonium hydrosulfide clouds.

In spite of Uranus strange seasons (due to its 98o axial tilt), its basic circulation pattern is east to west.
The extent of the atmosphere and its ability to retain heat are so large that the alternating 40-year
sunlight/darkness cycle has little effect.

Neptunes weather is characterized by strong east-west winds which are generally similar to Jupiters
and Saturns. Equatorial wind speeds are 600 m/s (2100 km/hr), nearly supersonic.

Storms
In addition to the normal atmospheric circulation, there are localized disturbances storms, to use a
terrestrial terminology. The most prominent example being the large oval high pressure regions on
both Jupiter and Neptune. For example, the Great Red Spot (GRS), nearly 30,000 km in length, was
first seen 300 years ago. This storm is clearly much longer-lived than terrestrial storms. It also
differs in that it is a high pressure region with a six-day anticyclonic rotation. Three smaller white
ovals, about 10,000 km in size formed about 1940. Although the cause of these storms is unknown,
their longevity can be understood. On Earth a hurricane or typhoon has a lifetime of a few weeks, or
less when friction with land occurs. On Jupiter there is no solid surface to slow the disturbance, and
the shear size of the disturbance makes it satble. Calculations indicate that for features as large as the
GRS the lifetime is measured in centuries, while the white ovals have lifetimes of decades.

Although smaller in size and with different cloud composition, Neptune has an atmospheric feature
very like the GRS. Neptunes Great Dark Spot is nearly 10,000 km long. It is found (like the GRS) at
20o S latitude, and its size and shape are proportionally the similar to the GRS. This Great Dark Spot is
also anticyclonic with a period of 17 days.

Magnetospheres
All the Jovians have strong magnetic fields.

Jupiters is strongest, 20 to 30 x that of earth.

Source Dynamo effect: Jupiter has (1) Fluid interiormetallic H (2) Electrically Conducting interior the
metallic H (3) rapid rotation.

Tilted about 15 degrees to planets rotation axis. And offset from the center of planet by about 18000
km.

Strong radio radiation called synchrotron radiation emitted by charged particles (electrons, ions)
trapped in the magnetosphere, whirling around the magnetic field lines.

Saturn has strong field, aligned with rotation axis.

Uranus has strong field, comparable to Saturn and tipped 60 degrees to rotation axis, a huge amount!
Like Jupiters its offset from center of planet.

Neptunes field is also tilted about 55 degrees and offset nearly half the planets radius from the center.

Could seemingly random alignments of fields point to changes in planets internal rotation? Evidence of
primordial collisions, perhaps? Still highly speculative.

Planetary Magnetic Fields

Magnetosphere of Jupiter
Io Plasma Torus
Magnetospheres of Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

Pluto and Charon

Pluto page

Orbit and Characteristics of Pluto

Pluto is neither a terrestrial planet, nor a Jovian. At 2300 km diameter, it is very small, and probably
only one of many such objects that once orbited the Sun beyond the gas giant planets. Many
astronomers believe that Pluto should be classified as a minor planet or asteroid.

Plutos orbit is highly inclined (highest of any planet) to the ecliptic (17o), and its eccentricity is also
ther highest in the solar system at 0.248. Its average distance from the Sun is 5.9 billion km, but its
perihelion distance is only 4.5 billion km actually inside the orbit of Neptune. Having passed
perihelion in 1989, it remains inside Neptunes orbit until 1999. The orbital period is 248.6 years.

Discovery of Charon
In 1978 James Christy (USNO) discovered Plutos only known satellite, Charon. He noted that images of
Pluto taken with the 1.5 m telescope were elongated, but those of stars in the same photograph were
not. Research showed that some other images taken of Pluto showed the same phenomenon, but most
did not.

Rings and Satellite Systems

Satellites of the Jovian Planets
Note: Well try to discuss representative examples from the many satellites of the Jovian planets, and try
to draw some overall conclusions about their satellite systems.

Satellites of Jupiter

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy-web-lecture-notes/jovianouter-

planets/jupmoon/)
Voyager 2 images of the 4 Galilean Satellites and the smaller moon Amalthea reproduced to scale.
Upper left, clockwise: Amalthea, Io, Europa, Callisto, and Ganymede.

LINKS TO:

THE GALILEO MISSION (http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/galileo.html) (1995) Exquisite quality

images of the Galilean satellites and Jupiter
VIEWS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM (http://solarviews.com/eng/homepage.htm) Nice Gallery of images
WELCOME TO THE PLANETS (https://pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/welcome/jupiter.htm)From the Jet
Propulsion Laboratories

The Galilean Satellites

The four largest moons of Jupiter, discovered by Galileo (1609)

IO
Closest of the Galilean satellites to Jupiter. About as far from Jupiter as our moon is from earth
but greater mass of Jupiter means it must orbit faster1.8 day period!

Highest density (~3500 kg/m3; 3.5 x water)

Odd, pizzalike appearance. No impact craters seen at all.

Evidence of extensive and continuing volcanic activity. Eruptions seen by Voyager and Galileo
spacecraft, and even the Hubble Space Telescope.
Eruptions have been seen, but they do not consist of lava and steam as on earth, but rather sulfur
and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Yellowish appearance of Io may be caused by gradual deposition of this
material. The sulfur produces red and orange deposits, the sulfur dioxide, a whitish snow.
Estimated rate of deposition about 1 mm per year

Speeds of up to 1 km/sec measured in erupting gases, 10 x greater than eruptions on earth. Plumes
can reach 300 km above surface. 105 tons of sulfur and sulfur dioxide estimated are emitted per
sec.

Lava flows(lava is mostly liquid sulfur) and volcanic cones are seen as well.

Changes in surface features can be monitored on the large scale with Hubble Space telescope.
Galileo mission has shown us striking changes on smaller surface features even in the short time
since the Voyager missions.

Tidal flexing caused by Jupiter is major cause of internal heating.

Tidal effects would not be so great were it not for other large moons. In the absence of the moons
tidal synchronization and circularization of the orbit could take place. But the other moons
perturb Ios orbit and prevent if from becoming circular, so Jupiter keeps battling to synchronize it,
and the net result is continuous tidal flexure.

EUROPA
Density (3000 kg/m3) suggests rocky interior, but looks like icy surface, a few hundred km thick(?)

Strange appearance; smooth surface crossed with linear cracks and ridges, which are low relief
not very deep.

Closer view by Galileo indicates an icy surface covered with cracks that look like Arctic pack ice.

Surface has been melted and refrozen oftenalmost no cratering. this is a young surface.

Heat for melting is probably caused by tidal effects of Jupiter. just as with Io.

Could there be liquid water below the ice? Could it be warm enough for life to exist? Europa may
be one of the few habitable places in the solar system.

GANYMEDE
Largest of all the satellites of any of the planets (5280 km diameter).

Density (1900 k) is same as that of Callisto and Titan (largest moon of Saturn).

Interior rocky, but large mantle of ice (and possibly liquid water?) because density is considerably
lower than that of a solid ball of rock.

Surface is heavier cratered, but less than Callisto. May be evidence of episodes of melting brought
on by tidal heating from Jupiter.

There may be a sort of plate tectonics on Ganymede, causing surface to crack and slip. Difference
with earth, though, in that the mantle and surface are mostly icy, rather than rocky.

Images from Galileo spacecraft show all sorts of odd flow patterns and stress patterns on surface,
caused perhaps by tidal stress and also by expansion and outflow of icy mantle material.

CALLISTO
Density the same as Ganymede.
 Interior, like Ganymede, rocky core, thick mantle of ice and gravelly rock.

Most heavily cratered of Jovian satellites.

Icy surface is very densely cratered. Lighter areas are most recent impact craters, which must
expose lighter material that later turns dark.

Satellites of Saturn

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/fil
es/2016/07/satfamil-ucxbdp.jpg)

A montage of images of Saturn and

some of its moons made from images
taken by the Voyager 1 in 1980. Dione is
the large moon in front of Saturn,
Tethys and Mimas are below Saturn to
the right, and Enceladus and Rhea are
to the left. Titan, actually the largest
moon by far, is in the background right.

A montage of images of Saturn and some of its moons made from images taken by the Voyager 1 in
1980. Dione is the large moon in front of Saturn, Tethys and Mimas are below Saturn to the right, and
Enceladus and Rhea are to the left. Titan, actually the largest moon by far, is in the background right.
Links to:
The CASSINI SPACECRAFT (https://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/)is a mission to Saturn and its moons, (Launch
1997, arrival, 2004 AD.)

18 known moons of Saturn. More may be discovered.

All moons except Titan have densities around 1200 kg/m3, essentially that of water. These are thus balls
of ice with a little bit of rock.

Orbits start just outside the rings. Most of the moons are within a half million miles of Saturn. Then
theres a gap and Titan, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Phoebe are all beyond 1 million miles. (Titan, 1.2,
Hyperion, 1.5, Iapetus 3.6)Phoebe is out at 13 million miles. Phoebe revolves retrograde.

Titan

One of the most distant of Saturns moons (about 1.2 million miles; orbits every 15 days)

One of the largest moons in Solar System: diameter 5150 km.

Density is about 1900 kg/m3, about the same as Ganymede and Callisto.

Only moon with a substantial atmosphere. Why does this large moon have an atmosphere while
Ganymede does not? May have to do with temperature of early solar nebula (more gas further
from sun?) Or may be that Ganymede lost early atmosphere as a result of a collision?

Atmosphere is primarily nitrogen (N2). Surface pressure estimated at about 1.5 bars (from the
absorption of radio signals as Voyager went behind Titan.) Surface temperature about 90K. May
be liquid methane and ethane on the surface. Could there be liquid water? (probably not, but
maybe there is tidal warming?) Could Titan be habitable?

Orange haze obscures the surface. Probably complex organic molecules.

The Huygens Probe, carried on board the Cassini mission, explores the atmosphere and the
surface(!) of Titan (ETA, 2004 AD)

Mimas
Small moon (390 km diam)with large impact crater (130 km diameter) that makes it look like an
eyeball.

Iapetus
One hemisphere is much darker than the other. Since Iapetus is tidally locked with the planet,
once side of the planet faces forward in its orbit, and this is the dark side. Carbon-rich deposits of
some sort seem responsible for the dark coloration. We arent sure why, they are concentrated on
this side, though..
Hyperion
Irregular shapeelongated. Would expect long axis to align radially outward from planet, due to
tidal interaction with Saturn, but it hasnt done this.

Rotation seems chaotic; doesnt have well-defined period of rotation; it is effectively tumbling in
orbit.

Enceladus
Very bright surface;most reflective in the solar system (near 100%)

Low cratering density suggests that the planet has been resurfaced by some mechanism.

A faint ring, the E-ring, circles Saturn at about the same radius as Enceladus. Seems to be made of
icy particles. Can this be related to geology of Enceladus?

Other Satellites
All small; only a few 10s to 100s of km in diameter.

Most show heavily cratered, icy surfaces, with some evidence of earlier crustal motion.

Tethys, Telesto , and Calypso are all at the same orbital radius; Telesto and Calypso orbit 60
degrees ahead and 60 degrees behind Tethys (the largest of the three). These stable orbits behind
and head of a larger orbiting body are called the Lagrangian points. We shall see asteroids, called
the Trojan asteroids, that orbit the sun at Jupiters Lagrangian points.
 Pandora and Prometheus orbit just inside and just outside the F ring of Saturn; they are called
shepherd satellites, since their gravitational effect keep particles in the thin F ring from dissipating
into space.

Satellites of Uranus

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/
2016/07/ursat2-1sg2frz.jpg)

The five largest satellites of Uranus in a

montage from the Voyager images. In
order of distance from Uranus, left to
right: Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania,
and Oberon.

The five largest satellites of Uranus in a montage from the Voyager images. In order of distance from
Uranus, left to right: Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon.
Links to:
There are a lot of nice images of Uranus larger moons on the WELCOME TO THE PLANETS
(https://pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/welcome/uranus.htm)pages.

15 known satellites, many discovered by Voyager 2

Five largest moons Oberon, Titania, Umbriel, and Ariel range in size from 470 km diameter to 1500 km
diameter. All have low densities (around 1.5 times that of water).

Oberon, Titania and Umbriel appear heavily cratered. Umbriel is unusually dark, reflecting only 10%
of the light that hits it.

Ariel is less heavily cratered by far, and shows giant rift valleys over its surface. It may have
encountered tidal heating from other moons which later changed orbits? ? It is not subject to that much
tidal stress at present, so this is still a mystery.

Miranda

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu
/mrulison/files/2016/07/mi
rmos-1rn6kr8.jpg)
 A mosaic of images of
Miranda taken by Voyager
2 assembled into a full
view of the moon . The
odd chevrons, or V-shaped
gouges are prominent. The
diameter of the moon is
only 470 km.

Smallest and closest of Uranus major moons.

Has some older heavily cratered terrain.

Most prominent features are huge gouges and cracks, chevrons (V-shaped gouges). that are not well
understood. Weird appearance.

The moon may have been shattered and reassembled in a primordial collision.

Satellites of Neptune

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/
2016/07/nepntri-1-2ll6u2o.jpg)

Triton, the largest moon of Neptune,

shown just appearing beyond the edge of
the planet in a Voyager 2 image. Note the
odd markings on the surface, especially
the division between the polar cap and
the rest of the planet.

Triton, the largest moon of Neptune, shown just appearing beyond the edge of the planet in a Voyager 2
image. Note the odd markings on the surface, especially the division between the polar cap and the
rest of the planet.
Links to:
Look for images of some of Neptunes satellites on the WELCOME TO THE PLANETS
(https://pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/welcome/neptune.htm)pages.
8 known moons, mostly a few tens to hundreds of km in diameter. Low density, dirty ice like most of
the other outer moons.

Triton
Triton
Only really large moon of Neptune, 2700 km in diameter.

Orbit is retrograde, however, so it is possible Triton is a captured body.

Density is about 2100 kg/m3, more like that of Pluto than of a small icy moon.

May be rock mixed with a lot of ice.

Surface looks very smooth, with high reflectivity. Frost on surface is probably solid Nitrogen and
methane. Surface temperature around 40K, lowest in solar system.

Very thin atmosphere, nonetheless, about 10-5 bar; some haze photographed by Voyager 2.

Flooded lava lakes a few hundred km across, look like lunar maria.

Polar cap in southern hemisphere. May be frozen nitrogen. Plumes rising from the surface observed
by the Voyager suggest that there may be geysers of liquid N2 released when sunlight warms the poles.

The Nature of Ring Systems

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/fil
es/2016/07/satrings-2dyrbvy.jpg)

Enhanced Color image of Saturns A

ring from Voyager 2. The Cassini
Division is at lower right and the Encke
Division, much thinner, runs round the
upper left of the picture. Note that
small ringlets can be seen in the Cassini
Division.

Enhanced Color image of Saturns A ring from Voyager 2. The Cassini Division is at lower right and the
Encke Division, much thinner, runs round the upper left of the picture. Note that small ringlets can be
seen in the Cassini Division.
All 4 giant planets have ring systems around them. Saturns is the most prominent and extensive.

Rings are aligned in equatorial planes of each of the planets

Rings must be composed of large numbers of independently orbiting particles.
Spectroscopic observations show that rings do not revolve as solid body, but obey Keplers third law,
with more distant regions of the ring having smaller velocity and taking longer to go around. (If it were
solid, with all parts of ring revolving in the same time, outermost edges would have higher velocity
since they have further to travel in same time as inner edges. )

Theoretically, a body as thin and extensive as a ring system would be unstable in the gravitational field
of a giant planet, and would be torn to shreds.

Where did the rings come from?

Possibly from a satellite that shattered-perhaps in a collision with another satellite.

Possibly from debris left over from formation that was not able to collect together to form a sizable
moon.

Most informed opinion is that the second explanation is preferred, but that both processes take place.
The rings formed of material that could not collect to form a large moon because it lay within the
Roche Limit (see below) of the central planet. However collisions between chunks of materials in ring
system continues to break things up, there, too, so some of the material in the rings is made up broken
up chunks of what were once larger chunks.

Roche Limit or tidal stability limit: Larger satellites (more than a few tens of km in size) are held
together by their own gravity each bit of satellite pulls on each other bit. They have no other source of
internal cohesion (the smaller satellites, on the other hand, are held together by the internal strength of
their rocks), and are essentially just heaps of stuff, not integrated objects.

A nearby planet exerts disruptive tidal forces that tend to pull apart large objects nearby. The closer
you are to the planet, the stronger this tidal effect is. Closer than a certain distance to any planet,
called the tidal stability limit or the Roche limit, a large satellite will be torn apart because its internal
gravitational will be smaller than the disruptive tidal effects of the planet. The more massive the
planet, the larger the Roche limit, and the larger the region within which large moons cannot form and
cannot exist.

Rings may be transient, temporary phenomena a satellite or comet may come within the Roche limit
and break up, forming a ring that lasts only temporarily. The thin Jupiter rings seem to be made up of
dust that is continually being replenished, perhaps by material from its moons. Even Saturns rings
seem unstable. Collisions within the rings eject material at a slow rate, and the rings should not be able
to last for more than a few hundred million years. There may have been a time when Saturn did not
have rings, or there may be a time in the future when theyre gone.

Individual Ring Systems and their Peculiarities.

SATURNS RING SYSTEM (in order of distance from the planet)

FROMSATURN (km) WIDTH(km)

D Ring 71,000 7,500

 C Ring 83,000 17,500

B Ring 105,000 25,500

Cassini Division 120,000 4,700

A Ring 130,000 14,600

Encke Division 137,000 35

F Ring 140,000 30-500

G Ring 170,000 8,000

E Ring 330,000 300,000

Three brightest rings, A, B, and C; Faint inner D ring inside the C ring, very thin outer F ring further
than the A ring, and outermost E ring.

Dark gap, called the Cassini division, between A and B rings. There is another smaller gap near the
outer edge of the A ring, called the Encke Division.

Width of rings is about 70,00 km, but thickness less than 100 m.

Particles seem to be mostly water ice; sizes from those of sand grains and pebbles to basketball and
automobile-sized objects.

B ring has estimated mass of a small icy satellite, perhaps 300 km in diameter.

Voyager spacecraft reveals large numbers of sub-rings, with smaller gaps between them. Resembles
grooves on a record, especially in B ring.

Gaps in the rings can be cleared out by resonances with outer satellites. Recall that Keplers laws
govern the orbital period of particles in the rings and the moons themselves. If an outer moon has a
period that is an integer fraction (1:2, 2:3, 1:3, etc)of that of particles in a ring, then it gives an extra
pull on the particles each time they line up, and this tends to throw the particle into a new orbit that
does not have a resonance. For instance the Mimas is in a 1:2 resonance with particles in the Cassini
Division, and any particles in the Division would feel this added gravitational tug from Mimas every
second revolution.

Thin F ring is irregular and even appears to be made of separate braided strands. Two small satellites,
called Pandora and Prometheus, act as shepherd satellites keeping this thin ring from dissipating. They
orbit just inside and just outside the ring, and their gravitational effect is to keep objects in the rings
from leaving. There may be other shepherd satellites responsible for other thin rings in Saturns
system and those of the other Jovians. We dont know for sure, since resolution of current photographs
is not good enough to spot small shepherd satellites.

Uranus Rings
Uranus Rings

URANUS RING SYSTEM (in order of distance from the planet)

NAME MEANDISTANCE FROMURANUS (km) WIDTH(km)

1986 U2R 38,000 1.49

6 Ring 41,800 1.63

5 Ring 42,200 1.65

4 Ring 42, 600 1.67

Alpha Ring 44,700 1.75

Beta Ring 45,700 1.79

Eta Ring 47,200 1.85

Gamma Ring 47,600 1.86

Delta Ring 48,300 1.89

Lambda Ring 50,000 1.96

Epsilon Ring 51,100 20 -100

Very thin, tenuous rings, hard to see from earth. First discovered by chance on March 19, 1977, when
they blocked out (occulted) the light from a background star. Later imaged by the Voyager in 1986.
Nine narrow rings have been mapped to date. Most are less than 10 km in width. Widest is the epsilon
ring, perhaps 100 km in width at the widest.

Particles may be similar in size and composition to the rings of Saturn.

Rings seem fairly symmetrical around the planet, but there is some clumpiness.

Neptunes Rings

NEPTUNES RING SYSTEM (in order of distance from the planet)

NAME MEANDISTANCE FROMNEPTUNE (km)

1989 N3 R 43,500 2,500

1989 N2 R 53,200 15

1989 N4 R 56,000 5,800

1989 N1 R 62,900 <50

Also discovered by occultations of starlight in the mid 1980s

Photographed by Voyager 2 in 1989.

Rings are fainter than those of Uranus, and though they are broader, they seem to contain much less
material. The material may be in the form of a much finer dust.

Rings are clumpier than those of Uranus, with some parts of the ring having much higher density of
material than others.

Jupiters Rings

JUPITERS RING SYSTEM (in order of distance from the planet)

NAME MEANDISTANCE FROMJUPITER (km) WIDTH(km)

Halo 112,000 22,800

 Main 126,000 6,400

Gossamer 162,000 850,000

First discovered by Voyager mission.

Three rings seen, with main ring, the most substantial, around 125,000 km from the planet.

Main ring is about 6400 km wide and less than 30 km thick.

Made of tiny dust particles a few thousandths of a millimeter in size.

Cannot be permanent features unless there is a constant replenishment of dust, but we do not know
from where.

Search

Proudly powered by WordPress (http://wordpress.org/) | Theme: Amadeus

(http://flyfreemedia.com/themes/amadeus) by FlyFreeMedia.

This site is maintained by the author as authorized by Oglethorpe Universitys communication

policies. The content and opinions expressed on this website do not necessarily reflect the views of
Oglethorpe University.