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CONTENTS
1. Introduction 6
2. Abstract on HSDCL 7
3. Definition of Boiler 8
4. Specification of Boiler 8-9
5. Scope of works for repairing & re-establishment of the condemned
boiler 10-17
5.1. Study of the boiler process & its accessories 10
5.2. Scope of work for boiler maintenance & repairing 13
5.3. Scope of work after renovation to start-up the boiler 17
6. Combustion Analysis 18-24
6.1. Combustion 19
6.2. Parameters that are measured in Combustion Analysis 21
6.3. Roles of the parameters 21
7. Measurement Tools 25-27
7.1. Manual Gas Measurements 25
I. Orsat Analyser
7.2. Portable Electronic Instruments 26
II. Combustion Analysis Calculator
7.3. Continuous Emission Monitors 27
8. Calculations 28-34
8.1. Excess Air 28
8.2. Carbon dioxide concentrations 28
8.3. Determining combustion efficiency 29
8.4. Temperature measurements 32
8.5. Draft measurements 32
8.6. Oxygen reference concentration calculations 33
8.7. Emission rate calculations 34
9. Boiler Tune-up 35-39
10. Conclusion 40
11. References 41

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1. INTRODUCTION

Boiler is one of the most important devices in a power plant or in industries

where a source of stream is required as a source of heat.
It is the device used to create stream by applying heat energy to water and the
heat is supplied from the combustion of fuel. Hence brake down of boiler at any
time may leads to severe damage to the industrial processes. Hence our project
reflects the detail procedures to re-establish and start-up a condemned boiler
such that it fulfil the industrial need by maximizing the economy while
maintaining fuel economy.

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2. ABSTRACT ON HSDCL

Hindustan Storage & Distribution Company Ltd is a Public incorporated on 07 December

1982. It is classified as Non-govt. Company and is registered at Registrar of Companies,
Kolkata.
Directors of Hindustan Storage & Distribution Company Ltd are Alok Saraf, Sawarmal
Agarwal.
This company is basically an Oil Storage & Distribution Company which import and exports
a various kind of edible oils, lube oils and chemicals. The products are stored in several tank
with capacity range 500 kl to 8000 kl. The company have pipelines of 2.5 Km almost from
Jetty to their storage tank.

Product Type:
CPO- Crude Palm Oil
RBDPO- Refined Bleached Deodorized Palm Oli
LAB- Linear Alkyl Benzene
LUBE- Lubricant Oil Ketrul D-80
SUPER SPIRIT

Requirement of Boiler:

The products like CPO & RBDPO which are stored in the company have slip melting
point at about 35 degree centre grade .That means during winter seasons as the atm.
temperature falls below 35 degrees they starts solidifying and about 15-16 degrees of
atmospheric temperature the oils get solidified. Hence hot steam under pressure is used to
melt the oils. To generate the hot stream a package boiler REVOMAX PLUS is installed
in the site.

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3. DEFINATION OF BOILER:
A boiler is an enclosed container that provides a mean from heat of combustion to be
transferred to the working medium (water) until it become heated or convert in steam. The
heated steam can be utilized for transferring the heat in several processes that consume the
heat of the stream and turns in work or just to heat another substance.

4. SPECIFICATION OF REVOMAX PLUS (STEAM

GENERATOR):

Model: R*D-850/164

Type: Package stream generator

Manufacturing Year: 2003

Fuel: Furnace Oil

Rating: 415V ; 3 Phase ; 50 HZ

Capacity: 850 kg/hr

Design pressure:10.54 -17.50 kg/cm^2

Fuel Firing System: Pressure Jet-Reverse Flue, Dual

Block

Make: Thermax Ltd.

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SPECIFICATION OF REVOMAX BOILER:

Product Features
Efficiency of 88% on NCV
Reverse fFlame technology
Unique patented membrane design
Built-in heat recovery device
Membrane design allows large tube diameter for coil enabling better steam dryness,
less frequent de-scaling, longer coil life and minimum downtime
Unique economiser - optimiser design ensures maximum heat recovery without
possibility of feed water pump failure due to boiling/ vapour causing cavitations and
pump failure
Unique circulation burner design prevents leakage and eliminates fire hazard
Ceramic wool refractory allows fast cooling of top plate and easy maintenance
Easy access to all parts requiring maintenance
Powder-coated, well-lit control panel for better life in industrial environment and easy
monitoring

Operating Range
>Capacities: From 100 to 850 Kg/hr
Design pressure: From 10.54 to 15.00 Kg/cm (g)
Firing fuels: Light oil, gas or dual fuel
The Revomax series incorporate a host of features that make them the first choice in their
capacity range.

5. SCOPE OF WORKS FOR REPAIRING & RE-

ESTIBLISHMENT OF THE CONDEMED BOILER:
A. Detail study of the process and boiler accessories
B. Renovation & repairing works
C. Scope of works after renovation to start-up the boiler.

5.1 STUDY OF BOILER PROCESS AND ITS ACCESSORIES

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5.1.1 PROCESS: The basis principal of boiler is to convert water to steam by

utilizing the heat of combustion of fuel.
Water-steam cycle: During the whole process water from the water tank flows
through the G.I pipe to the water softeners where the hard water gets converted to soft
water by ion exchange. From there the water enters the heat optimizer where its gets
heated and then it entersl;l; the economizer where it gets pre-heated by the heat of the flue
gas and hence heat is being recovered from the flue gas that enhance the efficiency. From
the economizer water again flows through the heat optimizer to the transparent water
filter what it gets filtered and then reciprocating feed water pump pumps the water to the
inner coils of the combustion chamber. As the water flows through the combustion
chamber it gets heated until it is converted into steam which is released to the steam line
at desired rate.

Fuel cycle: Furnace Oil is used as the fuel for the boiler. The oil is initially stored in
the fuel tank which is made up of mild steel. As the fuel pump runs suction is generated in
the fuel pipeline as a result of it the fuel flows through the pipe .A fuel filter is fitted near
the fuel pump and as the fuel pass the filter the impurities get filtered and the pure oil is
transferred to the fuel pre-heater where it is electrically heated to some specific
temperature before it flows to the burner assembly.

Firing Mechanism: The fuel is pumped to the burner gun. where it is atomized to
fine droplets in presence of stream of air as it pass through the nozzle. In the gun there is
a pair of electrodes for producing the spark. So as the air-fuel mixture passes through tip
of the nozzle the electrodes produce spark and combustion take place.

5.1.2. BOILER ACCESSORIES:

Combustion Chamber: It internal space of the boiler where combustion take place.

Steam coil: The coil through which the water circulates and heats up to form
stream .It is made up of mild steel.

Economizer: Heat exchanger (shell tube type) to preheat the feed water before it
enters the combustion chamber by recovering the heat of flue gas.

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Heat Optimizer: Preheat the water entering the economizer and optimize the
temperature of water leaving the economizer and entering the feed water pump.

Feed water pump: 3 cylinder, positive displacement, reciprocating pump to feed

the water to the steam coil at desired pressure and rate.

Centrifugal fuel pump: It is used to pump the oil from the oil tank to the
combustion chamber.

Burner Gun: It is a heating device which burns the fuel oil. The fuel is atomized
through the nozzle under pressure and it is ignited by electric sparks generated by 2
sets of electrodes.

Oil Filter: They minimize the dirt and water that can enter into the boiler fuel
system. This not only maximizes the efficiency of your furnace but its longevity as
well.

Water Softeners: Removes the minerals calcium, magnesium and metal cations
from hard water. This is very essential to eliminate the formation of scales on the
equipments.

Centrifugal Blower: It is a forced draught fan which runs on a motor to supply

require amount of air for complete combustion of fuel.

Oil Pre-heater: It is a simple electric coil heater which is insulated from outside. It
heat the incoming oil before it enters into the burner gun.

Pressure Gauges: To determine the pressure of fuel and stream at different section.

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Feed Water Pump COIL Economizer

Combustion
Chamber

OIL FILTER

BURNER GUN

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5.1.3. PROCESS FLOW CHART:

5.2 SCOPE OF WORK FOR BOILER MAINTENANCE &

REPAIRING

5.2.1. Dismantling of Boiler & its accessories:

OBJECTIVE: To dismantle all the boiler internal parts and its accessories for
analysis so that if any defect found or any component is malfunctioning it can be
repaired.

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TEST
EQUIPMENT OBSERVATION STATUS
PERFORMED

Damaged due to
OUTER JACKET Replaced
rusting

INNER JACKET In good shape Found ok

Ceramic
INTERMEDDIATE
insulations are To be renewed
JACKET
damaged

Rusting and scales

STREAM COIL Hydrostatic test Found ok
formation

Outer and inner

Complete set-up has to
ECONOMIZER tubes corroded
be replaced
due to rusting

All circuits are Checked by

CONTROL PANEL Found ok
intact electricians

Shaft was moving at

Unused for long Operated on no-
PUMPS required
days load condition
speed(rpm).Workable

Checked by
SENSORS damaged Replaced with new one
electricians
Glass wool
Replaced
INSULATIONS insulations are
totally damaged
In good shape
BURNER ASSEMBLY Found ok
electrodes are ok
PRESSURE GAUGES working Found ok
Tested by
Anion and cation
specialized Replaced
WATER SOFTNERS exchanger are
technicians
damaged

PROCEDURE:
Skilled technicians from Thermax Limited headed the operation.

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They used overhead chain pulley to lift up the bulgy components like economizer
coil, inner and outer jackets.
Gas cutter and plasma cutter were used.

5.2.2. PRESSURE TEST OF DUCTS & STREAMLINE:

OBJECTIVE: It is the final check of mechanical integrity of the whole system and

should be followed religiously as after this activity the piping system has to be
commissioned.

PREPEARATION & TESTING:

Pressure gauges should be fitted at both low and high point when testing large
volume systems.
The system shall be filled from the lowest available point; all vents and high
point connections shall be open during this operation to allow the air in the
system to vent off.
After the system has been completely vented all vents and drains should be
plugged or blinded. Verify that Valves are in place and open/closed as
required.
Maintain pressure for 10 minutes and then gradually increase pressure in steps
of one tenth of the test pressure until the test pressure is attained. The
recommended practice of a QC inspector is to walk through the whole piping
system and check for leaks. Every single length of piping, welds, bolted
connections shall be visually examined for any leakage. Duration of this
activity varies with the span of piping system. For larger piping system time
taken for this activity is enough to clear the hydrostatic test. In case of piping
system having smaller span, 1 hour time may be made as standard practice.
Whenever a leak is found from flanged connection, it is advisable not to
perform any tightening before the system pressure is brought down to at least
70%. A leak from a weld joint, piping base metal or any other location which
may require hot work shall only be addressed after de-pressurizing the piping
under test.
After any leaks have been repaired the system shall again be pressurized to the
test pressure in stages.

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The test should be witnessed and accepted by a third party, client

representative or a responsible person within the company and signed as
accepted.
Pressure and ambient temperatures should be recorded throughout the
complete test cycle. These charts should form part of the Hydrostatic Test
Documentation.
On completion of the test, the system shall be depressurized by controlled
means and all vents opened prior to draining of the system to avoid any
vacuum within the system.

PROCESS:
Compressed hot air at around 50 degree centigrade was
allowed to pass through the stream line while all the valves
were closed.
Pressure gauges and temperature recorder were installed at
the inlet and outlet of the pipelines.
The operation was commenced at 1.5 times higher than the
design pressure of the system.

RESULT:

Pressure drop, temperature drop & several leakages were found. Therefore hence total
insulation has to be replaced & the pipeline has to be repaired by arc welding.

5.3 Scope of works after renovation to start-up the boiler

1. COMBUSTION/FLUE GAS ANALYSIS

2. BOILER TUNE-UP

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6. COMBUSTION ANALYSIS

6. COMBUSTION ANALYSIS

6.1 COMBUSTION: Combustion occurs when fossil fuels, such as natural gas, fuel oil,
coal or gasoline, react with oxygen in the air to produce heat. The heat from burning fossil
fuels is used for industrial processes, environmental heating or to expand gases in a cylinder
and push a piston. Boilers, furnaces and engines are important users of fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, meaning they are composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen.
When fossil fuels are burned, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) are the principle
chemical products, formed from the reactants carbon and hydrogen in the fuel and oxygen
(O2) in the air.
The simplest example of hydrocarbon fuel combustion is the reaction of methane (CH4), the
largest component of natural gas, with O2 in the air. When this reaction is balanced, or
stoichiometric, each molecule of methane reacts with two molecules of O2 producing one
molecule of CO2 and two molecules of H2O. When this occurs, energy is released as heat.

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CH4 + 2O2 => CO2 + 2H2O

Reactants => Products + Heat

In actual combustion processes, other products are often formed. A typical example of an
actual combustion process is shown in Figure 1. Fuel has reacted with air to produce the
products shown on the right.

ANALYSIS: Combustion analysis is part of a process intended to improve fuel economy,

reduce undesirable exhaust emissions and improve the safety of fuel burning equipment.
Combustion analysis begins with the measurement of flue gas concentrations and gas
temperature, and may include the measurement of draft pressure and soot level. To measure
gas concentration, a probe is inserted into the exhaust flue and a gas sample drawn out.
Exhaust gas temperature is measured using a thermocouple positioned to measure the highest
exhaust gas temperature. Soot is measured from a gas sample drawn off the exhaust flue.
Draft is the differential pressure between the inside and outside of the exhaust flue.
Once these measurements are made, the data is interpreted using calculated combustion
parameters such as combustion efficiency and excess air. A more in depth analysis will
examine the concentration of the undesirable products described earlier.

OBJECTIVE:

1. Improve Fuel Economy: The largest sources of boiler heat losses are shown Figure 2.
Heat energy leaving the system exhaust flue (or stack) is often the largest single source of lost
fuel energy and is made up of the Dry Gas loss and Latent Heat Loss. Although some flue

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loss is unavoidable, an equipment tune-up using combustion analysis data can often
significantly reduce this source of heat loss and save fuel costs by improving fuel efficiency.
Table 1 gives examples of yearly cost savings that can be realized by improving equipment
efficiency by five percent.

2. Reduction Emission: Carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particles are
undesirable emissions associated with burning fossil fuels. These compounds are toxic,
contribute to acid rain and smog and can ultimately cause respiratory problems. Federal and
state laws govern the permissible emission rates for these pollutants under the guidance of the
Clean Air Act and oversight of the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA ).
Combustion analysis is performed to monitor toxic and acid rain forming emissions in order
to meet these federal, state and local regulations.

3. Improve Safety: Good equipment maintenance practice, which includes combustion

analysis, enables the boiler technician to fully verify and maintain the equipment operating
specifications for safe and efficient operation. Many boiler manufacturers suggest that flue
gas analysis be performed at least monthly. Boiler adjustments that affect combustion will
tend to drift with time. Wind conditions and seasonal changes in temperature and barometric
pressure can cause the excess air in a system to fluctuate several percent. A reduction in
excess air can cause, in turn, a rapid increase of highly toxic carbon monoxide and explosive
gases, resulting in rapid deterioration in system safety and efficiency. Low draft pressures in
the flue can further result in these combustion gases building up in the combustion chamber
or being vented
indoors. Excessive draft pressures in the flue also can cause turbulence in the system. This
can prevent complete combustion and pull explosive gases into the flue or cause flame
impingement and damage in the combustion chamber and to the heat exchanger material.

6.2 PARAMETERS THAT ARE MEASURED IN COMBUSTION

ANALYSIS:

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Combustion analysis involves the measurement of gas concentrations, temperatures and

pressure for boiler tune-ups, emissions checks and safety improvements. Parameters that are
commonly examined include:
Oxygen (O2)
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Exhaust gas temperature
Supplied combustion air temperature
Draft
Nitric Oxide (NO)
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

6.3 ROLES OF THE PARAMETERS:

1. Oxygen, Carbon monoxide, Carbon dioxide:
During combustion the oxygen in the air supplied reacts with the carbon & hydrogen
of the fuel to form CO2 & H2O. Under ideal conditions, the only gases in the exhaust
flue are CO2, water vapor and nitrogen from the combustion air. When O2 appears in
the flue exhaust, it usually means that more air (20.9 percent of which is O2) was
supplied than was needed for complete combustion to occur. Some O2 is left over. In
other words, the measurement of O2 gas in the flue indicates that extra combustion
air, or Excess Air, was supplied to the combustion reaction. This is demonstrated in
Figure 3 where the bar on the right represents the exhaust gas composition.

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When too little air is supplied to the burner, there is not enough oxygen to completely
form CO2 with all the carbon in the fuel. Instead, some oxygen combines with carbon
to form carbon monoxide (CO). CO is a highly toxic gas associated with incomplete
combustion and efforts must be made to minimize its formation. This effort goes
hand-in-hand with improving fuel efficiency and reducing soot generation. This
formation of CO gas is illustrated in Figure 4.

2. TEMPERATURE:
Exhaust Gas Temperature and Supplied Combustion Air Temperature
Heat leaving the exhaust flue with the hot gases is not transferred to do useful work, such as
producing steam. This heat loss becomes a major cause of lower fuel efficiency. Because the
heat content of the exhaust gas is proportional to its temperature, the fuel efficiency drops as
the temperature increases. An example of efficiency loss due to the increase in stack gas
temperature is shown in Figure 6.

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3. DRAFT: Draft refers to the flow of gases through the heat generating equipment,
beginning with the introduction of air at the back of the burner. Once combustion occurs, the
heated gas leaves the combustion chamber, passes heat exchangers and exits the exhaust
stack. Depending upon the design of the equipment, draft is natural, meaning combustion air
is pulled in by buoyant heated gases venting up the stack, or it is mechanical, meaning air is
pushed or pulled through the system by a fan. Often, draft relies on a combination of both
natural and mechanical means. Adequate draft is typically verified by measuring the pressure
in the exhaust stack. Measurement is important since environmental influences such as
changes in barometric pressure and ambient temperature can influence the flow. Typical draft
pressures are in the range of 0.5 to 0.5 inches of water column.

4. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Nitrogen oxides, principally nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), are pollutant gases that contribute to the formation of acid rain, ozone and
smog. The NO concentration is often measured alone, and the NO2 concentration is generally
assumed to comprise an additional five percent of the total nitrogen oxides.

5. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): Sulfur dioxide combines with water vapor in the exhaust to
form a sulfuric acid mist. Airborne sulfuric acid is a pollutant in fog, smog, acid rain and

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snow, ending up in the soil and ground water. Sulfur dioxide itself is corrosive and harmful to
the environment.
Sulfur dioxide occurs when the fuel contains sulfur and where the emission levels are directly
related to the amount of sulfur in the fuel. The most cost-effective way to reduce sulfur
emissions is to select a low-sulfur or de-sulfured fuel.

6. Hydrocarbons (HCs)/Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Organic

compounds are sometimes present in the combustion exhaust products because of incomplete
combustion. Hydrocarbons (HCs), or volatile organic compounds (VOCs), are best reduced
through proper burner maintenance and by maintaining the proper air/fuel mixture

7. Soot :
Soot is the black smoke commonly seen in the exhaust of diesel trucks, and is present
whenever fuel oils or solid fuels are burned. Excessive soot is undesirable because it indicates
poor combustion and is responsible for coating internal heat transfer surfaces, preventing
good thermal conductivity. Over time, serious damage to the heat exchanger can occur.
Soot is primarily unburned carbon, and is formed for the same reasons CO is formed
insufficient combustion air, poor mixing and low flame temperature. As with CO, it is usually
impossible or impractical to entirely eliminate soot formation for some fuel types.

7. MEASUREMENT TOOLS

7.1 Manual Gas Measurements

1. ORSAT ANALYSER:

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DEFINATION: The Orsat analyzer is a gas concentration analysis tool typically used to
manually sample CO2, O2 and CO from the flue of a combustion system
OBJECTIVE: The Orsat analyzer determines the gas concentrations from a sample of gas
extracted from the flue and bubbled through solutions of reagents that selectively absorb each
gas. By measuring the decrease in gas volume over the liquid reagents, the amount of gas
absorbed is indicated.

PROCEDURE:
1. The sample of flue gas is taken and allowed to pass through the orsat analyzer.
2. Expelling excess gas.
3. Absorption of the gas through contact with chemical by rising and lowering the leveling
bottle.
Gas then passed into KOH (potassium hydroxide) solution pipette to absorb CO 2 to
form potassium carbonate by the reaction 2KOH + CO 2 K2CO3+ H2O at ambient
conditions.
After confirming no change in the volume of reservoir than gas led to alkaline
pyrogallic acid containing pipette to absorb oxygen by the reaction:
2C6H3(OH)3(pyrogallol) + 2KOH(saturated alkaline)+ O2 4H2O + 2C5H3OCOOK
and a physical color change is observed.
Finally carbon monoxide is absorbed by ammoniacal cuprous chloride pipette by the
reaction,
2CuCl + 2CO (in NH3 solution) [CuCl(CO)]2
4. .Finally measuring the percentage of component by equating the water levels, repeating
(3 and 4) with other two absorber chambers.

RESULTS:

Potassium Hydroxide absorbs Carbon dioxide

Alkaline pyrogalic acid absorbs Oxygen
Cuprous Chloride absorbs Carbon monoxide

NOMENCLATURE:

Md = Dry molecular weight, g/g-mole (lb/lb-mole).

%EA = Percent Excess Air.
%CO2 = Percent CO2 by volume, (dry basis).
%O2 = Percent O2 by volume, (dry basis).
%CO = Percent CO by volume, (dry basis).
%N2 = Percent N2 by volume, (dry basis).

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7.2 Portable Electronic Instruments

COMBUSTION ANALYSIS CALCULATOR

OBJECTIVE:
To analyze combustion routinely for tune-up, maintenance & emission
monitoring

PROCEDURE:
1. This instrument are extractive. The remove the sample from stack or flue
by vacuum pressure and the analyze the sample using electro chemical
sensors.
2. Thermocouple used for the stack and flue temperature.
3. Pressure transducer is used for draft measurement.
4. On board computer performs the combustion calculations

7.3 Continuous Emission Monitors

Continuous emission monitors, or CEMS, are a class of electronic instruments designed to
measure exhaust stack gases and temperature continuously. CEMs are sometimes used for
combustion control, but typically are used for monitoring pollutant gas emissions as required
by government regulations. CEMs can use both extractive and in-situ (sensors in the stack)
sampling methods, and employ a variety of electronic sensor technologies for gas detection.
CEMs are used most often on larger installations or when required by regulatory agencies.

A small sample of flue gas is extracted, by means of a pump, into the CEM system via a
sample probe. Facilities that combust fossil fuels often use a dilution-extractive probe to
dilute the sample with clean, dry air to a ratio typically between 50:1 to 200:1, but usually
100:1. Dilution is used because pure flue gas can be hot, wet and, with some pollutants,
sticky. Once diluted to the appropriate ratio, the sample is transported through a sample line
(typically referred to as an umbilical) to a manifold from which individual analyzers may
extract a sample. Gas analyzers employ various techniques to accurately measure
concentrations. Some commonly used techniques include infrared and ultraviolet
adsorption, chemiluminescence , fluorescence and beta ray absorption. After analysis, the gas
exits the analyzer to a common manifold to all analyzers where it is vented out of doors. A

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Data Acquisition and Handling System (DAHS) receives the signal output from each analyzer
in order to collect and record emissions data

8. CALCULATIONS:

8.1 EXCESS AIR:

DEFINATION: The percentage of excess air needed above the theoretical amount for
complete combustion of fuel.

REQUIREMENT: Insufficient combustion air causes a reduction in fuel efficiency,

creates highly toxic carbon monoxide gas and produces soot. To ensure there is enough
oxygen to completely react with the fuel, extra combustion air is usually supplied. This
extra air, called Excess Air, is expressed as the percent air above the amount
theoretically needed for complete combustion. In real-world combustion, the excess air
required for gaseous fuels is typically about 15 percent. Significantly more may be
needed for liquid and solid fuels.

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FORMULA:

8.2 CARBONDIOXIDE CONCENTRATION:

REQUIREMENT: Carbon dioxide (CO2) forms when carbon in the fuel combines with O2
in the combustion air. When there is just enough O2 supplied to react with the carbon in the
fuel, the CO2 concentration in the stack exhaust is at its highest level. This is generally at or
close to the ideal operating condition for the heat generating equipment. This was shown in
Figure 5.
The maximum possible CO2 exhaust concentration depends ultimately on the carbon content
of the fuel being burned.

FORMULA:

8.3 DETERMINING COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY:

REQUIREMENT: Combustion efficiency is a measure of how effectively energy from the

fuel is converted into useful energy (e.g. to create steam). Combustion efficiency is
determined by subtracting the heat content of the exhaust gases, expressed as a percentage of

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the fuels heating value, from the total fuel-heat potential, or 100%, as shown in the formula
below.

FORMULA 1:

STACK/FLUE HEAT LOSS = Lg+Lh+Lm+Lco

Lg = heat loss due to dry gas
Lh = heat loss due to moisture from burning hydrogen
Lm = heat loss due to moisture in fuel
Lco = heat loss from the formation of carbon monoxide

FUEL HEATING VALUE - Higher heating value(HHV) or Lower heating

value(LHV)

Heat loss due to dry gas (Lg):

Lg = Wg x Cp x (Tflue Tsupply) (The CA-CALC displays Loss as the dry
gas loss.)
Where: Wg = the weight of the flue gases per pound of as-fired fuel.
Cp = specific heat of the exhaust gas mix.
Tflue = flue temperature
Tsupply = combustion supply air temperature

Heat loss due to H2O from combustion of hydrogen (Lh):

Where the fuel has a high hydrogen content, latent heat loss from the water
formation can be very significant.

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Lh = 8.936 x H x ( hl hrw )
Where: 8.936 = weight of water formed for each hydrogen atom
H = fractional hydrogen content of the fuel
hl = enthalpy of water at the exhaust temperature and pressure
hrw = enthalpy of water as a saturated liquid at fuel supply temperature

Heat loss due to moisture in fuel (Lm):

Moisture in the fuel is determined from lab analysis of the fuel and can be
obtained from the fuel supplier.
Lm = fraction fuel moisture x (hl hrw)
Where: hl = enthalpy of water at exit gas temperature and pressure
hrw = enthalpy of water at fuel supply temperature

Heat loss due from the formation of carbon monoxide (Lco):

Carbon in the fuel reacts with oxygen to form CO first, then CO2, generating a
total of 14,540 Btus of heat per pound of carbon. If the reaction stops at CO
because of insufficient O2 or poor mixing of fuel and air, 10,160 Btus of
energy are lost.

FORMULA 2: Combustion calculations using the Siegert formula

The Siegert formula is widely used in Europe to determine flue losses (qA) and efficiency.

Efficiency = 100 qA
Where: qA = flue loss
Ts = flue temperature
Ta = supply air temperature
O2 = measured volumetric oxygen concentration expressed as a percent

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A2, B = fuel dependent constants

The constants A2 and B are derived from the fuel composition. In Germany, the following
values are prescribed for some common fuels:

8.4 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS:

OBJECTIVE: Measurements of the stack gas temperature and the combustion air
temperature are required to establish the heat loss from the exhaust gases and determine
combustion efficiency.

MEASURING INSTRUMENT: A bimetallic thermocouple probe is typically used to

measure the stack temperature.

PROCEDURE: This thermocouple probe is placed at the point of highest exhaust gas
temperature at the base of the flue and toward the center for small ducts. If the stack gas
temperature is underestimated, the operating efficiency will be overstated. When an
economizer or air heater is used, stack temperature is measured after these devices. Figure 10
shows locations for measuring both stack and combustion air temperatures.

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8.5 DRAFT MEASUREMENT:

OBJECTIVE:
Draft is a measurement to ensure the combustion gases are being properly exhausted.

MEASURING INSTRUMENT:
Draft is measured using a manometer or electronic pressure transducer.

PROCEDURE: Draft is usually measured in the same location as the stack temperature
relative to the ambient space. When a draft diverter or draft hood is in the stack, a second
measurement should be taken downstream of the device.

8.6 OXYGEN REFERENCE CONCENTRATION CALCULATION:

REQUIREMENT: Excess air is measured in the flue as a percentage of O2. This excess air
dilutes the concentration of other gases measured. The measured O2 concentration, together
with the O2 reference value is used in the equation below to obtain the corrected gas
concentration. O2 reference values of 3 and 6 percent are often used, giving a corrected gas
concentration equivalent to that at oxygen concentrations of 3 or 6 percent. When an O2
reference of zero is
Used, the gas concentration is referred to as undiluted or air free.

FORMULA:

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8.7 EMISSION RATE CALCULATION:

OBJECTIVE: The emission rate calculation presented below is described in EPA Method
19. This uses the dry gas factor Fd. Dry factors are incorporated into the values found in
Table 5 below. The table values (Ft), convert the measured concentrations of emission gases
CO, NOx, and SO2 from PPM to pounds per million Btu of fuel.

FORMULA:

Where: E = Emission rate (pounds/MBtu of fuel)*

Cg = Gas concentration (PPM)
Ft = Emission rate conversion factor from Table 5 (below)
O2 measured = Oxygen concentration from flue measurement (%)
*To convert emission rate to metric equivalent units, kg/kJ,
multiply E in the equation above by 2.236.
**Ft units are lb/MBtu PPM.

Ft Furnace oil
SO2 0.00153
NOx 0.00110
CO 0.00670

Note: For those familiar with Method 19, Ft is related to Fd in the

following way:
Ft is in units lbs/(MBtu ppm)
Fd is in units scf/MBtu
Ft = Fd x lb/(scf ppm)

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9. BOILER TUNE-UP

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9. BOILER TUNE-UP

What Is Boiler Tune-up?

Boiler tune up refers different aspects of improving and starting up the boiler
operations.
The tune up activity is the act of re-establishing the air-fuel mixture for the operating
range of boiler, oxygen and unburned fuel are balanced to provide safe and efficient
combustion

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE:

To improve the boiler efficiency with economically consumption of fuel while

providing the desired effect.

PROCEDURE:

1) Preparation:
a) Clearly identify the target equipment along with the intent and goals of the tune-up.

b) Assemble boiler drawings and data sheets.

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c) Assemble burner drawings and data sheets.

d) Assemble combustion control information.

e) Identify environmental regulations and limitations.

i) Typically nitrogen oxides (NOx) and combustible material (often identified as CO) are
specifically addressed in the emission limits.

f) Identify steam production control strategy that will be used during the tune-up.

g) Identify in-situ instrumentation and verify calibration.

h) Identify measurement locations and verify access.

i) The most common flue gas measurement location is immediately downstream of

the steam generation section of a water-tube type boiler. For a fire-tube type boiler
the flue gas sample is most commonly taken as the exhaust gases exit the boiler
proper. Establish tune-up timeframe.

2) As-found observation:

NOTE: Identification of the as-found conditions centers on measurement of the operating

parameters of the combustion process that will be modified during the tune-up process. The
primary measurements required under the Boiler Area Source Rule are flue gas oxygen
content and flue gas carbon monoxide content at the high-fire or typical operation load.

a) Examine the combustion control components (i.e., the system controlling the air-to-
fuel ratio) and ensure it is functioning properly.

b) Examine the burner internal components and identify any defects, if applicable.

c) Examine the general boiler conditions and identify any defects.

d) Measure and record the following for each operating position of the combustion
control system.

i) Observe flame pattern, flame dimensions, and burner condition.

ii) Flue gas oxygen content.

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iii) Flue gas carbon monoxide (CO) content.

iv) Flue gas emissions content (NOx, if appropriate).

(1) Additional flue gas component analysis is required when the environmental
permit specifies limits on emission components. A common regulated
emission component is nitrogen oxides (NOx).

v) Emissions control settings.

(1) Flue Gas Recirculation flow settings (if applicable).

vi) Final flue gas temperature.

e) Document any modifications completed at this point.

3) Tune-up:

The tune-up activity is the act of ensuring the burners are properly mixing the air and fuel and
of reestablishing the most appropriate amount of excess air throughout the operating range of
the boiler.

a) Tune-up each operating position of the combustion control system (from high-fire
through low-fire).

i) Establish steady operation for the target operating point.

ii) Adjust combustion control position relationship to achieve desired combustion

characteristics.

(1) Flue gas oxygen content - target will generally be the manufacturers
specifications.

(2) CO content - target will generally be the manufacturers specifications.

(3) NOx content, if applicable target will generally be the limit specified in the
environmental permit.

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(a) Adjustments for emissions control are generally completed after

combustion adjustments are established.

iii) Measure and record the following for each operating position of the combustion
control system.

(1) Observe flame pattern, flame dimensions, and burner condition.

(2) Flue gas oxygen content.

(3) Flue gas CO content.

(4) Flue gas emissions content (NOx and others).

(5) Final flue gas temperature.

iv) Document any modifications completed at each point.

4) Document tune-up.

a) Document the tune-up including the following.

i) As-found conditions.

ii) Post tune-up conditions.

iii) Modifications and repairs completed.

iv) Recommended investigations and modifications.

v) Identified shortcomings of the equipment.

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10. CONCLUSION
Boiler or steam generator is an integral part of most of the core industries like power plant,
steel plant etc. As machines are always susceptible to damages, any problem related to boiler
will hampers the total process of production or service in an industry.

We are highly honoured to be part of the project which deals with immediate steps to repair,
renovate and re-establishment of small industrial package boilers. From the project we have
learned basic ideas about stream generator, its working processes, requirement in industries,
individual parts and their functions and the means to improve the efficiency of the boiler
while maintaining the environmental laws and pollution act.

The project has immensely helped us to use our theoretical knowledge and skills in practical
field while dismantling the boiler parts and analysis for any defects and needful works for
their repair.

Overall it has been a great learning experience and gain a lot of experience which we can
utilize in practical field in future.

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11. REFERENCES

Brochure on REVOMAX PLUS by Thermax ltd.

Stream Generator Unites, American society of Mechanical Engineers,
New York,1991
Flue and exhaust gas analysis, American society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York,1981
Energy efficiency
R. k. Raj put, thermal engineering
S. Domkundwar , A. v domkundwar, s. c Arrora,
power plant engineering
P. c Sharma, power plant engineering
Thermal engineering- R.S Khurmi/J.s gupta/s.chand
Thermal engineering-M.L. Mathur &Mehtal/join bros
www.google.com
www.wikipidea.com
www.slideshare.com

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