Dgcs Volume 2a

Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2A GeoHazard Assessment
Contents
ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................................................... IV
GLOSSARY ...................................................................................................................................................... V
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 1-1
1.1 GEOHAZARDS IN THE PHILIPPINES ............................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 THE NEED FOR A PRELIMINARY GEOHAZARD ASSESSMENT ............................................................................ 1-1
1.3 MITIGATION OF GEOHAZARDS ..................................................................................................................... 1-2
2 GEOHAZARDS IN THE PHILIPPINES ................................................................................................ 2-1
2.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 SEISMICITY ................................................................................................................................................ 2-1
2.2.1 The Nature of Seismicity .................................................................................................................. 2-1
2.2.2 Faulting ............................................................................................................................................ 2-4
2.2.3 The Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment ......................................................................................... 2-4
2.3 LIQUEFIABLE SOILS .................................................................................................................................... 2-5
2.3.1 The Nature of Liquefaction .............................................................................................................. 2-5
2.3.2 Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment ................................................................................................ 2-6
2.4 VOLCANIC ACTIVITY ................................................................................................................................... 2-8
2.4.1 The Nature of the GeoHazard .......................................................................................................... 2-8
2.4.2 Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment ................................................................................................ 2-8
2.5 UNSTABLE SLOPES ................................................................................................................................... 2-10
2.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 2-10
2.5.2 Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment .............................................................................................. 2-11
2.6 KARST ..................................................................................................................................................... 2-12
2.7 MINING ACTIVITIES .................................................................................................................................. 2-13
2.8 PROBLEM SOILS ....................................................................................................................................... 2-14
2.8.1 Expansive soils ................................................................................................................................ 2-14
2.8.2 Fills.................................................................................................................................................. 2-16
2.8.3 High Compressibility Soils .............................................................................................................. 2-17
2.8.4 Contaminated Soils ........................................................................................................................ 2-18
2.9 GROUNDWATER ....................................................................................................................................... 2-20
2.10 FLOODING, SCOUR AND EROSION ............................................................................................................ 2-21
2.10.1 Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment........................................................................................... 2-21
2.11 TSUNAMIS, SEICHES, STORM SURGES ...................................................................................................... 2-22
2.12 GEOTHERMAL ACTIVITY......................................................................................................................... 2-22
2.13 EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ............................................................................................................... 2-24
3 PRELIMINARY GEOHAZARD ASSESSMENT ..................................................................................... 3-1
3.1 REQUIRED EXPERTISE................................................................................................................................. 3-1
3.2 SCOPE OF PRELIMINARY GEOHAZARD ASSESSMENT ...................................................................................... 3-1
3.2.1 Desk Study ........................................................................................................................................ 3-1
3.2.2 Reconnaissance ................................................................................................................................ 3-2
3.3 PRELIMINARY GEOHAZARD ASSESSMENT REPORT ........................................................................................ 3-2
3.4 FURTHER ACTION....................................................................................................................................... 3-3
4 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................. 4-1
i
Volumes
Volume 1 Introduction and Overview
Volume 2A GeoHazard Assessment
Volume 2B Engineering Surveys
Volume 2C Geological and Geotechnical Investigations
Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
Volume 4 Highway Design
Volume 5 Bridge Design
Volume 6 Public Buildings and Other Related Structures
Annexes
Annex A Seismicity
Annex B Liquefiable Soils
Annex C Volcanic Activity
Annex D Unstable Slopes and Landslides
Annex E Problem Soils: Expansive Soils
Annex F Fumaroles and Hydrothermal Explosion
Annex G Sources of GeoHazard Assessment Data
Annex H Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment Report Template
ii
Tables and Figures

Table 2-1 Landslide Hazard (after PTCPD, 2012) ................................................................................................. 2-11
Table 2-2 Properties of Clay Minerals ........................................................................................................................ 2-14
Table 2-3 Main Contaminative Industries (Environment Agency)................................................................ 2-19
Table 2-4 Contaminated Ground Risk to Infrastructure .................................................................................... 2-20
Table 2-5 Relation of Climate Change to GeoHazard ........................................................................................... 2-25
Figure 2-1 A Collapsed Building during the July 16, 1990 Northern Luzon Earthquake .........................2-2
Figure 2-2 Structural Map of the Philippines ...............................................................................................................2-3
Figure 2-3 Map showing Peak Horizontal Acceleration Values for Rock.........................................................2-5
Figure 2-4 Cyclic Mobility Resulting in Spreading of Bridge Foundations, Niigata 1964 ........................2-6
Figure 2-5 Liquefaction Map ................................................................................................................................................2-7
Figure 2-6 Active and Potentially Active Volcanoes ..................................................................................................2-9
Figure 2-7 PHIVOLCS Description of Volcanoes ...................................................................................................... 2-10
Figure 2-8 Landslide Hazard Map .................................................................................................................................. 2-11
Figure 2-9 Typical Karst Terrain .................................................................................................................................... 2-12
Figure 2-10 Moisture Variations beneath Roads ....................................................................................................... 2-15
Figure 2-11 Cracking Observed in a Residential Development ........................................................................... 2-15
Figure 2-12 Spring Lines ....................................................................................................................................................... 2-21
iii
Abbreviations
Acronym Definition
ADB Asian Development Bank
AGS Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists
ASEP Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines
BSDS Bridges Seismic Design Specifications (by DPWH)
CDF Controlled Density Fill
CNC Certificate of Non-Coverage
CPT Cone Penetration Test
CRR Cyclic Resistance Ratio
CSR Cyclic Stress Ratio
DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources
DGCS Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards
DPWH Department of Public Works and Highways
ECC Environmental Clearance Certificate
EGGA Engineering Geology and GeoHazard Assessment
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
GSI Geological Strength Index
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
LL Liquid Limit
MGB Mines and Geosciences Bureau
MSE Mechanically-Stabilized Earth
MSF Magnitude Scaling Factor
NAMRIA National Mapping and Resource Information Authority
PGA Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment
PHIVOLCS Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
PTCPD Penang Town and Country Planning Department
RMR Rock Mass Rating
SPT Standard Penetration Test
iv
Glossary
Acronym Definition
Abstraction Removal of groundwater.
Anisotropy Having different physical properties when measured in different directions.
Archipelago A chain, cluster or collection of islands.
Back-sapping Loss of ground, generally on slope, as a result of loss of support in the area below.
Bioengineering The use of mechanical elements in combination with biological elements (e.g.plants) particularly for
control of erosion and prevention of slope failures.
Caldera A very large crater associated with a volcano and often formed by the collapse of an underground
magma chamber.
Clast Fragment of pre-existing rocks produced by the process of weathering and erosion.
Clay A clastic mineral particle of any composition that has a grain size smaller than 1/256 (0.00391) mm.
Counterfort A buttress, usually in a wall.
Creep A slow or gradual movement, applied to soil and superficial accumulations moving under gravity.
Downdrag The loading, particularly on piles, caused by settlement of soil in the upper part of the pile.
Down-slope At a point on the slope below the reference point.
Escarpment A steep slope or long cliff that occurs from faulting and resulting erosion and separates two relatively
level areas of differing elevations.
Far-fault A fault more than 5km distant from the reference point.
Fault A shear fracture in rock along which there has been an observable amount of displacement.
Fumarole A hot spring emitting volatiles.
Geohazard Geologic and natural hazards, particularly those that put infrastructure at risk.
Geomembrane Very low permeability synthetic membrane liner of barrier used with any geotechnical engineering
related material so as to control fluid (or gas) migration in a human-made project, structure, or system.
Geomorphology The study of landforms, their origin and development.
Geoportal A web-based source of data on the earth sciences.
Groundwater Water that exists below the water table in the zone of saturation.
Hydrogeology The study of the interrelationship of geologic materials and processes with water, especially
groundwater.
Levee An embankment, generally constructed on or parallel to the banks of a stream, lake or other body of
(alias Dike) water for the purpose of protecting the land side from inundation by flood water, or to confine the
stream flow to its regular channel.
Lineament A large-scale linear feature which expresses itself in terms of topography.
Liquefaction The sudden, large decrease of shear strength of cohesionless soil caused by collapse of the soil
structure, produced by small shear strains associated with sudden but temporary increase of pore
water pressure.
Mass wasting Down slope movement of soil and/or rock under the influence of gravity.
Morphostructural Relating to landforms and the tectonic structure of the rocks.
Near-fault A fault less than 5km distant from the reference point.
Near-field The area of the near-fault.
Piping The movement of soil particles as a result of unbalanced seepage forces produced by percolating
water.
Pyroclastic Rocks formed by fragmental volcanic materials that have been blown into the atmosphere by volcanic
activity.
Reinforced-soil Soil constructed with artificial reinforcing, also known as mechanically stabilized earth or MSE
v
Seiche Raised water level and wave in inland bodies of water, produced by seismic or storm action.
Shear-wave A type of elastic wave, the S-wave, secondary wave, or shear wave is one of the two main types of
elastic body waves.
Slickenside A form of polish with linear grooves and ridges on the two surfaces of a rock which has undergone
relative movement as a result of faulting.
Strike-slip A type of fault surface which is usually near vertical and the footwall moves either left or right or
laterally with very little vertical motion.
Subduction The process that takes place at convergent boundaries by which one tectonic plate moves under
another tectonic plate and sinks into the mantle as the plates converge.
Tectonic Large-scale processes such as structural or orogenic activity that collectively deform the Earths crust.
vi
1 Introduction
1.1 GeoHazards in the Philippines
By reason of its geographic, geologic and tectonic setting the Philippines is
prone to geologic and natural hazards that include earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions and major mass movements. The more recent geologic events that
have caused enormous destruction to lives and property are the earthquake
of Luzon on 16 July 1990 and the eruption of Pinatubo Volcano on 13 June
1991. Both incidents killed thousands of people and destroyed millions of
pesos of property.
In August 1999, suburban Cherry Hills Subdivision located on a hilly section
of Antipolo City experienced yet another disaster in which torrential rains
for three consecutive days triggered a landslide that cost the lives of over 50
people and rendered hundreds more homeless. The Philippine government
proceeded to issue DENR AO2000-28 as its long-term response to the urgent
need of protecting lives and property from destruction brought about by
such geologic hazards.
1.2 The Need for a Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment

The guidelines of DENR AO 2000-28, issued as MGB Memorandum Circular
No. 2000-33, stipulate that the Engineering Geology and GeoHazard
Assessment (EGGA) process requires a land development project proponent
to request the appropriate MGB office for a site geological scoping survey.
This survey is aimed to determine the scope of geological study to be
conducted in and around the site. The project proponent then prepares an
Engineering Geological and GeoHazard Assessment Report focusing on
potential geologic hazards that may have direct or indirect impact to the
project, and their appropriate mitigating measures. The EGGA Report
undergoes a technical review by an MGB panel after which a revision may be
made before the report is evaluated and finally endorsed to the Environment
Management Bureau for consideration in the issuance of the ECC. For private
projects, the EGGA is conducted by a privately practicing geologist or
qualified engineer while for government projects, the EGGA may be
performed by a government geologist or qualified engineer under a
Memorandum of Agreement (Aurelio, 2004).
However smaller projects undertaken by DPWH, both as part of their own
budget appropriation, and for other agencies, have generally been given a
Certificate of Non-Coverage, as not requiring any environmental
assessment. Since small projects may not be assessed for GeoHazard, but
may nevertheless be at risk from such hazards, it is appropriate to undertake
a Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment (PGA) at the time of the project
concept development stage for all projects.
This document describes the nature of GeoHazards encountered in the
Philippines, the information available to assess their likelihood at any
1-1
particular project site in a preliminary assessment, and the procedure by

which DPWH will follow from the results of the PGA.
1.3 Mitigation of GeoHazards

Some GeoHazards require to be taken into account as part of the standard
design procedures and codes. This is particularly the case for seismic
loading, and mitigation measures for this GeoHazard are dealt with in the
relevant Volume.
Other hazards: flooding, liquefaction, highly compressible soils, are dealt
with as part of routine geotechnical design and are discussed in Volume 3
Water Projects Design for flooding, Volume 4 Highway Design in relation
to earthworks and earth retaining structures, and in Volume 5 Bridge
Design in relation to bridge structures and approaches.
Mitigation measures for GeoHazards which are less normally dealt with as
part of routine design, in particular unstable slopes or landslides and
expansive soils, are discussed in the relevant section of this volume or the
annex to that section.
1-2
2 GeoHazards in the Philippines

2.1 Introduction
The main GeoHazards of significance in infrastructure design and delivery
are described in the following sections.
The majority of GeoHazards are naturally occurring; a few are man-made
such as un-engineered fills. However the remainder can be a combination of
natural and man-made influences. Examples include:
Flooding which is a natural event but which can be caused or
exacerbated by man, as a result of deforestation, building on flood
plains and so on.
Earthquakes which are natural phenomena, but which can be
triggered by large dam construction; also it is predicted that sea level
rise as a result of climate change (a man-made event) will modify the
behavior of earthquakes.
Contaminated land which is usually man-made but can be from
naturally occurring substances such as arsenic, methane gas or
radon gas.
Consequently the GeoHazards have been considered as a single set, and
mans influence on their presence is discussed where relevant.
The study of these GeoHazards and their consequences requires the
expertise of geologists, geomorphologists, geotechnical engineers and so on.
However the Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment described in this guide is
intended to be undertaken primarily by engineers without this specialist
expertise, which would be called in at design stage, or before, if appropriate.
Therefore, the requirement for particular specialists in relation to specific
GeoHazards has not been identified as relevant to this stage of a project.
The extent to which a specific GeoHazard will affect an infrastructure project
is dependent not only on the general type of the project, but its size, strategic
importance and other factors; therefore all the GeoHazards identified should
be assessed for all projects at the preliminary screening stage which is the
PGA.
2.2 Seismicity
2.2.1 The Nature of Seismicity

Earthquakes refer to the ground shaking or ground motion produced by
movement along a trench or an active fault or during a volcanic eruption.
Earthquakes may therefore be tectonic either generated by a trench or by
an active fault or volcanic in origin.
Earthquakes may occur at depths that are shallow (070 km), intermediate
(70300 km) or deep (300700 km). Shallow earthquakes may be triggered
2-1
by both trenches and faults. Intermediate to deep earthquakes are usually

associated with trenches. It is the large shallow earthquakes that cause most
damage as shown in Figure 2-1.
In case of such a major earthquake structures, slopes and foundations will
be subjected to seismic loading. Earthquakes can trigger other seismic
hazards such as landslides, liquefaction, lateral spreading, differential
settlement, tsunamis, seiches and even fires.
Figure 2-1 A Collapsed Building during the July 16, 1990 Northern Luzon Earthquake
As shown in Figure 2-2, the Philippine Mobile Belt is sandwiched by trenches

on both sides and traversed along its entire length by the Philippine Fault.
Palawan and Zamboanga are in the Eurasian margin.
Faults are near-faults or far-faults; a fault within the 5 km distance is a near-
fault while a fault beyond that distance is a far-fault, located in the far field.
The ground acceleration that a site may experience in the far field is a
function of distance with the acceleration experienced by a site decreasing
as distance from the fault increases. In the case of a near-field fault distance
from the fault has little effect.
2-2
Figure 2-2 Structural Map of the Philippines
Manila Negros-Cotabato
PHILIPPINE
EURASIAN MARGIN
FAULT
2-3
2.2.2 Faulting
An active fault is one that has moved during the last 10,000 years. Faulting,
whether through aseismic fault creep or through a catastrophic ground
rupture, refers to actual displacement or dislocation along a fault.
Depending on the orientation of the fault plane and on the direction of
displacement, a fault may be classified as a normal fault, a thrust fault or a
strike-slip fault. A fault is therefore defined by its geometry its strike and
dip and displacement.
Sudden movements along faults result in earthquakes which, in turn, can
trigger other seismic hazards such as landslides, liquefaction, lateral
spreading, differential settlement, tsunamis or seiches.
A relationship is observed to exist between fault length, rupture length,
displacement and magnitude. A major fault, such as the Philippine Fault
which cuts across the entire length of the archipelago, is capable of
producing longer rupture lengths, larger amounts of displacement and
larger magnitude earthquakes than a minor fault.
2.2.3 The Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment

For seismic design of vertical buildings, ASEP National Structural Code of the
Philippines (2010) requires input of:
Distance from active fault
Soil type
The procedures for selecting the spectrum are then set out. The following
requirements need to be considered:
For bridges, requirements of DWPH Bridges Seismic Design
Specifications (DPWH-BSDS), December 2013 JICA Study and the DGCS
Volume 5 Bridge Design.
For earth retaining structures and earthworks, DGCS Volume 4
Highway Design recommends designing using the quasi-static method,
which will require a peak ground acceleration and then a reduction
factor. At this stage the requirements are to identify the distance from
active fault and peak ground acceleration at the site.
The distance from active fault can be identified from the PHIVOLCS maps1.
At the country scale is the map shown in Figure 2-2. However for some parts
of the country, larger scale maps are available; the most detailed available
map for the site should be used, and the scale of the map should be recorded
in the Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment.
The peak ground acceleration can also be obtained from the PHIVOLCS web
site maps, and an example is shown in Figure 2-3.
1 www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph
2-4
Figure 2-3 Map showing Peak Horizontal Acceleration Values for Rock
These have been arrived at by applying the attenuation model of Fukushima

and Tanaka (1990) described in Annex A. If the map scale is found to be
inadequate to identify the peak ground acceleration at the site then the
values can be calculated directly from the equation set out in Annex A.
2.3 Liquefiable Soils
2.3.1 The Nature of Liquefaction

When saturated soils with little cohesion are loaded rapidly this causes pore
pressures to increase and effective stresses to reduce, with a consequent
reduction in the strength of the soil. Under some circumstances the strength
reduction can be severe or total, the phenomenon referred to as liquefaction,
and any structures founded on or in the soils will suffer a major loss of
support, often leading to their collapse. Cyclic loading during an earthquake
event is the major cause of liquefaction.
Two kinds of liquefaction have been recognized. Flow liquefaction occurs
when the initial cyclic loading causes the shear strength to reduce, sufficient
for the soil to cause a flow failure. In this case the soil will be initially on a
sloping ground.
2-5
Figure 2-5 Liquefaction Map
Where the site lies within the liquefaction susceptible zone shown on the
map, the PGA Summary Report shall identify this. If the location is not clear,
as a result of the small scale of the map or for any other reason, then the
Report shall note this along with the reason.
If there is an existing local knowledge about liquefaction potential and
zoning, then this should be added to the Report. Additional assessment of
liquefaction risk can be undertaken using borehole data; a single SPT value
does not identify a liquefaction potential, which is affected by overburden
pressure, grading and fines content. The procedure for the assessment is
described in Annex B. For the initial PGA, data can be used from previous
ground investigations in the general vicinity of the site if the ground
conditions are believed to be similar. The assessment can then be repeated
during Design Development using actual site data.
District and Regional Offices should aim to build up a database of their
ground investigation reports, identifying which sites contain liquefaction
susceptible soils, and this information can be fed back to a PHIVOLCS or
DPWH national database when resources permit.
2-7
2.4 Volcanic Activity
2.4.1 The Nature of the GeoHazard

The Philippines sits on a unique tectonic setting ideal to volcano formation.
The archipelago is surrounded by subducting plates as manifested by the
trenches that are related to volcano formation.
Volcanoes are classified into three (3) types:
Active volcanoes: erupted within historical times (within the last 600
years), accounts of these eruptions were documented by man; also those
that have erupted within the last 10,000 years based on analyses of
datable materials. There are twenty three (23) identified active
volcanoes;
Potentially active volcanoes: morphologically young looking but with no
historical records of eruption. There are twenty six (26) identified
potentially active volcanoes; and
Inactive volcanoes: no record of eruptions; physical form is being
changed by agents of weathering and erosion via formation of deep and
long gullies. There are three hundred fifty three (353) identified inactive
volcanoes.
Volcanic phenomena directly associated with eruption are:
Lava flow, dome growth
Pyroclastic flow, pyroclastic surge, lateral blast
Tephra fall ash fall, volcanic bomb
Volcanic gas
Volcanic phenomena indirectly associated with eruption are:
Lahar, flooding
Debris avalanche, landslide
Tsunami, seiche
Subsidence, fissuring
Secondary / hydrothermal explosion
Secondary pyroclastic flow
2.4.2 Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment

According to Aurelio (2004) areas are zoned according to the degree of
volcanic risk they may be subjected to. Volcanic hazards given attention to
in this classification include possible routes of lava flows, lahars, debris and
pyroclastic flows, lateral blast and pyroclastic surge materials, as well as the
potential extent to be affected by volcanic bombs, ballistic projectiles, ash
fall and gas emissions.
2-8
Virac, Catanduanes, Philippines

Caramoan Peninsula, Camarines Sur, Philippines

Locations of karst terrain can be assessed from:
Geological maps to identify presence of limestone rocks directly
underlying superficial soils.
Field investigation to identify any surface expression: caves, sinkholes.
Local knowledge of voids, water losses into the ground or other relevant
features.
2.7 Mining Activities

Mining takes place throughout the Philippines, for metallic and non-metallic
deposits (particularly nickel, cobalt, silver, gold, salt, copper) and for
limestone.
Mines can be in the form of open pits, and underground workings. Both these
types of mine are developed both by companies with authorized mining
permits and by illegal small and medium-scale workings.
Shallow pit mining is frequently backfilled with loose spoil, and
consequences for infrastructure are similar to those for un-engineered fill as
described in Section 2.8.2.
The presence of underground workings can result in uncontrolled long-term
settlement, failure of piles founded above the workings, and loss of concrete
in bored piles penetrating through the workings, possibly resulting in loss of
performance of the pile.
In areas of coal mining, or geological conditions where coal may have
formed, there is the additional danger of the generation of naturally
occurring methane gas.

The geological map may indicate that extractable resources are present,
though this does not identify that mining has taken place.
No information on the location of deposits or of mining permits is available
from MGB website at present8. If mine workings are suspected then MGB
should be requested to provide available data on permits and extraction for
licensed mines, and local knowledge should be used to identify whether the
site may have been affected by illegal mining, either on the site or in the
vicinity where it could affect the site.
8 http://www.mgb.gov.ph/lmrp.aspx Mineral Resources Maps
2-13
2.8 Problem Soils
2.8.1 Expansive soils
2.8.1.1 Swelling Clay Minerals

The swelling potential of clay varies according to its mineralogy, since
different clay minerals have different crystal lattice structure and bonding.
The plasticity of the clay, as measured by the Atterberg Limit test, is
influenced by these same factors and provides good guidance on the swell
potential of clay soils. Since natural clay soils contain a substantial
proportion of silt which is non-active, it is convenient to express swell
potential in terms of Activity (Plasticity Index / Clay Content)
The main clay mineral groups, in order of increasing expansiveness are
shown in Table 2-2.
Table 2-2 Properties of Clay Minerals
Clay Mineral Plasticity Index % Activity
Kaolinite 15-20 0.3-0.5

Illite 30-50 0.9
Smectites (montmorillonite) > 150 1.5 (Ca) to 7.2 (Na)
2.8.1.2 Moisture Content Changes

In order for a clay to swell or shrink there needs to be a change in moisture
content. The most common reason for changes in moisture content is
seasonal changes in groundwater level due to variation in rainfall.
Other common causes are:
Longer term climate variation, particularly droughts.
Construction, of buildings, roads etc. reducing surface evaporation
locally.
Planting or felling of trees, which have a substantial water demand.
Leakage of water or sewer pipes.
Irrigation practices.
For road projects, the major concern is normally seasonal rainfall effects.
These can cause swelling and shrinkage of clay soils in two (2) main ways,
as shown in Figure 2-10:
Regional groundwater level changes, which will affect the whole of the
roads if built at grade.
Local surface infiltration and drying of the road formation, more
commonly in the case of roads on embankments. The infiltration and
drying effects can be by means of roadside drains, unpaved shoulders or
defective pavement.
2-14
Figure 2-10 Moisture Variations beneath Roads
2.8.1.3 Indications of Swelling Clay Problems

The effect of swelling clays on roads is initially to cause unevenness of the
surface, followed by cracking and rutting. Once the pavement is cracked then
the combination of traffic and additional moisture penetration to the
formation will quickly result in complete failure of the pavement.
Examination of Figure 2-10 shows that longitudinal cracking should
dominate the early behavior, and this has been recorded as shown in Figure
2-11. However the variability of the clay soils and of moisture ingress
generally means that the pattern of heave and cracking is by no means
uniform.
Figure 2-11 Cracking Observed in a Residential Development
15 cm
Cavite (2001)
2-15
Pavement failures caused by swelling clays can be differentiated from other

forms of failures to some extent by the mode of failure, for example:
Longitudinal cracking can occur even on at-grade sections, which
differentiates it from longitudinal cracking caused by embankment
instability.
Rutting is not limited to wheel tracks, which is the case where rutting is
caused by overloading.
Unevenness can be quite extreme before the pavement starts to break
up, normally much greater than when the asphalt mix design is poor.
However, it is not reliable to attempt to identify swelling clay problems
solely from pavement behavior. Worldwide, the identification of swelling
clay soil problems has generally developed as a result of specific local
experience of road and building failures, coupled with investigation of soil
properties and the experience of different types of remedial works for the
local conditions.
2.8.1.4 Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment

The procedures for identifying or eliminating swelling clays as a cause of
pavement problems should be broadly as follows:
Pavement condition survey
Geological desk study and field survey of soils
Laboratory testing of soils including Atterberg Limits and swell pressure
determinations
Monitoring of groundwater level variations
2.8.2 Fills
Three (3) main types of fill are likely to be encountered during infrastructure
development:
Engineered Fills: consisting of selected materials placed and compacted to
provide a stable formation for further development. Such fills should not be
a GeoHazard, except for possible liquefaction as discussed in Section 2.3;
Un-engineered Fills: material dumped without selection or compaction,
but excluding waste dumps or landfills. Materials are likely to be
compressible and unsuitable for founding of infrastructure but not
otherwise be considered a GeoHazard; and
Waste Dumps or Landfills: material containing organic material which will
decay over time. The ground is likely to be highly compressible and also will
settle as a result of the organic decay. The generation of methane from such
dumps provides a potential hazard to buildings and other structures and to
the building users. Such sites should also be assumed to be contaminated
and assessed in accordance with Section 2.8.4.
2-16

The identification of fill areas should be made by:
Drawing on local knowledge, as described in the desk study section of
Volume 2C Geological and Geotechnical Investigations.
Examination of topographic maps. In urban areas, examination of old
maps may assist in identifying the stages of development.
Examination of geomorphology maps. If the area has no geomorphology
map then the assessing engineer should commence the development of
such a map with the information from the project under consideration.
Field inspection.
Trial pitting.
2.8.3 High Compressibility Soils

Soils of high compressibility and significant depth at the site of the
infrastructure development require to be identified at an early stage so that
adequate allowance is provided for the additional costs of dealing with them
in the engineering design.
The two (2) most common types of highly compressible soils are peat and
recent soft clay. These are both found mainly in low-lying areas, close to sea
level in river basins with a meandering river form. Peat is also found at
higher altitudes in depressions in hilly terrain.
Where such soils are underlain by sands and gravels, as is often the case,
then it is frequently found that excessive groundwater abstraction occurs
from these aquifers. This results in partial drainage of the compressible soils
resulting in regional subsidence; the coastal area of Manila is reported to
have subsided by up to 10 cm / year until groundwater extraction was
controlled, at least in metro Manila. It was also responsible for minor
movement along faults (Rodolfo and Siringan, 2006). Ongoing regional
subsidence is particularly significant for the design of flood prevention
works. Also, subsidence results in down drag on piles, which needs to be
taken into account in their design.

General landform and vegetation provide good indicators of the presence of
these soils; also damage to existing infrastructure caused by settlement may
be apparent or known locally. More guidance on the identification of these
soils is provided in Annex E. Regional subsidence is normally identified by
sea encroachment, and measured by long-term benchmark data.
Where compressible soils are identified, and regional subsidence is known
or believed to exist, the assessment should identify the compressible soils as
a hazard, and annotate the report to identify regional subsidence.
2-17
2.8.4 Contaminated Soils

Contamination of natural soils by industrial or related activities can result in
toxicity of the ground which may be hazardous to users of the land or to the
population more widely. Any land which has been used for industrial
purposes should be assessed for potential contamination.
Contaminants usually result from dumping of industrial wastes, leakage of
product, or demolition of facilities, and fall into the following main
categories:
Organic pollutants such as pesticides, organic solvents, petroleum
products
Heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, mercury, cadmium
Acids
Asbestos
Gases
Table 2-3 identifies the main contaminative industries.
Industry profiles which identify the main contaminants found at such sites
can be found at the UK Environment Agency website.
Gases are a special concern. Methane gas is generated during the decay
process of organic materials in landfill, as well as naturally occurring in
organic deposits such as coal. Also radon gas, which is naturally occurring
but mentioned here for completeness. Radon is produced by the radioactive
decay of radium-226, which is found in uranium ores; phosphate rock;
shales; igneous and metamorphic rocks such as granite, gneiss, and schist;
and, to a lesser degree, in common rocks such as limestone9.
9 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radon accessed 14 March 2014
2-18
Table 2-3 Main Contaminative Industries (Environment Agency10)
Industries
Railway land
Engineering works: shipbuilding, repair and shipbreaking (including naval shipyards), airports
and railway engineering works
Gas works, coke works and other coal carbonization plants
Ceramics, cement and asphalt manufacturing works
Sewage works and sewage farms
Road vehicle fuelling, service and repair: garages and filling stations
Metal manufacturing, refining and finishing works: iron and steel works, lead works and non-
ferrous metal works
Power stations (excluding nuclear power stations)
Oil refineries and bulk storage of crude oil and petroleum products
Chemical works (cosmetics and toiletries, fertilizer, soap and detergent, organic chemicals and
mastics, sealants, adhesives and roofing felt manufacturing works)
Timber treatment works
Engineering works: mechanical engineering and ordinance works and vehicle manufacturing
works
Textile works and dye works
Food and drink
Waste recycling, treatment and disposal sites: landfills and other waste treatment or waste
disposal sites
Animal and animal products processing works
Pulp and paper manufacturing works
Engineering works: electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing works (including works
manufacturing equipment containing PCBs)
Chemical works: explosives, propellants and pyrotechnics manufacturing works
Glass manufacturing works
Printing and book-binding works
Chemical works: linoleum, vinyl and bitumen-based floor covering manufacturing works
Chemical works: rubber processing works (including works manufacturing tires or other rubber
products)
Chemical works: coatings (paints and printing inks) manufacturing works and mastics, sealants,
adhesives and roofing felt manufacturing works
Asbestos manufacturing works
Dry cleaners
Waste recycling, treatment and disposal sites: metal recycling sites

The identification of areas of contamination requires a staged approach;
with desk study followed, if required, by field investigation.
Drawing on local knowledge, as described in the section on desk study in
Volume 2C Geological and Geotechnical Investigation.
10 http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/research/planning/33708.aspx
2-19
Examination of topographic maps. In urban areas, examination of old

maps and also historical aerial photographs may assist in identifying the
stages of development.
Examination of geomorphology maps. If the area has no geomorphology
map then the assessing engineer should commence the development of
such a map with the information from the project under consideration.
Field inspection.
Trial pitting.
Particular care should be taken when undertaking field inspection and trial
pitting of suspected contaminated sites. Precautions as described in Volume
1 Introduction and Overview should be adopted and extended as
appropriate based on the expected risk.
If an initial site assessment does not identify any prior contaminative uses
then it should be identified.
If contamination is suspected then the resulting risk as a result of the
planned infrastructure development should be assessed, in accordance with
Table 2-4.
Further guidance on the requirements for investigation is given by AGS

(2007).
Table 2-4 Contaminated Ground Risk to Infrastructure
Type of
Risk during construction Risk to End Users
Development
Road rehabilitation Low Very low

New road construction Medium. Require preliminary Very low
investigation at survey stage and /
or special measures during
construction
Bridge construction Medium: Piling works may Medium: Piled foundations may
generate contaminated spoil. increase linkage between
High: Exposure during contamination and underlying
excavations. aquifer.
Buildings: whole site High: Exposure during Very low.
to be hard covered. excavations.
Buildings including High: Exposure during Medium.
open space excavations. If child access then High.
2.9 Groundwater
The flow of groundwater out at the surface is known as a spring. It can be
permanent or only occur during the wet season of the year. The two (2) main
causes of springs are:
The result of uphill groundwater recharge by rainfall and relatively steep
terrain resulting in the phreatic surface meeting the ground surface, as
shown in Figure 2-12a.
2-20
The result of permeable soils or rocks overlying an impermeable layer,

resulting in a spring line at the boundary of these strata, as shown in
Figure 2-12b.
Figure 2-12 Spring Lines

During periods of spring discharge, the spring line should be directly
identifiable. At other times, spring lines can be identified by changes in
vegetation since the local increase in water provides a different
microclimate. Also, there may be surface erosion, and back-sapping of non-
cohesive soils at the spring line.
Where springs or spring lines are identified or suspected within the project
site or in the immediate vicinity at similar elevations, then this should be
identified as a hazard in the PGA.
2.10 Flooding, Scour and Erosion

Flood hazard maps are available from MGB11. At present the area of coverage
is limited; refer to Annex F for information on the NAMRIA Geoportal and
long-term plans for development of this mapping.
Local information on flood-prone areas should be available from local
knowledge and should be reported in the PGA. If the proposed project
involves significant earthworks then the effect of such earthworks on local
flood behavior should be identified.
Scour and erosion are influenced by terrain, soil type and surface water flow
velocities. They are best assessed in the initial stage by local inspection of
existing scour and erosion, and reporting of any significant locations which
could indicate special requirements in design.
DGCS Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects gives more detailed
information on the identification and mitigation required. If flood hazard is
identified, then as a minimum a hydrological and hydraulic assessment will
11 http://www.mapcentral.ph/mgb/index.cfm?maptype=Flood&areatype=province&code=045800000&listform_prov_code=
2-21
need to be undertaken to determine the extent of the floodplain using the

techniques outlined in Volume 3.
2.11 Tsunamis, Seiches, Storm Surges

Tsunamis are large, often destructive, sea waves produced by a submarine
earthquake, subsidence, landslide or volcanic eruption. Being in a
seismically active region, the coast of the Philippines is at risk from
tsunamis.
Seiches are raised water levels and waves in inland bodies of water,
produced by seismic or storm action. UNESCAP (1999) identified risk of
seiches from volcanic calderas in the land using planning of the Tagaytay
Taal area. Giese et al (1999) describe harbor seiches at Palawan Island.
Storm Surges are raised sea levels and accompanying high waves resulting
from high winds and often associated with low barometric pressure,
particularly from cyclones.

A map of tsunami hazard zones in the Philippines was produced in 2007 and
is available on the PHIVOLCS website12. This indicates only the coastline at
risk. Sites located within 5 km of an at-risk coastline and at an elevation of
less than 20 m above sea level should be identified as having a tsunami
hazard.
Local knowledge on flood levels and the history of seiches should be
investigated in relevant localities and reported on.
Flood hazard maps as described in Section 2.10 should have accounted for
storm surges. However unless local knowledge or other data allow an
alternative conclusion, any site within 50 m of high tide level should be
identified as at risk from storm surge.
2.12 Geothermal Activity

The Philippines obtains some 27% of its power supply from eighteen (18)
geothermal plants sited in Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. However, such
plants extract energy from some depth below ground, and are therefore not
indicative of locations of surface or near-surface geothermal activity of
interest to the GeoHazard assessment.
Geothermal activity is caused by the transfer of heat from depth to the
earth's surface. Surface expression of geothermal activity can take various
forms13:
12 http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=77&Itemid=129
13 After Search: http://www.volcanolive.com/geothermal.html (retrieved 18 September 2013)
2-22
Warm Ground: represents a low level of geothermal activity. The ground

temperature is raised at a meter depth but not at the surface. Warm ground
is not visible on infrared images but changes to vegetation can be identified.
Hot Steaming Ground: Hot vapors rise near the surface but are not actually
discharged. The vapors condense and drain away without being released to
the atmosphere. A thin layer of steam may condense under moist air
conditions. If the air is dry then no steam is observed.
Hot Pool: the result of hot water or steam heating a pool of groundwater.
Hot pools may be calm, ebullient (effervescent) or boiling.
Hot Lake: fills hydrothermal depressions in geothermal areas. They are a
subclass of volcanic lakes.
Hot Spring: the most common type of geothermal activity. They are located
where water from a geothermal system reaches the surface.
Fumarole: steam discharge from a hydrothermal or volcanic system. A
solfatara contains sulphur emissions. Steam is the most abundant emission
from fumaroles.
Geyser: Vent from which hot water and steam are violently emitted. They
are very rare but well known and extensively studied. Requirements for
geyser formation include fractured rocks and boiling water at a shallow
depth.
Hydrothermal Eruption: caused by catastrophic discharges of water close
to the boiling point. No ash, incandescence, or clasts are erupted.
Hydrothermal eruptions may be caused by a reduction in the overlying
pressure.
Geothermal Seepage: A seepage is a general term which describes any
subsurface discharge of warm fluids from a geothermal area. Seepages may
occur into rivers or lakes.
The significance of geothermal activity to infrastructure development is
dependent on its scale and how close it is to the surface. Risks may be short-
term during construction (for example damage to in-situ concrete piling
during casting) or long-term to the infrastructure fabric or to site users.
Further details of some of the phenomena relating to geothermal activity,
the effects on infrastructure, and possible mitigation measures, are given in
Annex F.

Sites within one kilometer of known hot springs, hot pools or one or more of
the other manifestations describe above should be classified as hazardous
under this heading.
2-23
2.13 Effects of Climate Change

The Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (Cruz et al, 2007) predicts that climate change will affect the globe
over the next one hundred years.
The main effects of the predicted climate change are:
a rise in temperature
a rising sea level
variation in rainfall patterns with increased intensities and greater
drought and rainfall periods in different places
variation in track and increased intensity of cyclones
A further consequence for infrastructure is increased saline intrusion.
The Philippines lies third in the worlds countries most vulnerable to climate
change and disasters caused by natural hazards (ADB, 2013).
The projected rising temperatures and sea levels, and changes in
precipitation, are capable of initiating load changes and elevated pore-
pressures sufficient to cause a range of geological and geomorphological
processes that have hazard potential. There is already significant evidence,
according to McGuire et al (2012), that this will cause a modulation or
triggering of seismic, landslide and volcanic activity resulting from small
changes in environmental parameters such as solid Earth and ocean tides,
atmospheric temperature and pressure, as well as in response to specific
geophysical events such as typhoons or torrential precipitation.
Specific events already identified include the violent venting of volcanic
gases from Mount St Helens resulting from rainstorms, and collapses of the
Soufriere Hills lava dome on Montserrat linked to intense tropical rainfall.
Table 2-5 shows the hazards identified as potentially being influenced by
climate change. All except glacial outburst floods are relevant to the
Philippines.
However the research on the effects of climate change on GeoHazards is at a
very early stage and no quantitative predictions are available. They can be
considered as a higher order of uncertainty compared with the direct
assessment of current GeoHazards. Therefore no attempt is made to
incorporate the effects of climate change in GeoHazard assessment in this
Guide. For major projects where a full risk assessment is undertaken,
including consequence-based risk, the potential effects of such climate-
change induced changes to GeoHazard risk may be appropriate using, for
example, the approaches described in PIARC (2013).
Specific effects of climate change which will affect engineering structures,
including sea level change, storm surge and flooding, are addressed in the
Guide Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects Design.
2-24
Table 2-5 Relation of Climate Change to GeoHazard
Potential Mechanism / potential relationship

Relevant climate drivers Environmental settings
hazard with climate change
Sub aerial Permafrost thaw; pore-water Temperature rise; ice-mass Mountainous terrain; volcanic
landslides and pressurization; intense rainfall loss; intense precipitation landscapes
debris flows destabilizing regolith
Glacial outburst Glacier retreat; accumulation of melt Temperature rise; ice-mass High latitudes; mountainous
floods (GLOFs) water in pro-glacial lakes loss terrain; glaciated volcanic
landscapes
Earthquakes Ice-sheet and glacier wastage; ocean Temperature rise; ice-mass High latitudes; glaciated
island and ocean margin loading due to loss; ocean volume terrain at mid-to-low latitudes;
sea-level rise increase ocean basins and margins
Volcanic activity Unloading due to ice-sheet and glacier Temperature rise; ice-mass Volcanic landscapes at all
wastage; loading due to sea-level rise; loss; intense precipitation; latitudes
pore-water pressurization; intense ocean volume increase
rainfall destabilizing regolith
Tsunamis Submarine and sub-aerial slope failures Ocean temperature rise; Ocean basins and margins
and volcano lateral collapses; gas- ocean volume increase;
hydrate breakdown; ocean load-related intense precipitation
earthquakes; ice-quakes
McGuire, et al 201
2-25
3 Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment

Initial project development requires projects to be identified as requiring an
Environmental Impact Assessment, an Initial Environmental Assessment or
for projects having no significant environmental impact, a Project
Description Report. Projects are then reviewed by DENR and where
considered appropriate an Engineering Geological and GeoHazard
Assessment is required. This is undertaken by MGB.
According to DENR (2007), unless projects are located in an
environmentally critical area or are environmentally critical projects DENR
are required to issue a Certificate of Non-Coverage if the project proponent
submits only Project Description Report. The Proponent is responsible for
identifying whether the project lies in an environmentally critical area and
there is no single source for identifying the extent of environmentally critical
areas. Consequently the great majority of projects are not considered for an
EGGA and therefore there was a potential risk that GeoHazards have not
been identified.
The introduction of a PGA at the concept development stage of all projects,
including rehabilitation and reconstruction work, is therefore to ensure that
smaller projects, which may yet be at risk from GeoHazards, are adequately
assessed.
The PGA is carried out at proponent level initially. Its purpose is to identify
exceptional conditions that may require special investigation, design
measures, additional budget or in the extreme case a relocation of the
project.
3.1 Required Expertise

The person undertaking the PGA should be a qualified geologist, or engineer
who has undertaken at least geology and geotechnical engineering modules
in a university degree level course. Alternatively, the person should have
extensive experience and job-training sufficient to undertake the
assessment.
3.2 Scope of Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment
3.2.1 Desk Study

The PGA cannot be undertaken without a Project Description. If one has not
been prepared then this should be done before undertaking the PGA.
Procedures for preparing a Project Description are described elsewhere.
The desk study for the PGA is similar in nature to the broader study to be
undertaken as part of the site investigation and described in Volume 2C
Geological and Geotechnical Investigations. However, for the PGA, the desk
study is limited to the GeoHazards and specific sources of information.
3-1
The information to be used in the GeoHazard desk study is listed under the
relevant hazard in Section 2 of this Guide.
However the available information is expanding rapidly. Annex F
summarizes the available information about likely developments in the next
few years, which should be taken into account in undertaking the PGA.
In addition to the specific sources, the assessment should make use of

topographic maps from the NAMRIA Geoportal, aerial photographs where
available, land-use maps if available in the region, and agricultural soils
maps.
3.2.2 Reconnaissance
The reconnaissance for GeoHazards is most appropriately undertaken as
part of a broader field inspection which may include validation of
assumptions contained in the Project Description and, for reconstruction
works, identification of the causes of deterioration of the asset.
Before undertaking the field reconnaissance, the desk study should be
undertaken and a general sketch and list of potential GeoHazards should be
drafted. During the reconnaissance, these potential GeoHazards would be
assessed, as well as identifying other possible GeoHazards. Field
reconnaissance and procedures for identification of specific GeoHazards are
described in Section 2.
Where the project consist of or contains rehabilitation of existing assets, the
field reconnaissance should identify specifically those GeoHazards which
have contributed to the current deterioration of the asset.
Field inspections of areas where GeoHazards may be present require

additional safety measures. The basic requirements for safety during field
reconnaissance are described in Volume 2C Geological and Geotechnical
Investigations. The person leading the field inspection should undertake a
prior safety assessment and adopt appropriate precautions for the
inspection team.
3.3 Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment Report

The report shall consist of a one-page summary and attachments. The
template for the report is included as Annex H. The person that undertook
the field reconnaissance for the assessment is the required signatory on the
report.
Where GeoHazards have been identified, or there is remaining uncertainty,
attachments should be included showing the information on which the
assessment was based.
3-2
3.4 Further Action

For the Concept Development Report, the project should be classified from
the Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment as one of the following four (4)
categories:
No significant GeoHazards identified.
GeoHazards identified and budget for mitigation calculated and included
in project budget.
GeoHazards identified and there is a requirement for further field
investigation and design before the budget can be reasonably assessed.
In this case the Concept Development phase may need to be extended
with additional budget.
GeoHazards at or adjacent to the site are sufficiently severe that
mitigation measures would not be practical, and it is recommended that
the site is unsuitable for the proposed use.
If the responsible person was not able to conclude that no GeoHazards exist,
then the assessment should be first completed as far as possible, identifying
the outstanding issues. Then there should be consultations as follows:
PHIVOLCS offers a service to provide certification on active faults, lahar,
pyroclastic flow, lava flow, volcano Permanent Danger Zone14. If the
identified hazards fall into these categories then PHIVOLCS should be
approached for certification, providing them with a copy of the
Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment.
MGB have a geology unit based in each of their regional offices. They may
be approached for assistance, once the PGA has been completed. If their
input allows the GeoHazards to be identified or discounted then their
report should be attached to the PGA, which can be annotated
accordingly.
If these approaches do not resolve outstanding issues with the PGA then the
District should escalate the matter to the Region, and the Region to BOD
Central Office as appropriate.
14 http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=25&Itemid=40
3-3
4 References and Bibliography

ADB, Facts and Figures in http://www.adb.org/themes/climate-
change/facts-figures (accessed 8 September 2013)
AGS Quick-Start Guide to Contaminated Land Investigation, Association of
Geotechnical and Geo-environmental Specialists, UK, 2007
http://www.ags.org.uk/publications/agreement.php?docname=AGS%20Q
uick%20Start%20Guide%20to%20Contaminated%20Land.pdf
ASEP, National Structural Code of the Philippines, Volume 1: Buildings,
Towers and Other Vertical Structures, C101-10, Association of Structural
Engineers of the Philippines, 2010.
Aurelio M A, Engineering Geological and GeoHazard Assessment (EGGA)
system for sustainable infrastructure development: the Philippine
experience.
Engineering Geology for Sustainable Development in Mountainous Areas,
Free and Aydin (eds), 2004 Geological Society of Hong Kong.
http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/230308/Session%201/Ses
sion%201%20Reading%201.PDF
Barry et al, The Indonesian Geoguides, MSRI Guide No Pt T-08-2002,
Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructure, Indonesia, 2002.
E W. Brand and R P Brenner, Soft clay engineering, Elsevier Scientific Pub.
Co., 1981
BS 10175:2001 Code of practice for the investigation of potentially
contaminated sites, British Standards (2001)
Comit technique AIPCR C.3 GEstion des risques dexploitation dans
lexpoitation routire au plan national et international and Permanent
International Association of Road Congresses (PIARC) Technical Committee,
Risk Associated with Natural Disasters, Climate Change, Man-made
Disasters and Security Threats (2013), PIARC, Paris, France.
http://www.piarc.org/en/order-library/20314-en-
Risks%20associated%20with%20natural%20disasters,%20climate%20ch
ange,%20man-made%20disasters%20and%20security%20threats.htm
Cruz, R.V., H. Harasawa, M. Lal, S. Wu, Y. Anokhin, B. Punsalmaa, Y. Honda, M.
Jafari, C. Li and N. Huu Ninh, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F.
Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2007, 469-506.
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch10.html
(accessed 8 September 2013-11-03
DENR AO 2000-28. Implementing guidelines on Engineering Geological and
GeoHazard Assessment (EGGA) as additional requirement for ECC
applications covering subdivision, housing and other land development and
4-1
infrastructure projects. Administrative Order No. 28, Series of 2000.

Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Philippines. 14 March
2000.
DENR AO 2003-30. Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) for the
Philippine Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) System. Administrative
Order No. 30, Series of 2003. Department of Environment and Natural
Resources, Philippines. 30 June 2003.
DENR Revised Procedural Manual for DENR Administrative Order No 30
Series of 2003 (DAO 03-30), August 2007.
Environment Agency UK, Progress in 2002 with implementing the Part IIA
regime, Dealing with contaminated land in England; (2002), Environment
Agency, Bristol, England.
Fukushima, Y. and Tanaka, T., 1990. A new attenuation relation for peak
horizontal acceleration of strong earthquake ground motion in Japan,
Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, v.80, no. 4, p. 757-778
German Technical Cooperation (GTZ), UNDP Regional Centre in Bangkok
and The Secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction.
Handbook on Good Building Design and Construction in the Philippines;
(2008), International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), Philippines
http://www.preventionweb.net/files/10329_GoodBuildingHandbookPhili
ppines.pdf
Huismann, M. 2000. Lecture Notes, Advanced Soil Mechanics, Mapua
Institute of Technology, Manila.
Lobley, Katrina. In Case of Emergency: how Australia deals with disasters
and the people who confront the unexpected, (2007), Australian
Emergency Management Institute (AEMI), Australia.
http://www.preventionweb.net/english/professional/publications/v.php?
id=1730.
McGuire B and Maslin M A, Climate Forcing of Geological Hazards [Kindle
Edition], 326 pp, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
MGB MC 2000-33. Guidelines and outline/checklist for the preparation of an
Engineering Geological and GeoHazard Assessment Report as per DENR AO
2000-28. Memorandum Circular No. 33, Series of 2000. Mines and
Geosciences Bureau, Philippines, 24 March 2000.
MGB MC 2002-43. Implementation of DENR Memorandum dated 26
November 2001 relative to Executive Order No. 45. Memorandum Circular
No. 33, Series of 2000. Mines and Geosciences Bureau, Philippines, 24 March
2000.
Ministry of Public Safety and Solicitor General. Hazard Risk and
Vulnerability Analysis Toolkit, (2004). Provincial Emergency Program
Ministry of Public Safety and Solicitor General, Canada.
http://www.preventionweb.net/files/3393_toolkit.pdf
4-2
National Building Code of the Philippines, 2000, Philippine Law Gazette.

Vicente B. Foz, Publisher.
Presidential Decree 1586. Establishing an Environmental Impact Statement
(EIS) system including other environmental management related measures
and for other purposes. Malacaang Palace, Manila, Philippines, 11 June
1978.
Presidential Executive Order 42. Prescribing time periods for issuance of
housing-related certifications, clearances and permits, and imposing
sanctions for failure to observe the same. Malacaang Palace, Manila,
Philippines, 24 October 2001.
Geoff OBrien, Phil OKeefe, Joanne Rose and Ben Wisner, Climate change and
disaster management, Disasters, 30(1): 6480. , Overseas Development
Institute, Blackwell Publishing, 2006.
PTCPD, 2012 Safety Guideline for Hillsite Development, Penang Town
and Country Planning Department, 2012,
http://www.mppp.gov.my/documents/10124/20fa2155-5a83-4644-
8629-64da6405f4e1
Rodolfo K S and Siringan F P, 2006, Global sea-level rise is recognised, but
flooding from anthropogenic land subsidence is ignored around northern
Manila Bay, Philippines, Overseas Development Institute, Blackwell
Publishing 30(1): 118-139. http://www.paase.org/images/Rodolfo-
Siringan2006.pdf
Seed, H.B., Idriss, I.M. and Arango, I., 1983. Evaluation of Liquefaction
potential using field performance data. American Society of Civil Engineers
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, v.109, no. 3, p. 458-482.
Steinberg M, 1978, Geomembranes and the Control of Expansive Soils in
Construction, McGraw-Hill.
Thenhaus, P.C., Hanson, S.L., Algermissen, S.T., Bautista, B.C., Bautista, M.L.P.,
Punongbayan, B., Rasdas, A., Nillos, T.E. and Punongbayan, R.S., 1994.
Proceedings: National Conference on Natural Disaster Mitigation, p. 45-60,
1921, October 1994, Quezon City, Philippines.
Villanueva, M.I.P., Abundo, R.V. and Manipon, C.J.C., in prep. GeoHazards and
landslide modelling of Baguio city using thematic maps. Submitted to Journal
of the Geological Society of the Philippines. Quezon City, Philippines
Mines and Geosciences Bureau. 2010. Geology of the Philippines, Mines and
Geosciences Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Quezon City. Philippines, 532 p.
4-3
Annex A Seismicity
A1 Introduction
To have a better grasp of the seismic hazards in the country, one should
understand that the Philippine archipelago is tectonically divided into the
Philippine Mobile Belt and the Eurasian Margin as shown in Figure A1-1.
Figure A1- 1
Manila Negros-Cotabato Trench Structural Map of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE
FAULT
EURASIAN MARGIN
A-1
The Philippine Mobile Belt refers to that portion of the archipelago

sandwiched by the Manila-Negros-Cotabato Trenches on the west and the
East Luzon Trough-Philippine Trench on the east and traversed along its
entire length by the active Philippine Fault. The Philippine Mobile Belt is
therefore tectonically, seismically and volcanically active.
Palawan and Zamboanga, on the other hand, are part of the Eurasian Margin
and are therefore tectonically and seismically inactive. There are no
earthquake generators within the margin, although it can experience
earthquakes generated by bounding structures such as the Sindangan Fault
or Cotabato Trench.
A2 Ground Motion
An estimate of the ground motion specific to a site can be calculated. In order
to determine the peak ground acceleration that a site can experience in the
case of a major earthquake, the attenuation model of Fukushima and Tanaka
(1990) is applied. A design earthquake is assumed to occur at a point along
the causative fault that is nearest to the site, assessed as described in Section
2.2.3. Correction factors are then applied depending on the type of
foundation material.
The attenuation model of Fukushima and Tanaka is written as:
log 10 A = 0.41M log 10 (R+0.032x10 0.4 M) 0.0034R + 1.30 (6.1)
where:
A = mean peak acceleration (cm/sec2)
R = shortest distance between the site and the fault rupture (km)
M = surface-wave magnitude (also referred to as Ms)
Correction factors are applied to the mean peak acceleration depending on
the type of foundation material: rock, 0.6; hard soil, 0.87; medium soil, 1.07;
and soft soil, 1.39.
Alternatively the peak ground acceleration obtained from the maps
provided by PHIVOLCS can be used, if they are considered accurate enough
for the particular site.
PHIVOLCS produce Ground Shaking Hazard Maps at the provincial level
within the framework of the READY Project but at present the maps are
limited to Aurora, Bohol, Cavite, Dinagat, Leyte, Southern Leyte, Surigao del
Norte, and Surigao del Sur. An example of such a map is shown on Figure A2-
1.
A-2
Figure A2-1 Example of a Ground Shaking Hazard Map (READY Project).
The project site can be located on the map after which the class to which the
polygon belongs to is looked up in the legend. The legend is color-coded
according to the maximum amount of ground shaking that can be expected.
This is expressed in PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale. However this
scale is not used as input to the infrastructure design process so it is of
secondary interest.
A-3
Design earthquakes can be determined using different empirical formula

relating fault length, rupture length, displacement and magnitude compiled
in Bonilla (Weigel(ed), 197015). The West Valley Fault, for example, is
assigned a magnitude 7.216 earthquake. The Lubang and Legazpi Faults might
be capable of magnitude 7.8 earthquakes. The Philippine Fault, on the other
hand, is such a major fault that it is capable of generating a magnitude 8.0
earthquake. A magnitude 8.0 earthquake is such a rare event that it occurs,
on the average, only once a year or once in two years worldwide.
In case of critical or strategic projects or in case where lives might be at risk,
it is recommended that a more detailed seismic hazard assessment be
conducted during the design development stage of the project.
A3 Faulting Assessment
There may be instances when an active or potentially active fault is not yet
reflected on existing fault maps. In this case, a geologist may resort to the
morpho-structural interpretation of 1:50,000 scale or 1:10,000 scale
NAMRIA topographic maps, radar imagery, satellite imagery or aerial
photographs.
Lineaments identified on the documents may be validated in the field.
Evidence for the presence of a fault may be geomorphological
(e.g. escarpments, highly linear drainage) and geological (e.g. shear zones,
gouge, breccia, mylonite, fault planes).
Once the presence of a fault is established, it is then compared with
historical, geological or seismological evidence to determine whether the
fault is active or not.
In case of critical or strategic projects, or in case where lives might be at risk,
it might not be enough that existing fault maps are relied upon. Faults on a
map may turn out to be inactive or non-existing. An active fault might not
yet be reflected on the map, or there might be inaccuracies in the plotting of
a fault. For such projects, it is recommended that further active fault studies
be conducted during the Design Development phase of the project.
This procedure is not required for the Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment.
A4 Engineering Implications
From the engineering perspective there are different considerations for
design which are related to distance from the active fault.
In the zone immediately adjacent to the fault, ground movement will be
expected along with the ground motion. The extent of this zone depends on
the nature of the fault and soils overlying bedrock. In the City of Manila signs
prohibiting building within 5m of the fault indicate the assessed zone. Any
15 reference missing in this draft

16 It is currently unclear what magnitude system is being used and this is to be clarified for here and elsewhere in the report in a
subsequent draft.
A-4
A5 References and Bibliography

Aurelio, Mario A. (1992). Tectonique du segment central de la faille
Philippine: etude structurale, cinematique et evolution geodynamique.
These de doctorat, Universite Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France.
Daligdig, Jessie A., Punongbayan, Raymundo S., Besana, Glenda M. and
Tungol, Norman M. (1997). PHIVOLCS Professional Paper 01: The Marikina
Valley Fault System: Active Faulting in Eastern Metro Manila. PHIVOLCS
Press, Quezon City.
Fukushima Y. and Tanaka, T. (1990). A new attenuation relation for peak
horizontal acceleration of strong earthquake ground motion in Japan, Bull.
Seism. Soc. Am. 80, 4, 757-783.
Maleterre, Ph. (1989). Histoire sedimentaire, magmatique, tectonique et
metallogenique dun arc oceanique deforme en regime de transpression.
These de doctorat, Universite de Bretagna Occidentale, Brest, France, 304p.
Metro Manila Development Authority, JICA, and PHIVOLCS (2004). Metro
Manila Earthquake Impact Reduction Study (MMEIRS).
PHIVOLCS Quick Response Team (1994). PHIVOLCS Special Report No. 2: 15
November 1994 Mindoro Earthquake: Preliminary Report of Investigation.
Department of Science and Technology -PHIVOLCS, Quezon City.
Pinet, Nicolas (1990). Un example de grand decrochment actif en contexte
de subduction oblique: la faille Philippine dans sa partie septentrionale:
etude regionale (NW Luzon), thematique et modelisation analogique. These
de doctorat, Insitut de Geodynamique, Universite de Nice Sophia Anipolis.
Punongbayan, Raymundo S.; Rimando, Rolly E.; Daligdig, Jesse A.; Besana,
Glenda M.; Daag, Arturo S.; Nakata, Takashi and Hiroyuki, Tsutsumi (1990).
Ground Rupture of the 16 July 1990 Luzon Earthquake in Proceedings of
Geocon 90: the Third Annual Geological Convention Held on December 5 to
7, 1990 at UP-NIGS, Quezon City sponsored by the Geological Society of the
Philippines. pp. 13 37.
Quebral, Ramon D., 1994. Tectonique du segment meridional de la faille
philippine, Mindanao Oriental, Philippines: passage dune zone de collision
une zone de dcrochement. These de doctorat, Universit Pierre et Marie
Curie, Paris, France.
Ringenbach, Jean Claude (1992). La Faille Philippine et les chaines en
decrochment associees (centre et nord de Luzon): evolution cenozoique et
cinematique des deformations quaternaries. These de doctorat, Insitut de
Geodynamique, Universite de Nice Sophia Anipolis.
Thenhaus, P.C. Hanson S.L., Algermissen, S.T., Bautista B.C., Bautista, L.P.,
Punonbayan, B.J., Rasdas, A.R., Nillos, J.T.E. and Punongbayan, R.S., Estimates
of the Regional Ground Motion Hazard in the Philippines.-Proceedings of the
Conference on Natural Disaster Mitigation in the Philippines. October 19 to
21, 1994.
A-6
Annex B Liquefiable Soils
Since liquefaction is associated with saturated soils, there is no requirement

for assessment of liquefaction hazard if the depth to groundwater is below
the depth of potentially liquefiable soils.
B3 Standard Penetration Test for Assessing Liquefaction

Potential
For coarse-grained soils Youd and Idriss (2001) procedure is recommended
by AASHTO (2012). Since SPT test results are most commonly available the
procedure to assess liquefaction potential from the SPT is described here.
The measured SPT values Nm first require to be corrected to the standard
value (N1)60 according to
(N1)60 = Nm CN CE CB CR CS (8.2)
where:
CN is the effective stress normalization factor calculated from
CN = 2.2/(1.2 + vo/Pa) (8.3)
Which normalizes Nm to a standard effective overburden pressure of Pa of

100kPa.
CE is the factor to normalize the energy ratio to a standard of 60%. The
correction factor is shown in Table B3-1. Where the SPT Test is performed
in full accordance with ASTM D 1586-99 the upper end of the range should
be selected.
Table B3-1 also contains the correction factors CB, CR and CS for borehole
diameter, rod length, and sampling method respectively.
Table B3-1 Correction Factor CE for SPT N Energy Ratio
Factor Equipment Variable Term Correction
Energy Ratio Donut hammer CE 0.5-1.0

Safety hammer CE 0.7-1.2
Automatic-trip Donut type CE 0.8-1.3
hammer
Borehole diameter 65-115mm CB 1.0
150mm CB 1.05
200mm CB 1.15
Rod length <3m CR 0.75
3-4m CR 0.8
4-6m CR 0.85
6-10m CR 0.95
10-30m CR 1.0
Sampling method Standard sampler CS 1.0
Sampler without liners CS 1.1-1.3
B-3
The CRR values above are standardized to a Magnitude 7.5 earthquake.

Where the expected magnitude differs then the values need to be adjusted
by the Magnitude Scaling Factor (MSF) shown in Table B4-2. The earthquake
magnitudes to be adopted for the different faults in the Philippines are
described in Table B4-2.
Table B4-2 Magnitude Scaling Factors
Magnitude
MSF
M
5.5 2.20 2.8

6.0 1.76 2.1
6.5 1.44 1.6
7.0 1.19 1.25
7.5 1.00
8.0 0.84
8.5 0.72
(after Youd and Idriss, 2001)
Then the Cyclic Resistance Ratio for the design earthquake magnitude CRRM
is calculated from
CRRM = CRR7.5 x MSF (8.6)
Cyclic Stress Ratio

The Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR) is the cyclic demand on the soil and is
calculated as:
CSR = av/vo = 0.65(amax/g)vo/vo)rd (8.7)
where amax = peak horizontal acceleration at the ground surface generated
by the earthquake; g = acceleration of gravity; vo and vo are the total and
effective vertical overburden pressure respectively; and rd is the stress
reduction coefficient.
The stress reduction coefficient, rd, can be calculated from:
rd = 1.0 0.00765z for z<= 9.15m (8.8)
and
rd = 1.174 0.0267z for 9.15m < z <=23m (8.9)
where z is depth below ground surface in meters.
Youd and Idriss (2001) recommend that the peak horizontal acceleration be
estimated using an appropriate empirical correlation based on such factors
as region of the country, type of faulting and site condition. For preliminary
assessment therefore, the relationship of Fukushima and Tanaka (1990) is
used as described in Annex A.
B-5
Table B7-1 Correction for Varying Liquidity Index
wc/LL LLliq LLTest
0.70 1 40
0.80 3 47
0.85 6 47
0.90 10 47
1.00 30 47
1.10 55 55
1.20 65 70
B8 Consequences of Liquefaction
Since the consequences of liquefaction can be the complete failure of the
infrastructure and loss of life, and significant risk of site inundation in the
case of flow liquefaction, regions where there is significant potential for
liquefaction require projects to be assessed in detail. Critical facilities which
provide evacuation, access or essential services in the event of disaster need
to be proofed so that liquefaction does not occur.
Consequently each project needs to be classified according to its strategic
importance, and for the potential loss of life in the event of a liquefaction
event. Then the requirements for further assessment can be made.
B-7
B9 References and Bibliography

AASHTO LRFD Bridge Specifications, Publication LRFDUS-6, American
Association of State Highway Officials, 2012.
ASEP, National Structural Code of the Philippines, Volume 1: Buildings,
Towers and Other Vertical Structures, C101-10, Association of Structural
Engineers of the Philippines, 2010.
Boulanger R W and Idriss I M, Liquefaction susceptibility criteria for silts and
clays, Journal of Geotechnical and Geo-environmental Engineering,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 132, No 11, pp1413-1426, 2006.
Bray J D and Sancio R B, Assessment of the liquefaction susceptibility of fine-
grained soils, Journal of Geotechnical and Geo-environmental Engineering,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 132, No 9, pp1165-1176, 2006.
Caia G, Liua S and Puppalab A J, Test investigations in Tangshan region in
China, Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, Volume 41, October
2012, 141150.
Giese G S, Chapman D C and Collins M G, The coupling between harbour
seiches at Palawan Island and Sulu Sea internal solitons, Journal of Physical
Oceanography, 28, 2, December 1998.
Idriss I M and Boulanger R W, Soil Liquefaction during Earthquakes,
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) Monograph MNO-12,
2008.
http://ftp.mdot.state.ms.us/ftp/Materials/Geotechnical/Liquefaction/Soil%20Liq
uefaction%20During%20Earthquakes%20-
%20Idriss%20and%20Boulanger%20-%202008.pdf
Kramer S L, Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice-Hall, 1996.
Pehlivan M, Assessment of liquefaction susceptibility of fine grained soils,
Masters Thesis to Middle East Technical University, 2009.
http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12610744/index.pdf
Robertson P K, Woeller D J, Finn W D L, Seismic cone penetration test for
evaluating liquefaction potential under cyclic loading, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 29(4): 686-695, 1992.
Schneider J A and Mayne P W, Soil Liquefaction Response in Mid-America
Evaluated by Seismic Piezocone Tests, Mid-America Earthquake Center,
Report MAE-GT-3A, Geosystems Program, Georgia Institute of Technology,
October 1999
Si H and Midorikawa, New attenuation relations for peak ground
acceleration and velocity considering effects of fault type and site condition,
12th World Congress on Earthquake Engineering, New Zealand, 2000
Tayag J C, The role of geology in urban planning in the Philippines, Atlas of
Urban Geology, Volume 14, XXII pp 281-6, 1999
Youd T L and Idriss I M, Liquefaction resistance of soils: summary report
from the 1996 NCEER and 1998 NCEER/NSF workshops on evaluation of
liquefaction resistance of soils, Journal of Geotechnical and Geo-
environmental Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 127, No
4, April 2001.
B-8
Annex C Volcanic Activity
C1 Volcanic Activity
The types of hazards posed by an active volcano are:
Lava Flow Lava flow is a highly elongated mass of molten rock materials cascading
downslope from an erupting vent. The rate of flow can vary from 3 km / day
for slightly high viscosity to 45 km / hour for low viscosity materials. The
speed, and the geometry of a lava flow will depend on local topography;
steep slopes encourage faster and longer flows than gentle slopes or terrain.
Dome Growth Lava dome is a pile or mound of lava that grew on the floor of an active
crater, on the side slopes via a feeder vent that breached through the surface
of the edifice, or inside the volcanic edifice.
Pyroclastic Flow Pyroclastic flow is hot dry masses of fragmented volcanic materials that
move along the slope in contact with ground surface. This includes: pumice
flow, ash flow, block-and-ash flow, nuee ardente and glowing avalanche.
Pyroclastic flow mechanism: Nue ardente is a glowing eruption cloud
characterized by extreme heat (about 500C or higher) and high gas content
rapid flow down the slope of an erupting volcano. It can contain enormous
amounts of ash and other fragmental volcanic materials.
A nue ardente may originate directly from an active crater or from a
collapse of a growing lava dome.
Pyroclastic Surge Pyroclastic surges are turbulent low-concentration density currents of
gases, rock debris and in some cases, water, that move above the ground
surface at high velocities.
Hot Blasts Hot blasts arise when pent-up gases find their way out through the
impermeable overlying materials and cause a very rapid escape into the
atmosphere. Blasts that are directed obliquely often do much damage and
could exact a high toll in human lives.
Lateral blasts are combination of pyroclastic flows and pyroclastic surges
with an especially strong initial laterally-directed thrust. They have an initial
velocity of 600 kph and slow down to about 100 kph near the margin 25 km
from the volcano.
Tephra Falls Tephra falls may consist of pumice, scoria, dense lithic materials or crystals
or combination of these.
Particle sizes are classified as ash: less than 2 mm diameter; lapilli: 2-64 mm
diameter; blocks and bombs: more than 64 mm diameter.
Volcanic Gas Volcanic gas is one of the basic components of a magma or lava. Active and
inactive volcanoes may release to the atmosphere gases in the form of: water
vapor, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen
chloride and hydrogen fluoride.
Lahar Lahar (an Indonesian term), sometimes called mudflows or volcanic debris
flows, are flowing mixtures of volcanic debris and water. Lahars are
C-1
classified into: Primary or hot lahar associated directly with volcanic

eruption and Secondary or cold lahar caused by heavy rainfall.
Lahar distribute and redistribute volcanic ash and debris deposited around
the volcano after the materials has cooled and has become water logged.
Lahar in tropical areas can be produced by:
Sudden draining of a crater lake, caused by either an explosive eruption
or collapse of a crater fall (e.g. Agua, Kelut, Ruapehu).
Movement of a pyroclastic flow into a river or lake, displacing and mixing
with water.
Avalanche of water-sustained rock debris, where water can be from
heavy rain, hydrothermal activity or other sources.
Torrential rainfall on unconsolidated deposits on slope of a volcano (e.g.
Pinatubo).
Collapse of a temporary dam, where recent volcanic deposits have
blocked a steam channel (e.g. Asama, Pinatubo).
The lahar hazard usually disappears from around a volcano in just a few
years if the eruption produced little debris. Once the rubble and ash are
carried downslope or stabilized by the regrowth of vegetation, lahars are no
longer a danger.
Tsunami
Tsunamis are long-period sea waves or wave trains that are generated by
the under-the-sea earthquake. Most tsunamis are caused by fault
displacements on the sea floor and of volcanic sudden displacement of
water. They travel at high speed water as low broad waves and build to great
heights as they approach shores. Origins include volcanic or volcano-
tectonic earthquakes, explosions collapse or subsidence, landslides, lahars,
pyroclastic flows or debris avalanches entering bodies of water, and
atmospheric waves that couple with the sea.
Other Eruption Phenomena

Debris avalanche fast downhill movement of soil and rock, speed: 70
km/hr (due to high water content and steep slopes) caused by slope failure
on the cones of stratovolcanoes
Hydrothermal explosions explosions from instantaneous flashing of steam
upon contact with hot rocks
Secondary explosions are caused by the contact of water with hot pyroclastic
flow deposits.
Subsidence is a ground deformation resulting from the downward
adjustment of surface materials to the voids caused by volcanic activity.
This may result also from mine workings or geothermal water or oil
extraction.
C-2
Annex D Unstable Slopes and Landslides
D1 Introduction
The Philippines is ranked as one of the most earthquake-vulnerable cities in
the world (i.e. 5th according to GeoHazards International17). At the same time,
the Philippines ranks 3rd in terms of casualties and cases among 41 countries
identified as key spots for non-earthquake-related landslides (Petley, 2012).
With its complex plate tectonic setting that includes plate boundaries that
are changing rapidly and frequented by heavy typhoons yearly, engineering
measures for slopes must be designed to cope with this scenario.
This guide provides information and discussion on landslides in its various
mechanisms and types, on rock or soil slopes, by either earthquake or
rainfall induced (i.e. the two predominant triggers).
The latter part of the section shall provide the risk assessment of slopes and
the possible mitigation and remediation schemes as well as monitoring that
could be undertaken.
Definition of Landslides
A landslide is a type of mass wasting. Mass wasting is down slope
movement of soil and / or rock under the influence of gravity. A landslide is
a movement of rock mass, debris, or earth down a slope (refer Figure D-1).
The failure of the slope happens when gravity exceeds the strength of the
earth materials.
A general anatomy of a landslide comprises the following components:
Scarp: a scar of exposed soil on the landslide
Crown: Stable top soil at the head of the landslide. Sometimes the crown will
fall and form a new scarp.
Slip Plane: failure surface of a landslide. Material pushed out at the base of
the landslide beyond the slip plane, supports the landslide.
Rubble: debris from the landslide
Bedrock: solid rock beneath the soil. The most common bedrock for a
landslide to occur on is shale.
Head: used to be part of the original ground surface
Soil: loose upper layer of earth, clay soil often leads to landslides.
17 http://www.geohaz.org/
D-1
debris remobilization in steep channels or on talus slopes. It has high

mobility, velocity, and run out potential.
Figure D4-5 Debris Flow
(Salvador, Lanao Del Norte, Philippines, 2008)
Earthflows (slow, fast) slow flow (associated to sliding) of cohesive soils

or clayey weak rocks (refer Figure D4-6). Triggering modes and mechanics
depend on water content and fine fraction.
Figure D4-6 Earthflow
Dingalan, Aurora 1994
Rock avalanche (fast) rapid granular flows (dry or wet) of large volume of
fragmenting rock masses or pyroclastic materials (refer Figure D4-7). This
is triggered by rockslide collapse on high slopes, earthquakes, or very large
rock falls. This has high mobility, velocity, and run out potential.
D-5
Table D4-1 Features Indicating Active and Inactive Landslides
Active Inactive
Scarp, terraces, and crevices with sharp edges Scarp, terraces, and crevices with rounded
edges
Crevices and depressions Crevices and depressions
without secondary infilling In-filled with secondary deposits
Secondary mass movement on scarp faces No secondary mass movement on scarp
faces
Surface-of-rupture and marginal shear planes Surface-of-rupture and marginal shear
show fresh slickensides and striations planes show old or no slickensides and
striations
Fresh fractured surfaces on blocks Weathering on fractured surfaces of blocks
Disarranged drainage system; many ponds Integrated drainage system
and undrained depressions
Pressure ridges in contact with slide margin Marginal fissures and abandoned levees
No soil development Soil development
on exposed surface-of-rupture on exposed surface-of-rupture
Presence of fast growing vegetation species Presence of slow growing vegetation
species
Distinct vegetation differences No distinction between vegetation
on and off slide on and off slide
Tilted trees with no new vertical growth Tilted trees with new vertical growth above
inclined trunk
No new supportive, New supportive,
secondary tissue on trunks secondary tissue on trunks
(Reference: Slope Stability and Stabilization Methods; Abramson, Lee, et al)
Slumps and Earthflows

Slumps and earthflows usually occur in deep, silty and clayey soils wherein
the shear strength is a combination of cohesive shear strength and frictional
resistance to sliding. In the case of saturated conditions due to rainwater
infiltration, in combination with groundwater, this reduces frictional
resistance to shear but also the cohesive shear strength.
D-7
Figure D4-23 Trees Warn of Subsurface Seepage
(FHWA 1998)
Determine Existing Drainage Patterns

During the field investigation, all stream courses, channels, ditches, catch
pits, and culverts should be mapped. This must be well accounted for
because site drainage is one of the most important factors to consider
involving slope stability. Surface water, if not properly drained away from
the slope, may have a potentially adverse effect on slope stability (refer
Figure D4-24). Moreover, gullies and rills may emanate from simple surficial
erosion (refer D4-25).
Figure D4-24 Poorly Drained Highway Locations
(FHWA, 1988)
D-16
D5 Soil and Rock Slopes

The behavior of slopes depends on the material: either soil or rock. These
two predominant materials shall be categorically presented to distinguish
the mechanics of each.
Soil Slopes
Soil characteristics the characteristics of soil depend on: parent material;
climate; vegetation; slope.
Parent material
- The rate of soil development (rate of weathering)
- Soil composition
- Physical properties of soils (e.g. permeability / drainage, size,

cohesive strength)
Climate
- Type and rate of weathering
- Amount of water moving through and over the soil
- Type of vegetation
Vegetation
- Organic content of soil
- Strength of soil
Slope
- Steeper slopes accelerated erosion. Also has generally lower water

content hence lower infiltration, which results in less weathering
and less vegetation.
Important Parameters resistance to shear stresses depends on cohesion;
frictional properties of material; and unit weight
Cohesion refers to binding together of material e.g. chemical
cementation in sedimentary rocks; surface water tension in pore spaces
(i.e. sticky clay); binding root systems of plants.
Friction / angle of friction depends on hardness of shear surfaces;
roughness of shear surfaces and number + area of points of contact
between shear surfaces. Symbolized by angle of shearing resistance (),
which determines the coefficient of plane sliding friction.
Unit Weight is the measure of how closely packed the soil is with
respect to the amount of volume.
D-18
Effects of water on soil strength water affects cohesion, friction, and unit
weight.
Moist soil: water films create a negative pore water pressure (i.e. a
suction which increases cohesion by drawing particles together).
Saturated soil: positive pore water pressure can develop, which push
particles apart (i.e. water in pore spaces becomes pressurized) this
acts against the normal stress, effectively reducing it. Since particles are
pushed apart; cohesion and friction are also reduced.
- Evaluation of slope stability the evaluation of slope stability is
essentially based on a comparison of shear strength and shear
stress:
Safety factor F = shear strength / shear stress
If F > 1 = stable slope
F = 1 = critical threshold
F < 1 = failure
Changes that decrease stability are as follows:

Increased water content: Increased water content can change the
strength and stress ratio in a number of ways, which are often
concurrent.
Removal of vegetation e.g. logging; there are many documented cases
of slope failures resulting from the removal of trees from steep slopes.
The loss of root networks reduces the cohesion of soil, while decreased
evapotranspiration raises water levels. Often slope failures occur
several years after logging, when root systems decay away.
Increased slopes usually constructed; increases stress, while
decreasing strength (gravity acts less into the slope and more down the
slope) can also be caused by:
Undercutting slopes e.g. river erosion, road cuts, wave action
removes support from base of slope and causes steepening of slope.
Loading of slope e.g. construction, watering lawn.
Liquefaction occurs during earthquakes, the shaking causes

rearrangement of particles (mainly sand and silt), increasing packing
and decreasing porosity; thus the water content can change from
unsaturated to saturated (without adding water).
Rock Slopes
Rock characteristics the characteristics of soil depend on: joints and
discontinuities.
Joints refers to a fracture in rock where the displacement associated
with the opening of the fracture is greater than the displacement due to
D-19
lateral movement in the plane of the fracture (up, down or sideways) of

one side relative to the other.
Discontinuities is a plane or surface that marks a change in physical or
chemical characteristics in a soil or rock mass. A discontinuity can be, for
example, a bedding, schistosity, foliation, joint, cleavage, fracture,
fissure, crack, or fault plane.
Important Parameters Rock Mass Rating (RMR) and Geological
Strength Index (GSI).
RMR is a quantitative method for describing quality of a rock mass for
an appropriate ground support / stabilization. The rating system
identifies parameters and the sum of weighted values provides the
weighting.
GSI is a widely used rating for the estimation of the rock mass strength
and the rock mass deformation parameters. The GSI system
concentrates on the description of two factors, rock structure and block
surface conditions. The guidelines given by the GSI system are for the
estimation of the peak strength parameters of jointed rock masses.
Rock Mass Rating Classification

The following six parameters are used to classify a rock mass using the RMR
system:
Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material
Rock quality designation
Spacing of discontinuities
Condition of discontinuities
Groundwater conditions
Orientation of discontinuities
Each of the six parameters is assigned a value corresponding to the
characteristics of the rock. These values are derived from field surveys. The
sum of the six parameters is the RMR value, which lies between 0 and 100.
Below is the classification table for the RMR system.
Table D5-1 Rock Mass Rating
RMR Rock quality
0 20 Very Poor
21 40 Poor
41 60 Fair
61 80 Good
81 100 Very good
D-20
Evaluation of slope stability the evaluation of slope stability is essentially

based on a comparison of shear strength and shear stress:
Safety factor F = shear strength / shear stress.
If F > 1 = stable slope
F = 1 = critical threshold
F < 1 = failure
In the assessment of stability the parameters for rock masses are converted
to soil parameters (i.e. cohesion and angle of friction) for the assessment of
rock slopes.
Changes that Decrease Stability

Little seepage over much of the slope becoming more concentrated
near high permeability fracture zones / joints / faults.
Movement of material in hollows facilitates erosion.
Water flows through granular material, progressively creating conduit
flow / pipes. On the other hand, loose material on slopes of hollow moves
laterally / obliquely and accumulates in developing valleys.
Sudden increase in flow from rock mass which cannot be accommodated
through flow paths / pipes in granular material results in:
Sudden rise in pressure capable of lifting material.
Loss of effective stress in granular material.
Buoyancy of material.
Flow of debris on water mattress.
Rainfall Induced Landslides

In the majority of cases the main trigger of landslides is heavy or
prolonged rainfall. Generally this takes the form of either an exceptional
short lived event, or of a long duration rainfall event with lower intensity,
such as the cumulative effect of monsoon rainfall (i.e. Amihan and
Habagat). In the former case it is usually necessary to have very high
rainfall intensities, whereas in the latter the intensity of rainfall may be only
moderate it is the duration and existing pore water pressure conditions
that are important. The importance of rainfall as a trigger for landslides
cannot be underestimated.
Cause of Trigger: Principally this is because the rainfall drives an increase
in pore water pressures within the soil. Movement is driven by shear stress,
which is generated by the mass of the block acting under gravity down the
slope. Resistance to movement is the result of the normal load. When the
slope fills with water, the fluid pressure provides the block with buoyancy,
reducing the resistance to movement. In addition, in some cases fluid
D-21
pressures can act down the slope as a result of groundwater flow to provide
a hydraulic push to the landslide that further decreases the stability.
Modes of Failure: The most predominant type of rain-induced failure is
erosion. This can either be run-off or internal erosion (i.e. piping). Other
modes are slumping, slides, and flows. Slumping happens on steep hillsides,
occurring along distinct fracture zones, often within materials like clay that,
once released, may move quite rapidly downhill. In some cases, the slump is
caused by water beneath the slope weakening it. Rotational slip happens
typically for cohesive soils while translational failure occurs for granular
soils. Earth flows are also observed when rains trigger huge amount of mass
wasting to be deposited downstream.
Design Parameters: In order to incorporate water in modelling, two
general approaches are adopted:
Seepage Modelling: Through the use of graphical flow net method, the
probable path of seepage can be determined. This method is based on the
assumptions that the soil is homogenous and isotropic, and that water flows
only in the saturated zone. However, due to the development of
computational mechanics, soil structures can be incorporated in the model
even for unsaturated case. Computing tools are capable of solving complex
seepage scenarios. A major drawback of this tool is to identify the boundary
conditions from field observations (i.e. sufficient data from wells,
piezometers).
Pore Water Pressure Ratio (ru): This model estimates the amount of
pressure the water exerts in a soil mass with respect to the total pressure a
soil exerts at a certain depths. This method is often adopted due to the
uncertainty of water flow since it can be assigned to be conservative in
calculations. A major drawback of this tool is to identify the appropriate or
realistic value that may cause landslide / slope instability.
Earthquake Induced Landslides

The second major factor in the triggering of landslides is seismicity.
Landslides occur during earthquakes as a result of two separate but
interconnected processes: seismic shaking and pore water pressure
generation.
Cause of Trigger: The passage of the earthquake waves through the rock
and soil produces a complex set of accelerations that effectively act to change
the gravitational load on the slope. So, for example, vertical accelerations
successively increase and decrease the normal load acting on the slope.
Similarly, horizontal accelerations induce a shearing force due to
the inertia of the landslide mass during the accelerations. These processes
are complex, but can be sufficient to induce failure of the slope. These
processes can be much more serious in mountainous areas in which the
seismic waves interact with the terrain to produce increases in the
magnitude of the ground accelerations. This process is termed
D-22
'topographic amplification'. The maximum acceleration is usually seen at the

crest of the slope or along the ridge line, meaning that it is a characteristic of
seismically triggered landslides that they extend to the top of the slope.
Modes of Failure: For the main part, seismically generated landslides
usually do not differ in their morphology and internal processes from those
generated under non-seismic conditions. However, they tend to be more
widespread and sudden. The most abundant types of earthquake-induced
landslides are rock falls and slides of rock fragments that form on steep
slopes. However, almost every other type of landslide is possible, including
highly disaggregated and fast-moving falls; more coherent and slower-
moving slumps, block slides, and earth slides; and lateral spreads and flows
that involve partly to completely liquefied material (Keefer, 1999). Rock
falls, disrupted rock slides, and disrupted slides of earth and debris are the
most abundant types of earthquake-induced landslides, whereas earth
flows, debris flows, and avalanches of rock, earth, or debris typically
transport material the farthest. There is one type of landslide that is
essential uniquely limited to earthquakes liquefaction failure, which can
cause fissuring or subsidence of the ground. Liquefaction involves the
temporary loss of strength of sands and silts which behave as viscous fluids
rather than as soils. This can have devastating effects during large
earthquakes.
Design Parameters: There are several design parameters that can be
adopted in obtaining a seismic load for slope analysis.
Deterministic Approach: In order to determine the peak ground
acceleration that a site can experience in case of a major earthquake, the
attenuation model of Fukushima and Tanaka is applied as described in
Annex A.
Probabilistic Approach: A joint study by United States Geological Survey
(USGS) and PHIVOLCS was conducted on estimates of regional ground-
motion hazards in the Philippines. The map of the Philippines with the
indicative peak ground acceleration is described in Annex A.
D6 Methodologies for Assessment

Disaster Risk
Hazards, including landslides and debris flow, are threats or dangerous
phenomena, which can cause loss of life and / or damage to property. It
becomes risks if two other parameters are present: exposure and
vulnerability as shown in Figure D6-1.
D-23
In risk assessment, life pertains to the people; way of life pertains to the
health status, public safety, livelihood, service, social and economic order
and environment; property involves assets, physical structures, technical
facility and system and land.
Risk Rating
Considering the three parameters that constitute risk, the following ratings
were formulated, applicable for all the cut slopes, bridge abutments, and
road embankments:
Low Risk is defined as an inconvenience that is easily corrected, not
directly endangering lives or property such as a single block of small
rock causing blockage of a small portion of roadway, which can easily be
avoided and removed.
Moderate Risk is defined as a more severe inconvenience, corrected with
some effort, but not usually directly endangering lives or structures
when it occurs, such as debris slide ending in one lane of a roadway and
causing partial closure for a brief period until such is removed.
High Risk is defined as complete destruction of roadways and facilities,
important structures or complete closure of the highway for some
period of time. Lives are endangered during failure.
Example of conditions for various hazard levels is shown in Tables D6-1, D6-
2, and D6-3.
Table D6-1 Landslide Hazard
Hazard Level Conditions
High (A) Large number of clear deformations such as scarps, bulges,

side cracks
Visible movements of cracks, subsidence, upheaval, and toe
erosion
Medium (B) Obvious landslide topography such as bulge, stepped land
No visible movement
Low (C) Suspicious landslide topography, but no evidence of
deformation at present
Table D6-2 Debris Flow Hazard
Hazard Level Conditions
High (A) Frequent Occurrence: Within every two years

Medium (B) Periodical Occurrence: Over five years
Low (C) Suspicious landslide topography, but no evidence of
deformation at present
D-25
movements in landslide areas) and extensometers (used to monitor

settlement, heave, convergence, and lateral deformation in soil and rock).
Further discussion on slope monitoring and instrumentation is presented in
the succeeding section.
Provision of informatory and / or warning signs in critical areas should also
be made in accordance with DPWH Road Safety Design Manual: 2012 to
inform and alert people. A pre-determined frequency, e.g. quarterly site
inspections and provision of stand-by equipment for roadside dislodging
and clearing in case of landslides can help mitigate risks.
D7 Mitigation, Remediation, and Monitoring

An important part of the Disaster Management is mitigation, which can
either be structural or non-structural in nature. These engineering measures
reduce and / or prevent future damage related with hazards and disasters.
Figure D7-1 shows some of the commonly used mitigating measures.
Figure D7-1 Diagram Showing the Different Types of Mitigating Measures
Slope Modification
Non-structural
Mitigating Measures
Drainage System
Rocknets
Structural Hybrids
Other Ground
Improvement Methods
Structural Measures
For building a permanent earth retaining system, long-term design
principles are to be used as described in Volume 4 Highway Design. The
types of systems suitable for permanent applications include sheet piling,
soldier pile and lagging, soil nailing, secant walls, tangent walls, shotcrete
with soil nailing and micropiling.
Permanent installations are almost always designed using at-rest principles.
This is because a number of events conspire to increase loading on
D-27
permanent earth retaining structures, such as wet / dry cycles, deterioration

of drainage systems, strain softening, and creep.
Permanent installations should always be designed with proper
accommodation for seismic occurrences.
Corrosion protection must be addressed in permanent installations for soil
and rock anchors. Adequate drainage must also be addressed to prevent
unwanted hydrostatic build-ups or leakage. There can be a number of
reasons to use one of these earth retaining structures as a permanent
system. In side hill cuts, they can be a very economic form of permanent
retaining wall. In some building construction cases, it is convenient to take
lateral loads out of an earth cut and not force the building frame to handle
these loads.
This is particularly appropriate in cases where building basements are set in
side hill cuts with the retained earth being much higher on one side of the
building than the other.
MSE Walls
Mechanically-Stabilized Earth (MSE) retaining walls combine geosynthetic-
reinforced earth layers (such as geogrids), wire mesh, fertile soil bags or
gabions as facing to create high-strength, versatile earth retention systems
(refer Figure D7-2). The geogrid reinforces the soil while the facing protects
the wall face.
Retained backfill is the material located between the mechanically-
stabilized soil mass and the natural soil. The select backfill is used to
construct the mechanically-stabilized earth mass and is required for
durability, constructability, and good soil reinforcement interaction.
The wrap around face is formed from the free end of the embedded geogrid/
geotextile which is wrapped around and up the front face of the individual
backfill lifts which are typically between 300mm and 500mm in vertical
height.
The faces are normally constructed using temporary support (e.g. shutters)
to achieve the design gradient of the slope and provide the necessary
restraint during compaction of the backfill in each lift.
Often this is achieved by positioning bags of topsoil or biodegradable mats
on the face of the material around which the geogrid is wrapped: the top soil
supports a quicker vegetation of the slope, which hides the geogrid and
provides natural erosion control as shown in Figure D7-3.
D-28
D8 Non-structural Measures
Slope Modification
Benching or Trimming
Slope benching or trimming involves modification of slope gradients which
will provide a reduction in overturning mass of the soil within the slope.
Evidently, this is the simplest and most economical approach, assuming
there are no space constraints.
Table D8-1 shows standard gradients for slopes based on the
recommendations of the Japan Road Association (JRA).
Table D8-1 Standard Values of Gradient of Cut Slopes (JRA)
Soil Classification Cutting Depth Gradient (V:H)
Hard Rock 1.0:0.3 to 1.0:0.8

Soft Rock 1.0:0.5 to 1.0:1.2
Sand Not dense and 1.0:1.5 (minimum)
poorly graded
Sandy Soil Dense < 5.0 m 1.0:0.8 to 1.0:1.0
5 10 m 1.0:1.0 to 1.0:1.2
< 5.0 m 1.0:1.0 to 1.0:1.2
5 10 m 1.0:1.2 to 1.0:1.5
Sandy Soil mixed with Dense, well graded < 10.0 m 1.0:0.8 to 1.0:1.0
gravel or rock masses
10 15 m 1.0:1.0 to 1.0:1.2
Not dense or poorly < 10.0 m 1.0:1.0 to 1.0:1.2
graded
10 15 m 1.0:1.2 to 1.0:1.5
Cohesive Soil 0 10 m 1.0:0.8 to 1.0:1.2
Cohesive Soil mixed < 5.0 m 1.0:1.0 to 1.0:1.2
with rock masses or
cobblestones 5 10 m 1.0:1.2 to 1.0:1.5
Benching should include 1 m to 2 m wide berm at every 5 m height with

stone masonry ditch to drain runoff from slope face and a drainage chute at
every 12 m. Figure D8-1 shows the effect of benching on the slump potential
of the slope. Figure D8-2 shows a typical section of a benched slope.
D-39
which may endanger people and properties, as well as documentation of

all indicators of slope instability and mass movements is imperative.
Practical steps may also be employed such as, but not limited to,
provision of informatory / warning signs in critical areas.
Stand-by equipment for roadside clearing and dislodging of debris in
case of slope failures that may either impede or totally block road
carriageways may also be provided in order to minimize road closures
and disruption of access.
Outposts on essential critical slope areas may also be placed and safety
personnel be assigned to monitor the slopes during high-precipitation
months when occurrence of slope failures are most probable.
After a typhoon, inspections should also be conducted to assess possible
signs of slope instabilities. Drainage lines should be immediately cleared
of debris as damages should be restored and / or remediated.
D9 References and Bibliography

Abramson, Lee, et al. Slope Stability and Stabilization Methods. 2nd edition.
John Wiley and Sons, 2002
Cruden D.M. and Varnes D.J. (1996). Landslides Types and Processes. In:
Turner A.K. and Schuster R.L. (Eds.) Landslides: Investigation and
Mitigation. Transportation Research Board Special Report 247. National
Academy Press, WA, 36-75
Earth Systems Handbook (full reference to be inserted) Fleming, R.W., and
Johnson, A.M., 1989, Structures associated with strike-slip faults that bound
landslide elements: Engineering Geology, v. 27, p. 39-114
Fleming, R.W., and Johnson, A.M., 1989, Structures associated with strike-
slip faults that bound landslide elements: Engineering Geology, v. 27, p. 39-
114
GeoHazards International. http://www.geohaz.org/
Pacheco, Benito M. Disaster risk management background of dmaps for
infrastructure. Philippine Engineering Journal PEJ 2007; Vol. 28, No. 2:1-28
D. Petley. Global patterns of loss of life from landslides. Geology, 2012
Japan Roads Association (full reference to be inserted)
US Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration
National Highway Institute (US DOT FHWA-NHI). Soils and Foundations
Reference Manual Volume I, Publication No FHWA NH1-06-088 December
2006
http://www.csupomona.edu/~wakitch/library/FHWA_NHI-06-088.pdf
D-43
Annex E Problem Soils: Expansive Soils
E1 Experience of Tropical Expansive Clays

In tropical regions the Indonesian experience is relevant to the Philippines.
Clays with significant swell potential are found throughout Indonesia. Most
coastal and marine clays have a high plasticity indicating significant
montmorillonite content. This is at least in part due to the presence of
volcanic ash which weathers to these high plasticity clays.
However these soils only rarely produce swelling clay problems, for two
reasons:
They are generally found in coastal areas where the water table is
permanently at or near the surface. Thus there is very little moisture
content change of the natural soil.
The soils are so weak that they are of no use for constructing road
embankments, and are therefore not found as fill beneath roads.
Only where these expansive clays are found in slightly higher ground, where
dry season water tables drop below the surface, do they shrink and swell
with seasonal changes. Also the dry soil can be used for low grade road
embankments, and is therefore to be found in existing embankments when
road upgrading is required.
Figure E1-1 Swelling Clay Areas in Java

g
an
ar
tib
Ja
a
ay
pu
ab
Ce
r
Su
is
am
Ci
These problems have been found in Java, to the west of Surabaya.

Some laboratory studies of swelling clays from the Cepu to Bojonegoro Road
were undertaken by Supriyono (1987). Younger (1990) summarizes this
latter study. Liquid limits of 85 to 103% were recorded with a clay fraction
of about 40%. Two samples, from km5 and km12 plot as Very High Swell
Potential on the chart proposed by Seed et al (1992), as shown in Figure E1-
1. The results are compared on this figure with data from Wirosari-Cepu
investigations as shown in Figure E1-2.
A comparison of plasticity of different clays in North Java is shown on Figure
E1-3.
E-1
These data are for samples at various depths up to 30m, but all in the
Holocene Clay.
Arliansyah (1993) and McElvaney et al (1990) also report laboratory studies
on swelling clays from this region.
Figure E1-2 Swell Potential of Clays in Cepu Area, Java
Comparison of Swell Potential

Wirosari Cepu Road Results &
Cepu Bojonegoro Results
5
Cepu Bojonegoro Results
3
Activity
2
VERY HIGH
HIGH
1
MEDIUM Swelling Potential
25%
LOW
5%
1.5%
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Clay Content %
Figure E1-3 Index Test Data for North Java Clays
E-2
Table E1-1 Cation Exchange Capacity of Indonesian Swelling Clays
Station SO4 ppm Cl ppm CaCO3 equiv % KPK me/100g
2000 1069 470 17.2 59.2

9600 1492 381 11.4 58
14350 1037 571 2.7 56.4
33400 1159 380 14.6 44.5
The cation exchange capacity (KPK) of 40 to 60, as shown in Table E1-1, can
be compared with the range for pure montmorillonite of 80 to 150.
The swelling pressure measured in seven tests varied from 200 to 800
kN/m2.
E2 Design Approach
Extent of Active Zone
The first criterion is to assess the depth of swelling soils. Some examples
from other countries, which have markedly different climates, are shown in
Table E2-1.
Table E2-1 Depth of Swelling of Expansive Clays
Location Depth Reference
Texas 8ft (2.5m) Steinberg, 1998

Wyoming 4ft (1.2m) Steinberg, 1998
Victoria, Australia 2.0-2.5m Steinberg, 1998
London UK 6m Chandler and Gutierrez, 1986
The London example is the depth of measured suction, which is probably

greater than the depth of significant swelling. However tree root damage
caused by moisture content changes is known to occur to at least 5 m depth.
No data have been identified from Philippine swelling clays, but for initial
design a depth of 3 m would seem reasonable.
Solutions to Swelling Clay Problems

Problems of swelling clays have been encountered throughout the world. In
the United States, many States have developed their own procedures for
testing and identifying and dealing with expansive soils. Much research has
also been undertaken in Australia, India, Israel and South Africa.
There are two fundamental approaches to dealing with expansive soils
beneath roads:
Treatment or removal of the soil. Treatments consist of chemical
methods, usually the addition of lime or cement, whilst some swelling
E-3
soils can be treated by ripping and re-compacting to improve their

properties.
Control of moisture changes. This has been achieved by placement of a
membrane either horizontally beneath the road or vertically at the edge
of the road or a combination of these.
Examples of empirical design solutions used in the United States are given
by Nelson and Miller (1992).
Removal or Treatment
For new roads, removal of the swelling clay to the depth of the active zone
may be economic. For rehabilitation this is not normally practical.
Lime stabilization of the subsoil could be adopted but the same limitations
apply. For clays of moderate swell potential it is possible to surcharge them
to above their swell pressure.
Moisture Control
Based on the practical experience in Indonesia, there are substantial
difficulties in installing a horizontal geo-membrane and tying it in
satisfactorily to the pavement edge. Although this solution is reported to
have been used satisfactorily in the United States, the conditions there are
very different. The shoulders are paved, and traffic rarely makes use of the
shoulder.
This solution also relies on the pavement providing an impermeable
membrane effect between the shoulders. Steinberg (1998) states that There
is growing awareness that pavements can no longer be considered vertical
water barriers. In view of the likelihood of some defects appearing in new
and rehabilitated roads in Philippines within one or at most two years of
construction, this conclusion seems to be particularly pertinent for
Philippines.
Taking these factors into account, it is concluded that the installation of geo-
membranes as shoulder moisture barriers of this nature are unlikely to
provide an economic long term solution to the problems of swelling clays
beneath roads.
A suitable membrane should however provide the necessary moisture
control if it is laid full width of the road, beneath the road construction at
formation level, and vertically at the edge sufficient to stop lateral
infiltration of moisture.
Structures
The available options for dealing with structures are described by Sorochan
(1991) as follows:
E-4
Foundation cutting through the swelling soil to such a depth that wetting
of the remainder leads to an uplift of the structure that is within
permissible limits.
Full or partial replacement of the swelling soil by an inert soil.
Piled foundations totally or partially though the swelling soil.
Preparation of the soil by laying a compensatory sand cushion or by
prewetting of the soil.
Adoption of waterproofing measures to limit access by the expansive soil
to water or to changes in moisture content.
Structural measures which accommodate the volume change of the
expansive soil during moisture content changes.
A combination of the above measures.
E3 References and Bibliography

Chandler R J and Gutierrez C I, 1986, Technical Note: The filter-paper
method of suction measurement, Geotechnique, 36, 2, June.
Joni Arliansyah, Strength, compressibility characteristics of Cepu Clay,
Program Magister Sistem dan Teknik Jalan Raya, Program Pascasarjana,
Institut Teknologi Bandung, 1993
McElvaney J, Supriyono and Nasution S, 1990, Laboratory investigation of an
expansive clay from East Java, Proc 4th Indonesian Soils Association
Conference, Bandung
Nelson J D and Miller D J, 1992, Expansive Soils: Problems and Practice in
Foundation and Pavement Engineering, Wiley.
Pillai M S and Fernandez C, 2000, Coir an effective component for
consolidation, Proc 2nd Asian Geosynthetics Conference, Kuala Lumpur.
Seed H B, Woodward R J and Lundgren R , 1962, Prediction of swelling
potential for compacted clays, Jnl Soil Mech and Found Div, ASCE, 88, SM3,
Sorochan E A, Construction of Buildings on Expansive Soils, Balkema, 1991.
Steinberg M, 1978, Geomembranes and the Control of Expansive Soils in
Construction, McGraw-Hill.
Supriyono, 1987, Strength and volume change characteristics of Cepu Clay,
Program Magister Sistem dan Teknik Jalan Raya, Program Pascasarjana,
Institut Teknologi Bandung.
Younger J S, 1990, Geotechnical characteristics of soft soils in Indonesia, Proc
Symp, on Development of Geotechnical Aspects of Embankments,
Excavations and Buried Structures, Bangkok.
E-5
Annex F Fumaroles and Hydrothermal
Explosion
F1 Introduction
Fumaroles
Fumaroles are vents in the Earths surface from which steam and volcanic
gases are emitted. The major source of the water vapor emitted by fumaroles
is groundwater heated by bodies of magma lying relatively close to the
surface. Carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide are usually
emitted directly from the magma. Fumaroles are closely related to hot
springs and geysers. In areas where the water table rises near the surface,
fumaroles can become hot springs.
Hydrothermal Explosion
Hydrothermal explosions occur when superheated water trapped below the
surface of the earth rapidly converts from liquid to steam, violently
disrupting the confining rock. Boiling water, steam, mud, and rock fragments
called breccia are ejected over an area of a few meters up to several
kilometers in diameter. Although the energy inherently comes from a
deep igneous source, this energy is transferred to the surface by
circulating meteoric water rather than by magma, as occurs in volcanic
eruptions. The energy is stored as heat in hot water and rock within a few
hundred feet of the surface.
Hydrothermal explosions are due to the same instability and chain reaction
mechanism as geysers but are so violent that rocks and mud are expelled
along with water and steam.
F2 Causes of Phenomenon
Fumaroles
Fumaroles may occur along tiny cracks or long fissures, in chaotic clusters
or fields, and on the surfaces of lava flows and thick deposits of pyroclastic
flows. A fumarole field is an area of thermal springs and gas vents where
magma or hot igneous rocks at shallow depth are releasing gases or
interacting with groundwater. From the perspective of groundwater,
fumaroles could be described as a hot spring that boils off all its water before
the water reaches the surface.
Hydrothermal Explosion
Hydrothermal explosions occur where shallow interconnected reservoirs of
water at temperatures as high as 250 Celsius underlie thermal fields. Water
usually boils at 100C but under pressure its boiling point increases, causing
the water to become superheated. A sudden reduction in pressure causes a
rapid phase transition from liquid to steam, resulting in an explosion of
water and rock debris. During the last Ice Age, many hydrothermal
F-1
explosions were triggered by the release of pressure as glaciers receded.

Other causes are seismic activity, erosion, or hydraulic fracturing.
F3 Effects of Fumaroles and Hydrothermal Explosion
Temperature
The temperatures in fumaroles rise from 30C 100C or more. For
temperatures outside the surface, recent studies (Hochstein and Bromley,
1999) have shown that temperatures in the annulus of a fumarole cloud, i.e.
(A'- A) in Figure F3-1, are always below boiling point, exhibiting large
standard deviations.
Figure F3-1 Fumarole with Lateral Discharge
(Hochstein and Bromley, 1999)
pH Level
According to studies (Ackerman, et al., and Mount Baker Volcano Research
Center), the pH values in fumaroles vary from 2.5 to 6.5 which can be
classified as moderate acid to ultra acid.
Corrosivity
Gases emitted through fumarolic areas are normal in geothermal fields.
However, as magma starts to intrude, the composition of the gases changes
making them more acidic, and therefore much more corrosive. The impact
of corrosive gases to geothermal installations can be caused by either acid
rains or direct exposure to the gases and fluids.
Acid Rain
Acid rain occurs when an active volcano emits a plume of gas through its
crater and reacts in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other
chemicals to form various acidic compounds. It is a precipitation with a pH
less than 5.6 and contains dangerous amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids,
F-2
which are formed by sulfur and nitrogen oxides. The most vulnerable
materials that it can corrode are: limestone, marble, carbon-steel, zinc,
nickel, paint and some plastics.
F4 Infrastructure Damages
Corrosion on Steel
A study on the material damages in volcanic environments was conducted
by Tohoku National Industrial Research Institute in Japan (Kurata, et al.) at
the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. The objective of the study is to
assess the most suitable materials for the construction of geothermal
resources and equipment. The article shows the impact of fumaroles to
different types of metals and alloys. The materials were exposed to
different site conditions, high- and low-temperature fumarolic sites, and
high- and low- soil temperatures. Rate of corrosion was used to quantify
the following effects. The rate of corrosion, CR, is the speed at which a
metal deteriorates in a specific environment as shown in Table F4-2.
High-Temperature Fumarole, 190 230 0C

Nickel-base alloys containing more than 8% Mo and titanium alloys showed
the highest resistance.
Table F4-1 Chemical Composition of Discharges from the High Temperature Test
Fumarole
(ppm-vol)
0
C H2O CO2 H2S SO2 HCl HF NH2 H2 N2
280 991,000 4,250 825 3,090 53 2.5 2.3 347 44
(Kurata, et al.)
Table F4-2 Corrosion Rates after a 40-day and 111-day Exposures
Alloy CRR (mm/y)
Martensitic and Ferritic SS 2.0 3.0
Nickel Alloys (Mo 3%) 1.0 2.0
Duplex SS, Austenitic SS 0.5 1.4
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 0.5 0.8
Nickel Alloys (3% < Mo < 8% 0.1 0.6
Nickel Alloys (Mo 8%), and Titanium Alloy < 0.05
(Kurata, et al.)
F-3
Corrosion on Reinforced Concrete

A study (Abdelmseeh, et al.) was conducted where different types of
reinforced concretes were exposed to high concentrations of hydrogen
sulphide and sodium sulfate in order to investigate the corrosion of
reinforced concretes due to such substances in farm buildings.
The following types of concrete were examined:
1. Portland cement with water-cementitious material (w/cm) ratio 0.50

(PC50);
2. Portland cement with w/cm ratio 0.4 (PC40);
3. Sulfate resisting cement Type V (SR);
4. Slag cement (SC);
5. Fly ash cement (FAC);
6. Silica fume cement (SFC);
7. Silica fume and slag cement (SSFC); and
8. Silica fume and fly ash cement (FASF).
The corrosion testing was accelerated by exposing the materials to much

higher concentration than those experienced in the field, 20,000 ppm SO42-
and 1,000 ppm H2S (refer Table F4-5).
Figure F4-2 Potential Measurement of Samples Exposed to H2S Gas only
(Abdelmseeh, et al.)
F-5
Cementitious material cover use of a cementitious material, e.g. cement

grout that provides a highly alkaline (9.5 < pH < 13.5) environment to
passivate the steel.
Surface coating use of variety of surface coatings, e.g., epoxy,
galvanization, etc.
Grout filled corrugated plastic sheath encapsulation use of a plastic
sheath within the grout cover to prevent ingress of moisture or corrosive
substances where cracking of the grout occurs.
Stainless steel
Monitoring
Scientists have long recognized that gases dissolved in magma provide the
driving force of volcanic eruptions. A primary objective in gas monitoring is
to determine changes in the release of certain gases from a volcano, chiefly
carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
Gases released by most volcanoes are difficult to sample and measure on a
regular basis, especially when a volcano becomes restless. Direct sampling
of gas requires that scientists visit a hot fumarole or an active vent, usually
high on a volcano's flank or within its summit crater.
Measuring gas-emission rates in volcanic plumes The rate at which a
volcano releases gases into the atmosphere (usually reported in metric
tons per day) is related to the volume of magma within its magma-
reservoir system and its hydrothermal system. By measuring changes in
the emission rate of certain key gases, especially sulfur dioxide and
carbon dioxide, scientists can infer changes that may be occurring in a
volcano's magma reservoir and hydrothermal system. The emission
rates of sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide are measured using airborne
or ground-based techniques.
Direct gas sampling with laboratory analysis The most common
method for sampling volcanic gases is to collect them directly from
fumaroles in solution-filled bottles, and then to analyze the mixtures in
the laboratory.
Continuous on-site gas monitoring Continuous automated gas
measurements can be made on a volcano directly in fumaroles, in the air
near active fumaroles, and in the soil. At each gas measurement site, one
or more chemical sensors measure the concentration of a specific
volcanic gas, such as sulfur dioxide or carbon dioxide, and these data are
transmitted by radio to a volcano observatory.
Soil-efflux measurements Soil-efflux measurements can be made in
areas where volcanic gases, typically carbon dioxide, rise from depth and
discharge into the upper soil layers near the surface.
F-7
F6 References and Bibliography

Ackerman, G. G et al. Isolation and Distribution of a Novel Iron-Oxidizing
Crenarchaeon from Acidic Geothermal Springs in Yellowstone National Park.
Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2007 0: AEM.01200-07
Abdelmsheeh, V., Jofriet, J., Negi, S., Hayward, G. Corrosion of Reinforced

Concrete Specimens Exposed to Hydrogen Sulfide and Sodium Sulfate.
2005.
Doukas, M.P., and Gerlach, T.M., 1995, Sulfur dioxide scrubbing during the
1992 eruptions of Crater Peak, Mount Spurr Volcano, Alaska: in Keith, T.E.,
ed., The 1992 eruptions of Crater Peak Vent, Mount Spurr Volcano, Alaska:
U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2139, p. 47-57.
Hochstein, M.P. and Bromley, C.J. (1999),Recent fumaroles measurements
in the Karapiti Area ('Craters of the Moon'),Wairakei Field, New
Zealand,Proc. 21st NZ GeothermalWorkshop, Univ. of Auckland, 15-20.
http://www.ce.berkeley.edu/~paulmont/241/Corrosion.pdf
Kurata, Y., Sanada, N. Nanjo, H., Ikeuchi, J. and Lichti, K.A (1995). Material
damage in a volcanic environment, World Geothermal Congress, Milan, Italy,
May, pp 2409-2414.
Sutton, A.J., McGee, K.A., Casadevall, T.J., and Stokes, J.B., 1992, Fundamental
volcanic-gas-study techniques: an integrated approach to monitoring, in
Ewert, J.W., and Swanson, D.A., eds, Monitoring volcanoes: techniques and
strategies used by the staff of the Cascades Volcano Observatory: U.S.
Geological Survey Bulletin 1966, p. 181- 188.
US Department of Transportation (US DOT) Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA). 2003. Hollow Bar Soil Nails, Review of Corrosion
Factors, and Mitigation Practice Chapter 5: Existing Corrosion Mitigation
Guidance.
F-8
Annex G Sources of GeoHazard Assessment
Data
Sources of GeoHazard Assessment Data

Current sources are listed for individual hazards in Section 2. However
further substantial high quality information is expected to become available
in the next few years. Specific sources that should be checked for updated
information are:
NAMRIA Geoportal: http://www.geoportal.gov.ph/
This is planned to be the primary source for the countrys mapping by 2014,
and will provide connections to other portals containing information of
value for GeoHazard assessment. The existing topographic mapping will be
substantially upgraded with the target of achieving coverage of the whole
country at a scale of 1:10,000 under the Unified Mapping Project and with a
resolution of about one meter. The aerial photography used to prepare these
maps should also be available, as well as historical aerial photography.
Subsequently, NAMRIA plan to develop land-use coverage and 3-D
visualization.
Department of Science and Technology has collected LIDAR data for the 18
major river basins, covering approximately thirty percent of the land area of
the country, with resolution down to 0.6m. This should be available through
the NAMRIA Geoportal, and also possibly directly through DPWH portal.
These maps will form the basis for improved flood-prone zonation.
DPWH Portal:
This will in future be linked to the NAMRIA Geoportal, and in the meantime
may contain data not available elsewhere.
MGB Portal: http://gdis.denr.gov.ph/mgbviewer/
This currently provided GeoHazard maps showing flood and landslide
hazard areas, and low-resolution geological maps from 1:50,000 maps are
sometimes available. MGB are currently digitizing and increasing scale to
1:10,000 after which they will review and update geology. The maps show
their limits as Latitude / Longitude and users will need to interpolate to
locate their specific site.
It is hoped that higher resolution geological maps will be available, possibly
through the NAMRIA Geoportal, in the long term.
PHIVOLCS Portal: www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph
The existing PHIVOLCS website already provides access to hazard maps:
Active fault locations
Earthquake induced landslides
Liquefaction susceptibility
Tsunami prone areas
G-1
READY Project maps showing earthquake induced landslide, ground

rupture, ground shaking, liquefaction and tsunami. However, the
planned linkage to the NAMRIA Geoportal and access to higher
resolution mapping will allow improved location of sites and
preparation of GeoHazard summaries.
G-2
Annex H Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment
Report Template
LOGO
Preliminary Geohazard Assessment
Project Summary Description: Project ID
Location N E
For each item below except Seismic Hazard, mark ONE column with a tick or ring an option.
Hazard Section No hazard exists. Information Hazard exists. Specialist

Reference No further action insufficient to Survey and site Expertise
required. assess hazard. investigation must Required
Further include for further
investigation identification of the
required extent of the
hazard.
Seismic 2.2 Distance to Active Fault km
Peak ground acceleration g
Liquefiable Soils 2.3
Volcanic 2.4
Unstable Slopes 2.5 L M H

Karst 2.6
Mining Activities 2.7
Expansive soils 2.8.1
Fills 2.8.3
High Compressibility 2.8.5

Soils
Contaminated Soils 2.8.7 L M H
Groundwater 2.9
Flooding, scour & 2.10

erosion
Tsunamis, seiches, 2.11
storm surges
Geothermal activity 2.12
Overall Classification
Mark the rightmost column for which there
is a tick above
Name Position
I have examined the project site and
the available information on
geohazards in accordance with
Volume 2C of the Guide and I confirm Date Signature
the conclusions set out above.
DPWH Form Ref xxxx/2014Internal HT1.5TB:Work:Projects:WB CSIC03:Reports:Geohazards:CSIC03

Preliminary Geohazards Report Template 131103 r2.docx
H-1
Required attachments
Project Description
Map of site location (if not included with Project Description)
Map showing active faults and site location (if within 50km of active
fault)
Maps showing location of site in relation to volcanoes, flood zones, and
other hazards identified in the Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment.
Any other relevant documents relating to identified GeoHazard.
H-2

Dgcs Volume 2a

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Dgcs Volume 2a

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2A GeoHazard Assessment

Tables and Figures

ADB Asian Development Bank

AGS Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists

ASEP Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines

BSDS Bridges Seismic Design Specifications (by DPWH)

CDF Controlled Density Fill

CNC Certificate of Non-Coverage

CPT Cone Penetration Test

CRR Cyclic Resistance Ratio

CSR Cyclic Stress Ratio

DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources

DGCS Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards

DPWH Department of Public Works and Highways

ECC Environmental Clearance Certificate

EGGA Engineering Geology and GeoHazard Assessment

FHWA Federal Highway Administration

GSI Geological Strength Index

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency

MGB Mines and Geosciences Bureau

MSE Mechanically-Stabilized Earth

MSF Magnitude Scaling Factor

NAMRIA National Mapping and Resource Information Authority

PGA Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment

PHIVOLCS Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology

PTCPD Penang Town and Country Planning Department

RMR Rock Mass Rating

SPT Standard Penetration Test

Anisotropy Having different physical properties when measured in different directions.

Archipelago A chain, cluster or collection of islands.

Counterfort A buttress, usually in a wall.

Down-slope At a point on the slope below the reference point.

Fumarole A hot spring emitting volatiles.

Geoportal A web-based source of data on the earth sciences.

Morphostructural Relating to landforms and the tectonic structure of the rocks.

Near-field The area of the near-fault.

1.2 The Need for a Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment

particular project site in a preliminary assessment, and the procedure by

1.3 Mitigation of GeoHazards

2 GeoHazards in the Philippines

2.2.1 The Nature of Seismicity

by both trenches and faults. Intermediate to deep earthquakes are usually

As shown in Figure 2-2, the Philippine Mobile Belt is sandwiched by trenches

Figure 2-2 Structural Map of the Philippines

2.2.3 The Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment

These have been arrived at by applying the attenuation model of Fukushima

2.3 Liquefiable Soils

2.3.1 The Nature of Liquefaction

Figure 2-5 Liquefaction Map

2.4 Volcanic Activity

2.4.1 The Nature of the GeoHazard

2.4.2 Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment

Virac, Catanduanes, Philippines

2.6.1 Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment

2.7 Mining Activities

2.7.1 Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment

8 http://www.mgb.gov.ph/lmrp.aspx Mineral Resources Maps

2.8 Problem Soils

2.8.1 Expansive soils

2.8.1.1 Swelling Clay Minerals

Table 2-2 Properties of Clay Minerals

Clay Mineral Plasticity Index % Activity

Kaolinite 15-20 0.3-0.5

2.8.1.2 Moisture Content Changes