BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A DC ADAPTER:

Basic building blocks of almost every power supply unit used in electronic
circuits, whenever there is a need of constant output DC voltage is shown
below:

Rectification is the process to convert AC voltage (sinusoidal voltage) into

unidirectional voltages using Diodes .Devices that convert alternating
voltage into unidirectional voltage are known as Rectifiers.

Output of a Rectifier circuit is a pulsating DC (unidirectional voltage with

half sinusoids) consisting of a DC component as well as superimposed
ripple (unwanted AC component).
In most of the applications, pure DC or a DC with tolerable ripple voltage is
needed. Filter Circuits reduce the ripple (unwanted AC component) to the
required levels.

Voltage regulator is an electronic regulator designed to automatically

maintain a constant DC output voltage.

HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT (HWR CIRCUIT WORKING

PRINCIPLES)
The step-down Transformer reduces the mains power line AC sinusoidal
voltage at 230 V 50 Hz to required level of voltage depending on the
application.( for example 6 V or 9 V and so on) This appears as the
secondary voltage.
Transformer secondary voltage is given as

VS = Vm sin t

(where Vm may be 6 V or 9 V and so on )

During positive half cycle of Transformer secondary voltage,

Diode D is forward biased as its anode is positive. Therefore the Diode

conducts during positive half cycles in each cycle of sinusoidal voltage.
Forward current If (sinusoidal variation) flows through Diode and load
resistance RL .Output voltage is varying DC containing DC average value and
AC component called as ripple voltage (unwanted signal component).

During negative half cycle of Transformer secondary voltage, Diode D is

reversed biased as its anode is negative wrt cathode. Hence no current
flows through the diode and load resistance RL . No output voltage during
this cycle of the input.Thus the Output voltage contains only one half
sinusoids for each cycle of AC voltage. Such rectifier circuit with the above
features is known as Half-Wave Rectifier.

Analysis:

Input voltage to Rectifier Diode is Transformer Secondary voltage VS

VS = Vmsin t.

During positive half cycle 0 to of the supply voltage, the Diode is forward
biased and Forward current If flows through the Rectifier circuit.

(where Vm is the maximum voltage of sine wave, rf Forward resistance of

the Diode and rs transformer secondary winding resistance and
rf +r s << RL )

Current If flows through RL. Then potential Vout develops across RL.

During negative half cycle (i.e., during 2 interval) of secondary

voltage VS; Diode is reverse biased. Reverse current Ir flows through the
circuit but it is of practically negligible value. Ir 0.Voltage across
RL = Ir RL 0 during negative half cycle of input AC voltage.

Therefore, alternating voltage VS acting as input voltage Vin to the Diode

develops unidirectional output voltage across load resistance RL. Output
voltage has one half sinusoids for each cycle of (input) AC signal. Such circuit
is known as Half-Wave Rectifier.

Signal waveforms of input, current through the diode and output voltage
across load Resistor are as shown below
 The DC component or the average value IDC of the current of the forward
current If

If

Then,
DC or average value of output voltage across the load
resistance RL

DC voltage across RL is VDC = IDC RL.

As rf is considered to be approximately zero, (rf + RL) RL.

Effective or rms Value of current (Irms)

Total value of rms voltage includes the AC and the DC components.

Effective or rms value of the current Irms is

Efficiency of rectification for Half-Wave rectifier circuit

Efficiency of rectification r is defined as the ratio of DC output power
(PDC output), across the load RL to the AC input power (PAC input).
% Rectification efficiency of HWR is approximately equal to 40.6 .

For one cycle of AC input signal waveform, one half sinusoids are observed
across RL. As the supply frequency fS is 50 Hz, 50 half sinusoids can be
observed per second. Therefore, ripple frequency fs for HWR is 50.

Ripple factor () By definition

The instantaneous output current contains ripple and DC components

i = i + Idc

The ripple can be expressed as

i = i - Idc

Taking the effective value of i i.e; Irms

1

2 0
(i I DC ) 2 d t

Irms =

1 2
2 0
(i 2.i.I DC I 2 DC )d t 2 2 2 2 2
I rms 2 I DC I DC I rms I DC
Irms = = =

Dividing the above by IDC, ripple factor () is

 2
Irms
2
I rms 2
I DC I rms
2 1
I DC I DC I DC
=

Substituting for Irms and IDC of HWR

This circuit is not useful to produce more uniform DC voltage, but is used in
electronic circuits, for example a battery charging circuit which uses a
simple HWR circuit
During reverse bias condition, diode has to withstand a maximum
voltage Vm that exists across total secondary winding of transformer. This
maximum voltage Vm across Diode under reverse bias condition (non-
conducting Diode) is known as peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating of rectifier
Diode. Therefore, PIV = Vm. Diode has to be selected with its breakdown
voltage greater than Vm. Peak inverse voltage criteria for rectifier Diodes vary
for different types of rectifier circuits.
Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation is defined as the ratio of variation of DC output voltage
(VNo Load VLoad) and no load DC voltage (VNo Load) for load variations (variations
in DC load current ILoad). VNo Load = No Load DC voltage (when load current is
zero) and VLoad = load voltage at specific load currents.
VDC ( Load ) I DC * RL

Where

Im Vm

I DC (rf RL )
=

I DC * RL (Vm ) ( I DC * R f )

Vm I DC * RL Vm (Vm (r f RL )) * RL
Vm Vm
= =

rf RL RL rf
100
rf RL r f RL
=

rf
100 (as r f = RL )
RL

Various features of HWR circuit :

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

Like the half wave circuit, a Full Wave Rectifier Circuit produces an output
voltage or current which has some specified DC component. Full wave
rectifiers have some fundamental advantages over their half wave rectifier
counterparts. The average (DC) output voltage is higher than that of half
wave, the output of the full wave rectifier has much less ripple than that of
the half wave rectifier producing a smoother output waveform.
In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes. Primary winding of the
transformer is connected to the mains AC voltage source. AC mains voltage
is 230 V. Primary voltage VP = 230 sin (2ft), where the frequency (f) of
the supply voltage is 50 Hz in India.Secondary winding of the transformer
has a centre tap. The secondary winding of the transformer is split equally
into two halves with a common centre tapped connection, (C).The two
secondary voltages VS1 and VS2 are equal in magnitude and 180 out of
phase .This configuration results in each diode conducting in turn when its
anode terminal is positive with respect to the transformer centre
point C producing an output during both half-cycles, twice that for the half
wave rectifier .

OPERATION :

The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two diodes connected to a single
load resistance (RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the
load. During the positive half cycle i.e. the interval 0 of the input voltage
point A of the transformer is positive with respect to point C,
diode D1 conducts in the forward direction and a Forward current If flows
through load resistance RL and hence develops output voltage

At the same time, during the interval 0 of input voltage VS2, Diode D2 is
reverse biased. Hence does not conduct.

During negative half cycle i.e. from to 2 time period of voltage VS2,
polarities of voltage across the secondary winding are such that point B is
positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C, diode D2
is forward biased and conducts a Forward current If2 flows through the
diode and DC output voltage Vout develops across load resistance RL.

The current flowing through resistor R is in the same direction for both half-
cycles. As the two half sinusoids of the complete or full waveform of one
cycle of the AC voltage are used in this circuit function, the circuit is known
as full-wave rectifier.

During negative half cycle i.e. during to 2 of voltage VS1, Diode D1 is

reverse biased. Reverse current Ir1 0 flows through RL.
 From the output voltage waveforms, Vout across the load RL, we find that
current through load RL exists during both half cycles of the AC-input cycles
and the two currents flow in the same direction through the load resistance
as shown in the figure

The DC component or the average value IDC of the current of the forward
current If
1 1
I DC I f . d t I m sin(t ). d t
0 0

Im Im
[ cos(t )]0 2

=

2Im
I DC

 Vm
Im
RL

2Im 2Vm VDC

I DC ( RL rf ) RL r f

= =

Where

2Vm
VDC

rf = RL rf RL RL
if then + = and

VDC
I DC
RL

Therfore the DC or average value of output voltage across the load

resistance RL

DC voltage across RL is VDC = IDC RL.

Effective or rms Value of current (Irms)

Total value of rms voltage includes the AC and the DC components.

Effective or rms value of the current Irms is

1 1

2
I m .sin t 2 d t
0
I rms If d t
0
=

1

0

( I m )2 .sin 2 t d t
=

1 2 1 cos 2t
(Im ) d t
0
2
=

Im
2
=

Im
RL
Vrms I rms RL 2
=

Efficiency of rectification for Full-Wave rectifier circuit

Efficiency of rectification r is defined as the ratio of DC output power

(PDC output), across the load RL to the AC input power (PAC input).
PDC
PAC
= where
2
I DC RL
PDC =

I 2 rms RL
PAC =

I 2 DC RL
% 2 100 ((2 I m ) 2 RL ( I m 2) 2 RL ) 100
I rms RL

4 I 2 m 2 8
2
100 2 100 0.81 100
I m 2
=

= 81%

The efficiency of FWR is double that of the HWR

RIPPLE FACTOR () OF FULL WAVE RECTIFIER :

 2
I rms
1
I
DC
=

2
I m 2
1
2 I
m
=

2
1 0.48
8
=

Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation is defined as the ratio of variation of DC output voltage
(VNo Load VLoad) and no load DC voltage (VNo Load) for load variations (variations
in DC load current ILoad). VNo Load = No Load DC voltage (when load current is
zero) and VLoad = load voltage at specific load currents.

VDC ( Load ) I DC * RL

Where

2Im 2Vm

I DC (rf RL )
=

I DC * RL (2Vm ) ( I DC * R f )
 2Vm I DC * RL 2Vm (2Vm (rf RL )) * RL
2Vm 2Vm
= =

rf RL RL rf
100
rf RL rf RL
=

rf
100 (as r f = RL )
RL

BRIDGE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT (FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER)

Four Diodes are connected similar to the configuration of a Wheatstone

Bridge. So, Rectifier circuit is known as a Bridge Rectifier. Its performance
is similar to Full-Wave Rectifier circuit without the requirement of a centre
tap on secondary winding of the transformer.
Full voltage 2Vm across transformer secondary winding can be connected
to a Bridge, thereby using the full transformer Secondary voltage. So, no
load maximum voltage is 4Vm/, where 2Vm is the voltage across the full
secondary, i.e. 2Vm is supply voltage to Bridge Rectifier, thus giving twice
the voltage compared to normal Full-Wave Rectifier circuit.

Upper terminal A of the transformer secondary is positive during the half

cycle 0 to of secondary voltage, Diodes D2 and D4 conduct
(Diodes D3 and D1 are reverse biased) in series developing a DC voltage
across load RL with terminal C positive.
During the negative half cycle i.e. during to 2 interval of the
transformer secondary voltage, terminal B is positive. Then
Diodes D3 and D1 conduct in series (Diodes D4 and D2 are reverse biased)
and the current flowing through RL in the same direction making the
terminal C of the load positive again.
Two currents flow through load resistance in the same direction to
increase the output DC voltage. Secondary current is present during both
halves of the secondary voltage. Thus the transformer is fully utilized .
We observe that , there are two Diodes in series in each of the
conduction paths and currents flow in the same direction through the
load resistance RL.

Ripple factor and voltage regulations are same as that of Full-Wave

Rectifier.PIV across each Diode is Vm, similar to HWR circuit.
Comparison of Rectifier circuits: